Phenolic Compounds, Antioxidant Activity, and Medium Chain Fatty Acids Profiles of Coconut Water and Meat at Different Maturity Stages

Characterization of a biocomposite film using coconut jelly powder to improve arrowroot starch and sodium alginate film forming properties

Composite polymers are promising solution to structural setbacks of starch and alginate-based films due to their hydrophilic attributes. Hence, this study aimed to investigate young coconut jelly powder (CJP), an under-utilized by-waste, as a filler using the casting method to develop a novel biocomposite from increments of CJP (1-3 %) to a blended resin of arrowroot starch, sodium alginate, and glycerol. Moreover, the films were characterized by physicomechanical (visual aspect, thickness, color, moisture content, tensile strength, and elongation at break); surface microstructure; water barrier (water vapor permeability, water solubility, and water activities); thermal, crystallinity, and functional group properties; soil, river water, and seawater biodegradability; and coating application in cherry tomato. The results showed CJP improved tensile strength from 1.84 to 9.35 MPa and lowered moisture content from 33.44 to 18.92 %, and revealed compatibility within a semi-crystalline film matrix of high thermal stability, which depicted smooth surface areas and opacity suitable for packaging. The findings demonstrated faster biodegradability rates in soils (14-35 days) than water tests (152-180 days). Furthermore, coating significantly delayed weight loss while preserving visible color and flesh quality of the cherry tomato. In conclusion, the CJP-based biocomposite films presented a potential biodegradable eco-friendly alternative to the food packaging industry.

Physicochemical, nutritional, antioxidant properties and stability monitoring of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) water from two localities in Cameroon

The nutritional value of a food is linked to the quality and quantity of the nutrients it contains. It offers a major advantage in establishing a food table composition (FTC) which is a tool that provides information on the quantity of nutrients contained in a food. Furthermore, certain natural beverage are not taken into account in the FTC. This is the case of the water of Cocos nucifera nuts, although widely consumed around the world. The aim of this study was to valorise the water of Cocos nucifera nuts (mature and mid-mature) to contribute to the enrichment for the cameroonian FTC. Physicochemical, nutritional and antioxidant parameters were assessed by standard methods. Physicochemical analyses showed that mid-mature nuts from Edea and Bafia, have respectively an average of 0.2 ± 0.04 and 0.19 ± 0.05 mL of water/g of nut, with soluble dry extract of 4.3 ± 0.28 and 5 ± 0.0°B for a pH of 5.01 ± 0.01 and 5.11 ± 0.0. The total titratable acidity was of 0.113 ± 0.0 and 0.117 ± 0.0 mg citric acid per 100 mL water. The mean contents of total and reducing sugars, proteins, free amino acids and lipids in the same samples were 5.49 ± 0.05 and 5.56 ± 0.04; 5.09 ± 0.6 and 4.99 ± 0.7; 0.12 ± 0.0 and 0.15 ± 0.0; 0.06 ± 0.0 and 0.09 ± 0.0; 0.07 ± 0.0 and 0.10 ± 0.0g/100 mL of water, respectively. These data showed that from mid-maturity to full maturity, there was a significant increase (p < 0.05) in pH, lipid, protein, free amino acid, and phenolic contents and decrease in water volume, total titratable acidity, total and reducing sugars contents. In general, mineral contents increased significantly (p < 0.05), while total antioxidant power decreased with maturity. As for stability, degradation processes are more intense at room temperature than in the refrigerator.

Dynamics of flavonoid metabolites in coconut water based on metabolomics perspective

Coconut meat and coconut water have garnered significant attention for their richness in healthful flavonoids. However, the dynamics of flavonoid metabolites in coconut water during different developmental stages remain poorly understood. This study employed the metabolomics approach using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to investigate the changes in flavonoid metabolite profiles in coconut water from two varieties, 'Wenye No.5'(W5) and Hainan local coconut (CK), across six developmental stages. The results showed that a total of 123 flavonoid metabolites including chalcones, dihydroflavonoids, dihydroflavonols, flavonoids, flavonols, flavonoid carboglycosides, and flavanols were identified in the coconut water as compared to the control. The total flavonoid content in both types of coconut water exhibited a decreasing trend with developmental progression, but the total flavonoid content in CK was significantly higher than that in W5. The number of flavonoid metabolites that differed significantly between the W5 and CK groups at different developmental stages were 74, 74, 60, 92, 40 and 54, respectively. KEGG pathway analysis revealed 38 differential metabolites involved in key pathways for flavonoid biosynthesis and secondary metabolite biosynthesis. This study provides new insights into the dynamics of flavonoid metabolites in coconut water and highlights the potential for selecting and breeding high-quality coconuts with enhanced flavonoid content. The findings have implications for the development of coconut-based products with improved nutritional and functional properties.

Understanding the maturity of coconut water through 1H NMR profiling and MPAES analyses

This study investigated the relationship between coconut maturity stages and the sugar, amino acid, and mineral profiles of coconut water (CW). Metabolite profiles were analysed using 1H NMR, covering glucose (G), fructose (F), sucrose (S), reducing sugars (RS), total sugars (TS), amino acids, and organic acids. Mineral composition was measured using Microwave Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (MPAES). The results revealed distinct metabolite and mineral profiles across different maturity stages. Immature CW had high G/F and RS/TS ratios but low S/G ratios. Conversely, mature CW showed decreased G/F and RS/TS ratios but an increase in S/G. Mineral analysis revealed potassium as the predominant mineral in CW, peaking in the youngest stage and declining with maturity. Sodium, magnesium, and calcium showed a similar pattern, with higher concentrations in early than in later stages. The study identifies the age of 9-10 months as optimal stages for selecting tender coconut water.

