Attachment in US children experiencing nonmaternal care in the early 1990s

Revisiting the childcare-attachment question: under what conditions is childcare participation associated with mother-child attachment security?

Decades have passed since the controversy regarding the putative risks of childcare for mother-child attachment broke out. Yet, some uncertainty remains, as relevant studies have produced inconsistent evidence. Some have proposed that those conflicting findings may be due to the fact that the effects of childcare are conditioned on parenting. Accordingly, this study examined whether relations between childcare participation and mother-child attachment vary according to maternal sensitivity and autonomy support. In this sample of 236 mother-child dyads, there was no indication of main effects of childcare participation on attachment. There were, however, some interactive effects, such that the children who showed the least secure attachment behaviors were those who did not attend childcare and had either less sensitive or less autonomy-supportive mothers. The findings suggest that the effects of childcare on mother-child attachment are best understood in light of the parenting children receive at home.

Association between the starting age of non-parental Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC), and psycho-social problems in adolescence in West and East Germany - a natural experiment using data from the German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Children and Adolescents (KiGGS)

INTRODUCTION

The study aimed to investigate the association between the start age of non-parental Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) and psycho-social problems in adolescence. The similarities and differences between West and East Germany were also investigated in a natural experiment.

METHODS

Our sample consisted of 1022 children (621 from West Germany, 401 from East Germany) aged 3-4 years at wave 2003-2006 that were followed up to wave 2014-2017 as adolescents (mean ± SD age = 14.4 ± 0.03 years) in the KiGGS study. The psycho-social problems were measured by the parent-reported Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) at wave 2014-2017. Linear regression was used to explore the relationship between ECEC-start-age and psycho-social problems in adolescence in Germany, and stratified by West and East Germany.

RESULTS

Those who started ECEC between 2 and 3 years old (reference) had the lowest scores of psycho-social problems in the whole Germany and in West Germany in adolescence. In comparison, those who started ECEC older than 3 years old had higher scores of internalizing psycho-social problems in both West Germany (with statistically significant results) and East Germany (with a relatively larger effect size but insignificant results). Those who started ECEC younger than 1 year old had statistically significant higher scores for externalizing psycho-social problems in West Germany, even though less children started ECEC younger than 1 in West Germany compared to East Germany. This significant association was not found in East Germany. Those who started ECEC between 1 and 2 years old tended to have higher scores of externalizing psycho-social problems in both West and East Germany.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that if children start ECEC older than 3 years or younger than 2 years, more attention needs to be given to internalizing or externalizing psycho-social problems respectively. The regional differences for children younger than 1 year old may suggest a selection effect in West Germany where only fewer parents bring babies to ECEC, while the regional similarities for children over 3 years old indicate the importance of providing access to ECEC for children over 3 years old.

Family Environment in Children With Hearing Aids and Cochlear Implants: Associations With Spoken Language, Psychosocial Functioning, and Cognitive Development

OBJECTIVES

To examine differences in family environment and associations between family environment and key speech, language, and cognitive outcomes in samples of children with normal hearing and deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) children who use hearing aids and cochlear implants.

DESIGN

Thirty families of children with normal hearing (n = 10), hearing aids (n = 10), or cochlear implants (n = 10) completed questionnaires evaluating executive function, social skills, and problem behaviors. Children's language and receptive vocabulary were evaluated using standardized measures in the children's homes. In addition, families were administered a standardized in-home questionnaire and observational assessment regarding the home environment.

RESULTS

Family environment overall was similar across hearing level and sensory aid, although some differences were found on parental responsivity and physical environment. The level of supportiveness and enrichment within family relationships accounted for much of the relations between family environment and the psychosocial and neurocognitive development of DHH children. In contrast, the availability of objects and experiences to stimulate learning in the home was related to the development of spoken language.

CONCLUSIONS

Whereas broad characteristics of the family environments of DHH children may not differ from those of hearing children, variability in family functioning is related to DHH children's at-risk speech, language, and cognitive outcomes. Results support the importance of further research to clarify and explain these relations, which might suggest novel methods and targets of family-based interventions to improve developmental outcomes.

Gifts from Mary Ainsworth and John Bowlby

Attachment theory has developed over many decades - and continues to develop. Its roots lie in several seminal publications of John Bowlby (the basis of attachment theory) and Mary D. S. Ainsworth (the notion of individual differences in attachment). This paper identifies the prescient contributions of these early publications and two processes (a long-term dialogue and reflection on discrepancy) that underlay emergent theory. Because I was a student of Ainsworth when both attachment theory and individual differences in attachment organization were becoming better known, I offer some of my recollections of that period, suggesting how that period may have affected current work in attachment.