Microbiological Quality of Coconut Water Sold in the Grande Vitória Region, Brazil, and Phenogenotypic Antimicrobial Resistance of Associated Enterobacteria

This study aimed to evaluate the microbiological quality of coconut water sold from street carts equipped with cooling coils or refrigerated at bakeries in the Grande Vitória Region, Brazil. Additionally, it assessed the phenotypic and genotypic antimicrobial resistance profiles of isolated enterobacteria. The results indicated that coconut water sold at street carts had lower microbiological quality compared to refrigerated samples, as evidenced by significantly higher counts of mesophilic microorganisms. Using MALDI-TOF, the following opportunistic pathogens were identified: Citrobacter freundii, Enterobacter bugandensis, E. kobei, E. roggenkampii, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Kluyvera ascorbata. Three isolates-E. bugandensis, K. pneumoniae, and K. ascorbata-were classified as multidrug-resistant (MDR). Widespread resistance to β-lactams and cephalosporins was detected, and some isolates were resistant to quinolones, nitrofurans, and phosphonic acids. The gene blaCTX-M-2 was detected in C. freundii, E. bugandensis, E. kobei, and K. ascorbata. However, genes blaNDM, blaKPC, blaCMY-1, and blaCMY-2 were not detected in any isolate. The findings underscore the need to enhance good manufacturing practices in this sector to control the spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). To our knowledge, this is the first study documenting the presence of potentially pathogenic enterobacteria in coconut water samples and their associated phenotypic and genotypic AMR profiles.

Preventing enzymatic browning of freshly cut green bananas through immersion in normal water, lemon juice, and coconut water

The rising demand for freshly cut agricultural produce like bananas, apples, pears, potatoes, and roots due to health concerns and modern lifestyles has heightened awareness of their susceptibility to browning, which diminishes their appeal and contributes to food waste. The present study explored the efficacy of natural anti-browning agents in prolonging the quality and shelf-life of freshly cut green banana slices. The bananas underwent treatment with normal water (NW), lemon juice (LJ), and coconut water (CW), and the changes in physicochemical properties, such as browning intensity, color, firmness, total soluble solid (TSS), total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), and also microbial attributes, were evaluated during their storage at 4 ± 1°C for 12 days. The results demonstrated significant enhancements in treated samples compared to untreated ones. While normal water and lemon juice-treated banana slices exhibited visual browning during storage, coconut water immersion proved superior in maintaining visual appeal, whiteness, and lightness while delaying yellowing and browning. Coconut water-treated samples also displayed firmer texture (0.75 kg), lower TSS (5.67 °Brix), and reduced weight loss (9.14%) after 12 days, in contrast to samples subjected to lemon juice and normal water treatments which showed lesser texture (0.68 kg, 0.58 kg), higher TSS (5.87 °Brix, 6.10 °Brix), and greater weight loss (11.76%, 16.09%), respectively. Furthermore, coconut water-treated samples retained higher levels of total phenols (392.67 mg GAE (gallic acid equivalent)/100 g FW (fresh weight), total flavonoids (55.67 mg QE (quercetin equivalent)/100 g FW), and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging activity (38.68%). Coconut water treatment also significantly suppressed polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity (14 U/g) compared to lemon juice (16 U/g) and normal water (26 U/g) treatments, and untreated samples (133 U/g) after 12 days. Additionally, microbial load remained within acceptable limits for all samples, with coconut water-treated samples showing the lowest values. Thus, coconut water is a promising natural solution for inhibiting browning and preserving the quality of fresh-cut green banana slices during storage.

Bioactive (Poly)phenol Concentrations in Plant-Based Milk Alternatives in the US Market

Plant-based milk alternatives (PBMAs) are increasingly consumed as a dairy alternative [Olson, S. Milk and Non-Dairy Milk - US - 2021, 2021.]. Plant foods are rich sources of (poly)phenols, but concentrations of these bioactive phytochemicals in processed PBMAs are not well documented. We procured twenty-seven PBMA products of 6 types (almond, coconut, oat, pea, rice, and soy) for (poly)phenol analysis. Samples were analyzed via ultra high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array with mass spectrometry. The (poly)phenol content of PBMAs varies and is dependent on plant source, brand, and added flavorings. Soy milk had the highest concentration and rice milk had the lowest (91.9 ± 2.7 and 0.9 ± 0.2 mean mg ± SD/cup serving, respectively). Almond milk, the most widely consumed PBMA, averaged 12.1 ± 8.2 mg/cup serving, but the majority of (poly)phenols are derived from added flavorings. PBMAs contain a wide range of potentially bioactive (poly)phenols and may contribute significantly to overall dietary (poly)phenol intake with the potential to impact health outcomes.