From parent-child mutuality to security to socialization outcomes: developmental cascade toward positive adaptation in preadolescence

A developmental cascade from positive early parent-child relationship to child security with the parent to adaptive socialization outcomes, proposed in attachment theory and often implicitly accepted but rarely formally tested, was examined in 100 mothers, fathers, and children followed from toddler age to preadolescence. Parent-child Mutually Responsive Orientation (MRO) was observed in lengthy interactions at 38, 52, 67, and 80 months; children reported their security with parents at age eight. Socialization outcomes (parent- and child-reported cooperation with parental monitoring and teacher-reported school competence) were assessed at age 10. Mediation was tested with PROCESS. The parent-child history of MRO significantly predicted both mother-child and father-child security. For mother-child dyads, security mediated links between history of MRO and cooperation with maternal monitoring and school competence, controlling for developmental continuity of the studied constructs. For father-child dyads, the mediation effect was not evident.

Examining antecedents of infant attachment security with mothers and fathers: An ecological systems perspective

Taking an ecological systems perspective, early parent-child relationships can be affected by interactions between systems where some are more proximally linked to the child than others. Socioeconomic status, a distal factor, is associated with social functioning during childhood, but research on its association with functioning during infancy, particularly attachment, is scant and inconsistent. Moreover, it is not clear how distal factors affect infant functioning. Other systems such as marital adjustment and parenting may moderate or mediate relations between distal factors and infant attachment. The current longitudinal study (n=135) examined the role of various systems - parental resources, marital functioning, parental sensitivity and involvement - in early infancy (3-, 5-, 7-months) on infant-mother (12-months) and infant-father (14-months) attachment security. Findings supported moderating processes but in different ways for infant-mother versus infant-father dyads. Implications for future studies and interventions are discussed.

Very extensive nonmaternal care predicts mother-infant attachment disorganization: Convergent evidence from two samples

We examined whether a maximum threshold of time spent in nonmaternal care exists, beyond which infants have an increased risk of forming a disorganized infant-mother attachment. The hours per week infants spent in nonmaternal care at 7-8 months were examined as a continuous measure and as a dichotomous threshold (over 40, 50 and 60 hr/week) to predict infant disorganization at 12-15 months. Two different samples (Austin and NICHD) were used to replicate findings and control for critical covariates: mothers' unresolved status and frightening behavior (assessed in the Austin sample, N = 125), quality of nonmaternal caregiving (assessed in the NICHD sample, N = 1,135), and family income and infant temperament (assessed in both samples). Only very extensive hours of nonmaternal care (over 60 hr/week) and mothers' frightening behavior independently predicted attachment disorganization. A polynomial logistic regression performed on the larger NICHD sample indicated that the risk of disorganized attachment exponentially increased after exceeding 60 hr/week. In addition, very extensive hours of nonmaternal care only predicted attachment disorganization after age 6 months (not prior). Findings suggest that during a sensitive period of attachment formation, infants who spend more than 60 hr/week in nonmaternal care may be at an increased risk of forming a disorganized attachment.

Paid parental leave supports breastfeeding and mother-infant relationship: a prospective investigation of maternal postpartum employment

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the association between the mother-infant relationship, defined as maternal-infant emotional attachment, maternal separation anxiety and breastfeeding, and maternal employment status at 10 months following first childbirth.

METHOD

Samples of employed, pregnant women, over 18 years of age and with sufficient English literacy were recruited systematically from one public and one private maternity hospital in Victoria. Data were collected by structured interview and self-report questionnaire in the third trimester, and at 3 and 10 months postpartum. Socio-demographic, employment, and breastfeeding information was collected. Participants completed standardised assessments of maternal separation anxiety and mother-to-infant emotional attachment.

RESULTS

Of 205 eligible women, 165 (81%) agreed to participate and 129 (78%) provided complete data. A reduced odds of employment participation was independently associated with continuing to breastfeed at 10 months (OR=0.22, p=0.004) and reporting higher maternal separation anxiety (OR=0.23, p=0.01) when maternal age, education, occupational status and use of paid maternity leave and occupational status were adjusted for in analyses.

CONCLUSION

Employment participation in the first 10 months postpartum is associated with lower maternal separation anxiety, and shorter breastfeeding duration.

IMPLICATIONS

Paid parental leave has public health implications for mothers and infants. These include permitting sufficient time to protect sustained breastfeeding, and the development of optimal maternal infant attachment, reflected in confidence about separation from her infant.

Attachment and infant night waking: a longitudinal study from birth through the first year of life

OBJECTIVE

: Night wakings are common in infancy. Although a link between infant night wakings and attachment to the primary caregiver has been previously proposed, empirical support is limited so far. The aim of this longitudinal study was to examine the early history of night waking in infants who were later classified as securely or insecurely (avoidantly, resistantly, or disorganized) attached.