From Palm to Plate: Unveiling the Potential of Coconut as a Plant-Based Food Alternative

This review investigates coconut as a sustainable and nutrient-rich plant-based alternative to traditional animal-based food sources. We have explored the nutritional profile, culinary versatility, particularly focusing on the use of coconut meat, milk, cream, and oil in diverse dietary contexts when consumed in balance. Comparative analysis with animal-derived products reveals the high content of medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs), essential vitamins, and minerals in coconut, contrasted with its lower protein content. Researchers have underscored the environmental sustainability of coconut, advocating for its role in eco-friendly food production chains. We have also addressed challenges like potential allergies, nutritional balance, sensory attributes, and consumer motivations for coconut-based products, in terms of understanding the market dynamics. In conclusion, this review positions coconut as a promising candidate within sustainable diet frameworks, advocating for further research to augment its nutritional value, sensory characteristics, and product stability, thereby facilitating its integration into health-conscious and eco-centric dietary practices.

Utilization of ripe coconut water in the development of probiotic gelatin

Background

Desserts with vegetable ingredients are a constantly expanding global market due to the search for alternatives to cow's milk. Fermentation of these matrices by lactic acid bacteria can add greater functionality to the product, improving its nutritional, sensory, and food safety characteristics, as well as creating bioactive components with beneficial effects on health. Concern for health and well-being has aroused interest in byproducts of the industry that have functional properties for the body, such as mature coconut water, a normally discarded residue that is rich in nutrients. This study aimed to develop a probiotic gelatin based on pulp and water from mature coconuts and evaluate the physicochemical characteristics, viability of the Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus LR32 strain in the medium, as well as the texture properties of the product.

Methods

After collection and cleaning, the physicochemical characterization, mineral analysis, analysis of the total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of mature coconut water were carried out, as well as the centesimal composition of its pulp. Afterwards, the gelling was developed with the addition of modified corn starch, gelatin, sucrose, and probiotic culture, being subjected to acidity analysis, texture profile and cell count, on the first day and every 7 days during 21 days of storage, under refrigeration at 5 °C. An analysis of the centesimal composition was also carried out.

Results

The main minerals in coconut water were potassium (1,932.57 mg L-1), sodium (19.57 mg L-1), magnesium (85.13 mg L-1) calcium (279.93 mg L-1) and phosphorus (11.17 mg L- 1), while the pulp had potassium (35.96 g kg-1), sodium (0.97 g kg-1), magnesium (2.18 g kg-1), 37 calcium (1.64 g kg-1), and phosphorus (3.32 g kg-1). The phenolic content of the water and pulp was 5.72 and 9.77 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE) 100 g-1, respectively, and the antioxidant capacity was 1.67 and 0.98 39 g of 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) mg-1, respectively. The coconut pulp had 2.81 g 100 g-1of protein, 1.11 g 100 g-1 of 40 ash, 53% moisture, and 5.81 g 100 g-1 of carbohydrates. The gelatin produced during the storage period presented firmness parameters ranging from 145.82 to 206.81 grams-force (gf), adhesiveness from 692.85 to 1,028.63 gf sec, cohesiveness from 0.604 to 0.473, elasticity from 0.901 to 0.881, gumminess from 86.27 to 97.87 gf, and chewiness from 77.72 to 91.98 gf. Regarding the viability of the probiotic microorganism, the dessert had 7.49 log CFU g-1 that remained viable during the 21-day storage, reaching 8.51 CFU g-1. Acidity ranged from 0.15 to 0.64 g of lactic acid 100 g-1. The centesimal composition of the product showed 4.88 g 100 g-1 of protein, 0.54 g 100 g-1 of ash, 85.21% moisture, and 5.37g 100 g-1 of carbohydrates. The development of the gelatin made it possible to obtain a differentiated product, contributing to diversification in the food sector, providing a viable alternative for maintaining consumer health and reducing costs compared to desserts already available on the market.

Profiling of phenolic acids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and steroid derivatives in coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) haustorium

Coconut haustorium (CH) is formed inside coconut shell during coconut germination. This study aimed to investigate the compositions and contents of CH phytochemicals. Phytochemical compositions and contents in CH were analyzed by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) and spectrophotometrical method. Five phenolic acids and four flavonoids were identified in CH. Ferulic acid and myricetin were the most abundant among phenolic acids and flavonoids identified in CH, respectively. Nepetariaside and 1-methylene-5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one glucuronide were the most abundant terpenoids and steroid derivatives identified in CH, respectively. To our knowledge, this study screened several classes of phytochemicals in CH for the first. Terpenoids and steroid derivatives were likely to be more major phytochemicals than phenolic acids and flavonoids in CH. The functionality of CH itself and the compounds found in CH might be utilized in functional foods or cosmetics.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-023-01300-6.

Discrimination and characterization of different coconut water (CW) by their phenolic composition and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) using LC-MS/MS, HS-SPME-GC-MS, and HS-GC-IMS

Three varieties of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) water (CW) at two maturity stages were investigated for physicochemical and nutritional properties. The profile of phenolic compounds and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) was determined by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), headspace solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC-MS), and headspace-gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry (HS-GC-IMS). Most of the properties of CW changed significantly with maturity rather than variety. The five most relevant phenolic compounds in CW were chlorogenic acid, 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxycinnamic acid, L-epicatechin, and procyanidins B2 and B1. Variety played a more important role in phenolic composition than maturity, and Wenye No. 4 can be distinguished from other two varieties. Alcohols and esters were the main VOCs in CW identified by HS-GC-IMS and HS-SPME-GC-MS, respectively. Five and four compounds (VIP scores > 1) were characteristic compounds for CW by HS-GC-IMS and HS-SPME-GC-MS, respectively. The VOCs of Wenye Nos. 2 and 3 were more similar than those of Wenye No. 4. These findings could provide useful information for the selection of raw materials of CW used for different industrial purposes.

Potential of Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) for Efficient Classification Based on Postharvest Storage Time, Cultivar and Maturity in Coconut Water

Coconut water (CW) is a popular and healthful beverage, and ensuring its quality is crucial for consumer satisfaction. This study aimed to explore the potential of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) and chemometric methods for analyzing CW quality and distinguishing samples based on postharvest storage time, cultivar, and maturity. CW from nuts of Wenye No. 2 and Wenye No. 4 cultivars in China, with varying postharvest storage time and maturities, were subjected to NIRS analysis. Partial least squares regression (PLSR) models were developed to predict reducing sugar and soluble sugar contents, revealing moderate applicability but lacking accuracy, with the residual prediction deviation (RPD) values ranging from 1.54 to 1.83. Models for TSS, pH, and TSS/pH exhibited poor performance with RPD values below 1.4, indicating limited predictability. However, the study achieved a total correct classification rate exceeding 95% through orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) models, effectively discriminating CW samples based on postharvest storage time, cultivar, and maturity. These findings highlight the potential of NIRS combined with appropriate chemometric methods as a valuable tool for analyzing CW quality and efficiently distinguishing samples. NIRS and chemometric techniques enhance quality control in coconut water, ensuring consumer satisfaction and product integrity.

A concise review on oil extraction methods, nutritional and therapeutic role of coconut products

The coconut palm belongs to the Arecaceae family, which is distinct from other fruits, known for its versatility. Fresh coconut products are valuable for many food preparations owing to their nutritional and flavour properties. For example, tender coconut yields coconut water, a refreshing nutritious drink that provides good nutrients including electrolytes and other interesting compounds. The mature coconut meat which is rich in fat and protein, aids in coconut milk extraction and is a major component in the wet and dry process of oil extraction. Coconut milk has market potential owing to its increasing applications in food and beverage industries. Coconut is also known for its by-product namely coconut flour, which is rich in protein and dietary fiber, could be used in the preparation of functional foods. The different methods involved in the oil extraction process which helps in more efficient oil recovery were discussed briefly. The nutritional health-promoting functional role of coconut water and virgin coconut oil is highlighted in review paper.

Arecaceae Seeds Constitute a Healthy Source of Fatty Acids and Phenolic Compounds

Seeds of most Arecaceae species are an underutilized raw material that can constitute a source of nutritionally relevant compounds. In this work, seeds of 24 Arecaceae taxa were analyzed for fatty acids (FAs) by GC-FID, for phenolics by HPLC-DAD and LC-MS, and for their antitumor activity against the HT-29 colorectal cancer cell line by the MTT assay. Lauric, oleic, and linoleic acids were the prominent FAs. Cocoseae species contained total FAs at 28.0-68.3 g/100 g seeds, and in other species total FAs were from 1.2 (Livistona saribus) to 9.9 g/100 g (Washingtonia robusta). Sabal domingensis, Chamaerops humilis, and Phoenix dactylifera var. Medjool had unsaturated/saturated FA ratios of 1.65, 1.33-1.78, and 1.31, respectively, and contained 7.4, 5.5-6.3, and 6.4 g FAs/100 g seeds, respectively. Thus, they could be used as raw materials for healthy oilseed production. Phenolics ranged between 39 (Livistona fulva) and 246 mg/100 g (Sabal palmetto), and of these, caffeic acid, catechin, dactylifric acid, and rutin had the highest values. (-)-Epicatechin was identified in most seed extracts by LC-MS. Hydroalcoholic extracts from five species showed a dose-dependent inhibitory effect on HT-20 cells growth at 72 h (GI₅₀ at 1533-1968 µg/mL). Overall, Arecaceae seeds could be considered as a cheap source of health-promoting compounds.

Review of Cocos nucifera L. testa-derived phytonutrients with special reference to phenolics and its potential for encapsulation

Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) and its value-added products are rich in medium chain triglycerides, polyphenols and flavonoids with a significant anti-oxidant potential. However, coconut and its products are underutilized for the development of nutraceuticals. Coconut testa is a brown cover of the endosperm, which is characterized with the considerable amount of phytonutrients, especially phenolics and flavonoids. The nutrient rich coconut testa is generally diverted for the production of animal feed or abandoned. Around 10-15% of the coconut kernel is removed as testa while preparing coconut desiccated powder. The coconut testa from the virgin coconut oil (VCO) industry also remains underutilized. Nevertheless, biochemical characterization of coconut testa has revealed its enormous anti-oxidant and nutraceutical potential. On the other hand there are reports describing the suitable encapsulation techniques to develop nutraceuticals from the plant-derived bioactives. In this context this review explores the prospect of utilizing the coconut testa-derived phytonutrients in developing a nutraceutical product.