METHODS

: Participants in the study were 193 infants and their mothers. Information on infant night wakings was collected with the use of daily sleep diaries for the first 6 months of life and again for 2 weeks at 12 months of age. Infant-mother attachment was assessed using the Strange Situation (Ainsworth et al, Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation. New York: Hillsdale; 1978) when the infants were 12 months of age.

RESULTS

: Longitudinal regression analyses showed that, after controlling for many covariates, infants with an insecure-resistant attachment at 12 months of age awoke more during the night in their first 6 months of life than the other infants. Furthermore, infants with different attachment classifications developed different patterns of night wakings over the first 6 months, with the insecure-avoidant infants waking the least toward the end of the 6 months. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses showed no associations between attachment and night wakings at 12 months of age.

CONCLUSION

: This study is the first in showing that attachment at 12 months of age is related to infant night waking patterns in the first 6 months of life. Patterns of infant night wakings early in life apparently reflect the emerging attachment relationship.

Early mother-child separation, parenting, and child well-being in Early Head Start families

Drawing on theories of attachment and family instability, this study examined associations between early mother-child separation and subsequent maternal parenting behaviors and children's outcomes in a sample of 2080 families who participated in the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project, the vast majority of whom were poor. Multiple regression models revealed that, controlling for baseline family and maternal characteristics and indicators of family instability, the occurrence of a mother-child separation of a week or longer within the first two years of life was related to higher levels of child negativity (at age three) and aggression (at ages three and five). The effect of separation on child aggression at age five was mediated by aggression at age three, suggesting that the effects of separation on children's aggressive behavior are early and persistent.

Validity of the TAS-45 as a measure of toddler-parent attachment: preliminary evidence from Early Head Start families

A new observational measure of attachment strategies in the home, the Toddler Attachment Sort-45 (TAS-45) was completed for 59 18- to 36-month-old recipients of EHS. Mothers completed the Brief Infant Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (BITSEA); children were tested on the Preschool Language Scale (PLS-4); and a mother-child snack was videotaped and coded for dyadic mutuality. The TAS-45 Security score was associated with more dyadic mutuality, higher language and competence scores, and lower problem scores. Discriminant validity was evidenced by a lack of associations with the TAS-45 Dependence score. The TAS-45 Disorganized "hotspot" (cluster) score also showed expected associations with these outcomes. Results are discussed in terms of next steps for use of the TAS-45 in research and practice.

Assessing attachment in school-age children

The School-age Assessment of Attachment (SAA) is a newly developed clinical tool to identify pattern of attachment using the Dynamic-Maturational Model of attachment and adaptation (DMM). Seven picture cards were used to elicit fantasy stories and recalled episodes. The transcribed discourse was analyzed to yield one of 13 DMM attachment classifications, together with possible unresolved traumas and losses, and modifiers (depression and intrusions). In this article, we outline the steps necessary to validate an assessment tool, describe the development of the SAA, and report data from a preliminary clinical study testing the SAA's reliability, validity, and utility. Concurrent construct, familial, and discriminant validity were evaluated in terms of mental health status and exposure to danger on a sample of 5-12-year-old children, drawn from clinical ( n = 51) and normative (n = 40) populations. The SAA (a) differentiated children referred for psychiatric diagnosis from those in the normative population; (b) accounted for 31% of the variance (46% when family variables were added); (c) identified risk children in the normative sample; and (d) suggested risk factors associated with children's psychiatric disorder.

Comparative study of early interactions in mother-child dyads and care centre staff-child within the context of Chilean crèches

BACKGROUND

Bowlby developed the concept of 'caregiver' to refer to significant adults with whom young children interact daily. Not only parents are considered significant caregivers but also the care centre staff where the child attends regularly. Within caregiver-infant interactions, sensitive response on the part of the adult is a key concept in the assessment of the quality of the relationship, as it integrates the experiences and emotions that will influence the attainment of a secure attachment and a favourable emotional, social and cognitive development in the child.

METHODS

This study is a comparative analysis between the dyadic interactions between a child and its principal caregivers in the home and in the crèche; it is based on a group of 185 children between 8 and 24 months old, who attend a crèche regularly. The Care-Index instrument was used to assess interaction between children and adults, analysing sensitive response in the adults and cooperativeness in the children.

RESULTS

The sensitive response of adults to children was complementary; mothers and primary caregivers showed greater sensitivity in the affective aspects of the interaction, while the care centre staff showed greater sensitivity in the cognitive aspects. The fact that caregivers show significant differences in response sensitivity is consistent with existing studies, as are corresponding significant differences in the children's cooperativeness, which demonstrates that a child could benefit from interacting with adults whose different skills could strengthen diverse aspects of health child development.