Coconut Palm: Food, Feed, and Nutraceutical Properties

Simple Summary

Different components of the coconut are being looked into and used as a potential substitute to create or substitute animal feed components. Different coconut products and by-products—such as coconut water, milk, copra, testa, flour, raw kernels, oil, and desiccated coconut—are used with livestock, especially ruminants and aquaculture industries. However, the use of coconut in animal feed may be limited by several things that make it less nutritious. There is a possibility to research new technologies, such as pre-treating coconut to reduce the effects of anti-nutritional substances before they can be used to feed the animals. This review article describes a few important discoveries, which gives a somewhat hopeful view of the future. Different parts of the coconut can and should be used more in animal feed. Coconut in animal feed makes it much cheaper to feed animals and helps them in the digestion process, growth, and health. However, innovative methods of processing, extracting, and treating coconut need to be encouraged to improve nutritional quality and make coconut products function efficiently in feed.

Abstract

The price of traditional sources of nutrients used in animal feed rations is increasing steeply in developed countries due to their scarcity, high demand from humans for the same food items, and expensive costs of raw materials. Thus, one of the alternative sources is coconut parts or coconut as a whole fruit. Coconut is known as the ‘tree of abundance’, ‘tree of heaven’, and ‘tree of life’ owing to its numerous uses, becoming a very important tree in tropical areas for its provision of food, employment, and business opportunities to millions of people. Coconut contains a rich profile of macro and micronutrients that vary depending on the parts and how they are used. It is frequently chosen as an alternative source of protein and fiber. Its uses as an antibacterial agent, immunomodulant, and antioxidant further increase its importance. Using coconut oil in ruminant feed helps to minimize methane gas emissions by 18–30%, and to reduce dry matter intake up to 4.2 kg/d. The aquaculture sectors also use coconut palm as an alternative source because it significantly improves the digestion, growth, lipid metabolism, health, and antioxidative responses. However, coconut is not widely used in poultry diets although it has adequate amount of protein and carbohydrate due to anti-nutritional factors such cellulose (13%), galactomannan (61%), and mannan (26%). This review considered the importance and potential of coconut usage as an alternative ingredient in feed and supplements in various livestock sectors as it has plentiful nutrients and functional qualities, simultaneously leading to reduced feed cost and enhanced production.

Tender Coconut Water Protects Mice From Ischemia-Reperfusion-Mediated Liver Injury and Secondary Lung Injury

ABSTRACT

Organ injury by oxidative and inflammatory mediators occurs during ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) of the liver. Remote organ injury secondary to liver I/R increases the systemic insult. Tender coconut water (TCW) has been studied in chemical and fructose-induced liver injury but its ability to decrease tissue injury in clinically relevant injury models is unknown. We evaluated the therapeutic potential of TCW in preventing liver I/R injury and associated remote organ injury. Mice were fed sugar water (SUG; control) or TCW for a week and then subjected to 60 min of liver ischemia followed by reperfusion for 6 h. Plasma alanine transaminase levels, tissue damage, and mRNA levels of Nos2, Tnf, and Il6 were significantly lower in mice fed TCW prior to I/R. Plasma cytokines followed liver cytokine patterns. TCW increased mRNA levels of the anti-oxidant genes Hmox1 and Ptgs2 in the liver of mice subjected to I/R. Remote lung injury from liver I/R was also decreased by TCW feeding as evident by less neutrophil infiltration, decreased pro-inflammatory Il6, and increased anti-inflammatory Il10 mRNA levels in the lung. To examine macrophage activation as a potential mechanism, TCW pretreatment decreased the amount of nitrite produced by RAW264.7 macrophages stimulated with LPS. The levels of Nos2, Il1b, Tnf, and Il6 were decreased while Il10 and Hmox1 mRNA levels were significantly up-regulated upon LPS stimulation of TCW pretreated RAW264.7 macrophages. Collectively, our results indicate that TCW decreased hepatic I/R-mediated damage to liver and lung and suggest that decreased macrophage activation contributes to this effect.

Tropical Fruits and Their Co-Products as Bioactive Compounds and Their Health Effects: A Review

Tropical and subtropical fruits are recognized as a source of a high content of bioactive compounds and health promoting properties due to their nutritional composition. These beneficial health effects are related to the content of several of these bioactive compounds, mainly flavonoids and non-flavonoid phenolics. Many of these compounds are common in different tropical fruits, such as epicatechin in mango, pineapple, and banana, or catechin in pineapple, cocoa or avocado. Many studies of tropical fruits had been carried out, but in this work an examination is made in the current literature of the flavonoids and non-flavonoid phenolics content of some tropical fruits and their coproducts, comparing the content in the same units, as well as examining the role that these compounds play in health benefits.

In vivo studies on the ameliorative effect of coconut water against carbon tetrachloride induced toxicity in rats

PURPOSE

Coconut water is used in folklore medicine for oral rehydration, treatment of childhood diarrhoea, gastroenteritis and cholera, and is also known to possess antioxidant properties.

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we examined the ameliorative potentials of coconut water on carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) induced toxicity in rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Rats were randomly assigned into separate cages according to the sex of 5 groups. Groups 2-5 were intraperitoneally injected a single dose of 1 mL/kg CCl₄ diluted in olive oil. Only 3, 4 and 5 were orally given 2, 4, 6 mL/kg coconut water respectively, whereas groups 1 and 2 received distilled water.

RESULTS

Treatment with coconut water significantly (p < 0.05) increased red blood cell, packed cell volume, haemoglobin, high-density lipoprotein, glutathione, superoxide dismutase, catalase, total protein, and albumin compared to the negative control in both sexes of the rats. Furthermore, platelets, white blood cells, urea, low-density lipoprotein, triglyceride, total cholesterol, malondialdehyde, bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase, alanine and aspartate transaminases decreased significantly (p < 0.05) compared to the negative control in both male and female rats.

CONCLUSION

Thus, coconut water supplementation may reverse CCl₄ induced toxicity and distortions on haematological parameters, lipid profile and antioxidant enzymes, liver and kidney biomarkers in rats.

Water-soluble palm fruit extract: composition, biological properties, and molecular mechanisms for health and non-health applications

The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) fruit is a source of vegetable oil and various phytonutrients. Phytochemical compounds present in palm oil include tocotrienols, carotenoids, phytosterols, squalene, coenzyme Q₁₀, and phospholipids. Being a fruit, the oil palm is also a rich source of water-soluble phytonutrients, including phenolic compounds. Extraction of phytonutrients from the oil palm vegetation liquor of palm oil milling results in a phenolic acid-rich fraction termed Water-Soluble Palm Fruit Extract (WSPFE). Pre-clinical in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo studies carried out using various biological models have shown that WSPFE has beneficial bioactive properties, while clinical studies in healthy volunteers showed that it is safe for human consumption and confers antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. The composition, biological properties, and relevant molecular mechanisms of WSPFE discovered thus far are discussed in the present review, with a view to offer future research perspectives on WSPFE for health and non-health applications.

Effects of variety and maturity stage of coconut on physicochemical and sensory characteristics of powdered coconut drink

Introduction. Coconut water is rich in nutrients and biologically-active compounds. However, it has a short shelf life that can be prolonged by freeze drying. The purpose of this study was to analyze the physicochemical and sensory characteristics of fresh and powdered coconut drinks. Study objects and methods. The experiments included eight samples, namely fresh and powdered coconut drinks obtained from coconuts of different varieties (tall and hybrid) and maturity stages (4 and 6 m.o.). The samples were analyzed for nutrient content (ash, protein, fat, total carbohydrate, and fibre), physicochemical properties (titratable acidity, pH, viscosity, total soluble solids, turbidity, water activity, and browning index), and sensory characteristics (color, aroma, taste, texture, and overall acceptance). Results and discussion. The results obtained showed that there were significant differences among the coconut drinks of different varieties and maturity stages. They differed in nutrient content, pH value, titratable acidity, viscosity, and water activity. Meanwhile, the aroma, taste, and overall acceptance scores of all the samples were not significantly different. The powdered drink from 6 m.o. hybrid coconut was selected as the optimal sample due to its good sensory and physicochemical attributes. These attributes were similar to those of the fresh coconut drink. Conclusion. The powdered drink from 6 m.o. hybrid coconut obtained by freeze drying could be considered as an alternative healthy drink with good quality characteristics.

Anaerobic co-digestion of spent coconut copra with cow urine for enhanced biogas production

Laboratory-scale bioreactors were used to co-digest spent coconut copra (SCC) and cow urine (CU) as a co-substrate (SCC + CU) in a batch mode under thermophilic condition (45 ± 2°C) in order to enhance biogas production. The effect of CU pretreatment on the performance indicators (biogas and biomethane yields, total solids (TS), and volatile solids (VS) reduction, pH and volatile fatty acids (VFAs) concentrations) were also examined. This was compared with mono-digestion of SCC. The experiment was performed with different mixing ratios in reactors labelled as follows: A = 75 g SCC + 5 ml CU; B = 70 g SCC + 10 ml CU; C = 65 g SCC + 15 ml CU; and D (control) = 80 g SCC at a hydraulic retention time of 42 days. Co-digestion (SCC + CU) significantly improved anaerobic digestion (AD) performance resulting in a threefold and fivefold increase in biogas and biomethane production, respectively, with concomitant TS (44.9-57.7%) and VS (55.4-60.3%) removal efficiencies. But for mono-digestion (control experiment), all CU treated and co-digestion assays showed pH stability ranging between 6.6 and 7.4 and VFAs' concentrations ranging from 15-330 mgL^-1. By acting as a buffer, CU effectively enhanced the AD performance of SCC as demonstrated in this study.

Chemical composition and health benefits of coconut oil: an overview

Coconut oil is an integral part of Sri Lankan and many South Asian diets. Initially, coconut oil was classified along with saturated fatty acid food items and criticized for its negative impact on health. However, research studies have shown that coconut oil is a rich source of medium-chain fatty acids. Thus, this has opened new prospects for its use in many fields. Beyond its usage in cooking, coconut oil has attracted attention due to its hypocholesterolemic, anticancer, antihepatosteatotic, antidiabetic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and skin moisturizing properties. Despite all the health benefits, consumption of coconut oil is still underrated due to a lack of supportive scientific evidence. Even though studies done in Asian countries claim a favorable impact on cardiac health and serum lipid profile, the limitations in the number of studies conducted among Western countries impede the endorsement of the real value of coconut oil. Hence, long-term extensive studies with proper methodologies are suggested to clear all the controversies and misconceptions of coconut oil consumption. This review discusses the composition and functional properties of coconut oils extracted using various processing methods. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Browning inhibition on fresh-cut apple by the immersion of liquid endosperm from mature coconuts