CONCLUSIONS

The presence of children in the crèche can be a positive experience in that it favours quality exchanges with the child, developing cognitive aspects of the interaction which are cultivated to a lesser degree by mothers or primary caregivers who principally develop affective aspects.

Socio-emotional development: from infancy to young adulthood

Results from the Uppsala Longitudinal Study (ULS), which started in 1985, are reported in two sections. The first section gives a summary of longitudinal data from infancy to middle childhood (age 9 years; n = 96) concerning predictions of social functioning aspects from the theoretical perspectives of temperament, attachment, and health psychology (social factors). The second section presents the first results emanating from a follow-up when participants were 21 years old (n = 85). The developmental roots of social anxiety symptoms were studied from the same perspectives as above, although with a special focus on the predictive power of the temperament trait of shyness/inhibition. Results for middle childhood outcomes showed that temperament characteristics were relevant for most outcomes, whereas the contribution of attachment was most convincingly shown in relation to social competence and personality. Social factors were found to have moderating functions, but direct effects were also shown, the most interesting perhaps being positive effects of non-parental day care. Results from the 21-year data confirmed the expected predictive relation from shyness/inhibition to symptoms of social anxiety and further showed this relation to be specific; the relation to symptoms of depression did not survive control for social anxiety, although the opposite was true. The broad analysis of predictor associations with social anxiety, showing the relevance of other temperament factors as well as interactive effects, again attested to the need for multi-faceted models to analyze developmental trajectories.

Comparing two attachment classification methods applied to preschool strange situations

This study compared two methods for classifying preschool-age children's behavior in the Strange Situation procedure, the MacArthur (MAC) and the Preschool Assessment of Attachment (PAA), to determine whether they operationalized converging or diverging approaches to attachment theory. Strange Situations of 306 randomly selected 3-year-old children and their mothers in the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development were classified with the MAC and PAA. The methods showed 50% agreement. A block of seven demographic, child and family predictors was unrelated to MAC classifications, but accounted for 19% of the variance in PAA classifications. The MAC and PAA each had associations with some child outcomes in grades 1-5 (ages 6-10) totaling 5% and 12% of the variance respectively, but some of the MAC associations were counter to the hypothesis. The MAC and PAA were sufficiently different to reflect both different classificatory methods and different theoretical understandings of attachment. Results are discussed in terms of limitations of the sample and measures available to compare the two methods, and clinical implications.

Environmental and genetic influences on early attachment

Attachment theory predicts and subsequent empirical research has amply demonstrated that individual variations in patterns of early attachment behaviour are primarily influenced by differences in sensitive responsiveness of caregivers. However, meta-analyses have shown that parenting behaviour accounts for about one third of the variance in attachment security or disorganisation. The exclusively environmental explanation has been challenged by results demonstrating some, albeit inconclusive, evidence of the effect of infant temperament. In this paper, after reviewing briefly the well-demonstrated familial and wider environmental influences, the evidence is reviewed for genetic and gene-environment interaction effects on developing early attachment relationships. Studies investigating the interaction of genes of monoamine neurotransmission with parenting environment in the course of early relationship development suggest that children's differential susceptibility to the rearing environment depends partly on genetic differences. In addition to the overview of environmental and genetic contributions to infant attachment, and especially to disorganised attachment relevant to mental health issues, the few existing studies of gene-attachment interaction effects on development of childhood behavioural problems are also reviewed. A short account of the most important methodological problems to be overcome in molecular genetic studies of psychological and psychiatric phenotypes is also given. Finally, animal research focusing on brain-structural aspects related to early care and the new, conceptually important direction of studying environmental programming of early development through epigenetic modification of gene functioning is examined in brief.

Attachment to mother and nonmaternal care: bridging the gap

In this commentary to the child-mother attachment findings of the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD) we focus on the contextual conditions under which child care and the child's attachment relationship(s) may function as a risk or protective factor for child development. First, the authors' conclusion concerning child care as a risk factor for attachment security is refined. Second, suggestions are provided for incorporating possible moderators and mediators of the relations between child care, child-mother attachment, and developmental outcomes. Children's attachment relationship to nonmaternal caregivers, their temperament, and their genetic make-up may be relevant factors; and we discuss them in the context of children's differential susceptibility to influences from the caregiving environment. Third, and following from the above, we argue for specificity in predicting developmental outcomes from attachment security and nonmaternal care.

Attachment and non-maternal care: towards contextualizing the quantity versus quality debate

In this commentary to Friedman's and Boyle's review we focus on the context of early child care as it is reflected in the debate on the effects of quality of care versus amount of care and attachment relations. It is argued that cross-national research should be considered along with the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD) in order to promote better understanding of the interface of attachment, child care, and context. In addition, some methodological issues are discussed including the status of the Strange Situation assessment, definition of non-maternal care, and longitudinal correlates of attachment.