The application of natural antibrowning agents for fresh-cut products has been recently considered. This study manifested the efficiency of coconut liquid endosperm, coconut water (CW), from mature tall (cooking) coconut (C-CW) and yellow dwarf coconut (Y-CW) on browning inhibition of 'Gala' apple wedges during storage at 4 ± 1 °C for 9 days. The apple wedges were immersed in water (control), C-CW or Y-CW for 1 min. The visual appearance, superficial colour attributes, browning pigment concentration, total phenols concentration, polyphenoloxidase (PPO) activity and reducing antioxidant capacity of apple wedges were monitored. Moreover, antioxidant activity of both C-CW and Y-CW was also observed. Antioxidant activity of Y-CW was higher than that of C-CW. Both of the CW immersions maintained visual appearance, whiteness and lightness values as well as delayed the increased yellowness and brownness values of hypanthium (flesh) and mesocarp (core) of apple wedges. The browning pigment concentration and PPO activity were obviously lowered by both CW immersions. Total phenols concentration and antioxidant activity of C-CW and Y-CW immersed apple wedges were higher than those of control samples. In conclusion, both of the mature coconut liquid endosperms are feasible natural agent inhibiting browning incidence of fresh-cut fruits during storage.

Antioxidant and Nutritional Properties of Domestic and Commercial Coconut Milk Preparations

The aqueous extract of scraped coconut kernel is known as coconut milk. Coconut milk preparations are also commercially available in the form of desiccated powders or liquids. While these various coconut milk preparations are heavily used in cooking in the Asian countries as a major source of dietary fat, limited studies have been conducted on their chemical and nutritional composition. In this study, we have determined the chemical composition and nutritional effects of both domestic preparations of coconut milk and the commercially available counterparts. The results indicate that the phenolic compounds of all coconut milk preparations provide protection against oxidative damage on lipids and inhibit oxidative damage of both proteins and DNA. The lipid profiles are not significantly affected by the consumption of the three coconut milk preparations despite their different fat contents.

The use of High-Pressure Processing (HPP) to improve the safety and quality of raw coconut (Cocos nucifera L) water

This research investigated the use of high-pressure processing (HPP) for inactivating vegetative pathogens and spoilage microbiota in fresh unfiltered coconut water (Cocos nucifera L) from nuts obtained from Florida and frozen CW from Brazil with pH >5.0 and storage at 4 °C. Additionally, CW was evaluated to determine if it supported the growth and toxin production of Clostridium botulinum with or without the use of HPP when stored at refrigeration temperatures. Samples of fresh unfiltered CW were inoculated to 5.5 to 6.5 logs/mL with multiple strain cocktails of E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella spp. and Listeria monocytogenes and HPP at 593 MPa for 3 min at 4 °C. HPP and inoculated non-HPP controls were stored at 4 °C for 54 and 75 days for Florida CW and Brazil CW, respectively. Results of analyses showed HPP samples with <1 CFU/mL and no detection (negative/25 mL) with enrichment procedures for the 3 inoculated pathogens for all analyses. The non-HPP control samples did not show growth of the pathogens but a gradual decrease in levels to ca. 3-Logs/mL by day 54 in the fresh Florida CW and similarly in frozen Brazil CW by Day 75. Microbial spoilage of uninoculated samples was evaluated for normal spoilage microbiota through 120 days storage at 4 °C. Microbial counts remained at ca. 2-logs with no detectable signs of spoilage for HPP samples through 120 d. The non-HPP control samples spoiled within 2 weeks of storage at 4 °C with gas production, cloudiness, and off-odors. To evaluate if CW supports the growth and toxin production of C. botulinum, samples of unfiltered and filtered (0.2 μm) CW were inoculated with either proteolytic or non-proteolytic C. botulinum spores at 2 log CFU/mL that were processed at 593 MPa for 3 min and stored at 4 °C and 10 °C for 45 days. Inoculated positive and non-inoculated negative controls were prepared and stored as the HPP treated and non-HPP samples. No growth of C. botulinum or toxin production was detected in either the unfiltered or filtered CW regardless if products were HPP treated or not. All inoculated samples with C. botulinum spores were enriched at Day-45 in PYGS media to determine the viability of the inoculated spores at the end of shelf-life and screened for C. botulinum toxins. In all samples, C. botulinum toxin Types A, B and E were detected indicating spores were viable throughout the storage. Type F toxin was not detected possibly due to inherent conditions in the samples that may affected toxin screening.

Phytochemical composition and antioxidant activity of coconut cotyledon

Coconut tree (Cocos nucifera L.), a perennial, monocot tree, belonging to the family Arecaceae, is distributed through the tropics. Bioactivities of coconut water, husk fiber, oil, flowers, spadix and mesocarp of coconut fruit are widely reported. However, there is no study on cotyledon of coconut. In this study, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, phenols, flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids and antioxidants were quantified in hot and cold percolated extracts of coconut cotyledon. Further, the antioxidant activity was studied using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH); ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP); ferric thiocyanate (FTC); thiobarbituric acid (TBA); nitric oxide (NO) radical scavenging and β-carotene bleaching assays. Among the secondary metabolites, only cardiac glycosides were detected. Methanolic extraction by cold percolation extracted high content of secondary metabolites and exhibited significant antioxidant activity in DPPH, FRAP, NO and β-carotene bleaching assays, with EC₅₀ of 0.12, 6.43, 16.21 and 8.09 mg/ml respectively. The chloroform extracts recorded high lipid content and scavenged the radicals in FTC (EC₅₀ 13.31 mg/ml) and TBA (EC₅₀ 9.21 mg/ml) assays. The study recommends extraction of compounds using methanol through cold percolation. The cotyledon of coconut is found to be a potent nutritive source equivalent to the endosperm.

Impact of coconut oil consumption on cardiovascular health: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Context

Coconut oil is rich in medium-chain fatty acids and has been claimed to have numerous health benefits.

Objective

This review aimed to examine the evidence surrounding coconut oil consumption and its impact on cardiovascular health.

Data Sources

A systematic literature search of the PubMed, Embase, the Cochrane Library, and CINAHL databases, up to May 2019, was performed.

Data Extraction

Study characteristics including study design, population, intervention, comparator, outcome, and source of funding were summarized.

Data Analysis

Meta-analyses included 12 studies to provide estimates of effects. Subgroup analyses were performed to account for any differences in the study-level characteristics. When compared with plant oils and animal oils, coconut oil was found to significantly increase high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) by 0.57 mg/dL (95%CI, 0.40–0.74 mg/dL; I2 = 6.7%) and 0.33 mg/dL (0.01–0.65 mg/dL; I2 = 0%), respectively. Coconut oil significantly raised low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) by 0.26 mg/dL (0.09–0.43 mg/dL; I2 = 59.7%) compared with plant oils and lowered LDL-C (−0.37 mg/dL; −0.69 to −0.05 mg/dL; I2 = 48.1%) compared with animal oils. No significant effects on triglyceride were observed. Better lipid profiles were demonstrated with the virgin form of coconut oil.

Conclusion

Compared with animal oils, coconut oil demonstrated a better lipid profile n comparison with plant oils, coconut oil significantly increased HDL-C and LDL-C.

Production of eugenol from fungal endophytes Neopestalotiopsis sp. and Diaporthe sp. isolated from Cinnamomum loureiroi leaves

Endophytic fungi, which colonize within a host plant without causing any apparent diseases, have been considered as an important source of bioactive secondary metabolites containing antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. The aim of this research was to isolate the endophytic fungi of Cinnamomum loureiroi and then to screen their antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. A total of 11 fungal endophytes were isolated from healthy leaves of Cinnamomum loureiroi belonging to six genera: Botryosphaeria, Colletotrichum, Diaporthe, Fusarium, Neopestalotiopsis, and Pestalotiopsis. All isolated strains were cultured and further extracted with ethyl acetate solvent. Antimicrobial activity of all crude endophytic fungal extracts was analyzed using disc diffusion assay against six bacterial and two fungal pathogens. Crude extracts of strains MFLUCC15-1130 and MFLUCC15-1131 showed broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against all tested pathogens. Activity against Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus epidermidis was notable, showing the lowest minimum inhibitory concentration at 3.91 μg/mL. Antioxidant activity of all crude endophytic fungal extracts was also evaluated based on 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl assay. Significant antioxidant activity was detected in the crude extracts of fungus MFLUCC15-1130 and MFLUCC15-1131 with IC₅₀ of 22.92 ± 0.67 and 37.61 ± 0.49 μg/mL, respectively. Using molecular identification, MFLUCC15-1130 and MFLUCC15-1131 were identified as Neopestalotiopsis sp. and Diaporthe sp., respectively. The major chemical constituents produced by both crude extracts were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Eugenol, myristaldehyde, lauric acid, and caprylic acid were the primary antimicrobial and antioxidant compounds in both crude extracts. This is the first report of eugenol being a biologically active compound of Neopestalotiopsis sp. and Diaporthe sp. fungal endophytes. Eugenol has been reported as antimicrobial and antioxidant agents with agronomic applications. Thus the two newly-isolated endophytes may be used for eugenol production, which in turn can be used in a variety of applications.

Effect of a Diet Enriched with Fresh Coconut Saturated Fats on Plasma Lipids and Erythrocyte Fatty Acid Composition in Normal Adults

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to compare the effects of increased saturated fatty acid (SFA) (provided by fresh coconut) versus monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) intake (provided by a combination of groundnuts and groundnut oil) on plasma lipids and erythrocyte fatty acid (EFA) composition in healthy adults.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Fifty-eight healthy volunteers, randomized into 2 groups, were provided standardized diet along with 100 g fresh coconut or groundnuts and groundnut oil combination for 90 days in a Yoga University. Fasting blood samples were collected before and after the intervention period for the measurement of plasma lipids and EFA profile.

RESULTS

Coconut diet increased low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels significantly. In contrast, the groundnut diet decreased total cholesterol (TC), mainly due to a decrease in HDL levels. There were no differences in the major SFA of erythrocytes in either group. However, coconut consumption resulted in an increase in C14:0 and C24:0 along with a decrease in levels of C18:1 n9 (oleic acid). There was a significant increase in levels of C20:3 n6 (dihomo-gamma linolenic acid, DGLA).

CONCLUSIONS

Consumption of SFA-rich coconut for 3 months had no significant deleterious effect on erythrocytes or lipid-related factors compared to groundnut consumption. On the contrary, there was an increase in the anti-atherogenic HDL levels and anti-inflammatory precursor DGLA in erythrocyte lipids. This suggests that coconut consumption may not have any deleterious effects on cardiovascular risk in normal subjects.