Disease progression pathways of wet AMD: opportunities for new target discovery

VEGF and ELAVL1/HuR protein levels are increased in dry and wet AMD patients. A new tile in the pathophysiologic mechanisms underlying RPE degeneration?

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a common retinal pathology characterized by degeneration of macula's retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and photoreceptors, visual impairment, or loss. Compared to wet AMD, dry AMD is more common, but lacks cures; therefore, identification of new potential therapeutic targets and treatments is urgent. Increased oxidative stress and declining antioxidant, detoxifying systems contribute to the pathophysiologic mechanisms underlying AMD. The present work shows that the Embryonic Lethal Abnormal Vision-Like 1/Human antigen R (ELAVL1/HuR) and the Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) protein levels are higher in the RPE of both dry and wet AMD patients compared to healthy subjects. Moreover, increased HuR protein levels are detected in the retina, and especially in the RPE layer, of a dry AMD model, the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) / peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) double knock-out mouse. The crosstalk among Nrf2, HuR and VEGF has been also studied in ARPE-19 cells in basal and stressful conditions related to the AMD context (i.e., oxidative stress, autophagy impairment, Nrf2 deficit), offering new evidence of the mutual influence between Nrf2 and HuR, of the dependence of VEGF expression and secretion by these two factors, and of the increased susceptibility of cells to stressful conditions in Nrf2- or HuR-impaired contexts. Overall, this study shows evidence of the interplay among Nrf2, HuR and VEGF, essential factors for RPE homeostasis, and represents an additional piece in the understanding of the complex pathophysiologic mechanisms underlying AMD.

Investigating Flow-Induced Corrosion of Magnesium in Ophthalmological Milieu

Although the impact of local fluid dynamics in the biodegradation of magnesium is well known, currently no studies in the literature address the degradation effects of ocular vitreous on bioresorbable devices made of magnesium, which could be developed as drug delivery carriers. The aim of this study was to investigate the flow-induced corrosion mechanism of magnesium in an ophthalmological environment for future applications in ophthalmic drug delivery. To achieve this, experimental and computational methods were combined. Specifically, a CFD model was employed to design experimental conditions that replicate the ocular flow-induced shear stress (FISS) on manufactured magnesium samples. Pure Mg samples were tested in a bioreactor system capable of imposing the ocular CFD calculated values of FISS on the Mg samples' surface by varying the pump flow rate. Optimal flow rates for a range of different FISS values specific to the ophthalmological fluid dynamics affecting the device were indeed determined before running the experiments. After conducting customized corrosion tests, morphological observations and profilometric maps of the eroded surfaces of Mg samples were obtained using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). These maps were then post-processed for the parametric evaluation of corrosion rates. Pre-existing localized superficial defects did affect the final corrosion pattern. SEM images and CLSM data confirmed a uniform corrosion mechanism, with corrosion rates of 1.9, 2.7, and 3.4 μm/day under different shear stress conditions (0, 0.01, and 0.032 Pa, respectively). More generally, uniform corrosion on pure Mg samples increased with higher FISS values, and at higher shear stress values (FISS = 0.032 Pa), a notable washing-out effect of the corrosion products was observed. The removal of corrosion products at higher shear stresses suggests that the dynamic ocular environment, influenced by saccadic movements, plays a significant role in the corrosion mechanism of pure magnesium. The corrosion rates determined in this study, in conjunction with clinical drug release requirements, are crucial for designing potential drug-release devices for ocular applications.

Pharmacological regulation of HIF-1α, RGC death, and glaucoma

Hypoxia can regulate oxygen-sensitive pathways that could be neuroprotective to compensate for the detrimental effects of low oxygen. However, prolonged hypoxia can activate neurodegenerative pathways. HIF-1α is upregulated/stabilized in hypoxic conditions, promoting alteration of gene expression, and ultimately leading to cell-death. Therefore, regulation of HIF-1α expression pharmacologically is a vital approach to mitigate cell death. In this review, we provide information showing the role of HIF-1α and its associated pathways in ocular retinopathies. We also discuss the beneficial roles of HIF-1α inhibitor, KC7F2, in ocular pathologies. Finally, we provided our own data demonstrating RGC neuroprotection by KC7F2 in glaucomatous animals.

Iron Chelator Deferiprone Restores Iron Homeostasis and Inhibits Retinal Neovascularization in Experimental Neovascular Age-Related Macular Degeneration

Purpose

Retinal neovascularization is a significant feature of advanced age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and a major cause of blindness in patients with AMD. However, the underlying mechanism of this pathological neovascularization remains unknown. Iron metabolism has been implicated in various biological processes. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of iron metabolism on retinal neovascularization in neovascular AMD (nAMD).

Methods

C57BL/6J and very low-density lipoprotein receptor (VLDLR) knockout (Vldlr-/-) mice, a murine model of nAMD, were used in this study. Bulk-RNA sequencing was used to identify differentially expressed genes. Western blot analysis was performed to test the expression of proteins. Iron chelator deferiprone (DFP) was administrated to the mice by oral gavage. Fundus fluorescein angiography was used to evaluate retinal vascular leakage. Immunofluorescence staining was used to detect macrophages and iron-related proteins.

Results

RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) results showed altered transferrin expression in the retina and RPE of Vldlr-/- mice. Disrupted iron homeostasis was observed in the retina and RPE of Vldlr-/- mice. DFP mitigated iron overload and significantly reduced retinal neovascularization and vascular leakage. In addition, DFP suppressed the inflammation in Vldlr-/- retinas. The reduced signals of macrophages were observed at sites of neovascularization in the retina and RPE of Vldlr-/- mice after DFP treatment. Further, the IL-6/JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway was activated in the retina and RPE of Vldlr-/- mice and reversed by DFP treatment.

Conclusions

Disrupted iron metabolism may contribute to retinal neovascularization in nAMD. Restoring iron homeostasis by DFP could be a potential therapeutic approach for nAMD.

Exploring the role of granzyme B in subretinal fibrosis of age-related macular degeneration

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD), a prevalent and progressive degenerative disease of the macula, is the leading cause of blindness in elderly individuals in developed countries. The advanced stages include neovascular AMD (nAMD), characterized by choroidal neovascularization (CNV), leading to subretinal fibrosis and permanent vision loss. Despite the efficacy of anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) therapy in stabilizing or improving vision in nAMD, the development of subretinal fibrosis following CNV remains a significant concern. In this review, we explore multifaceted aspects of subretinal fibrosis in nAMD, focusing on its clinical manifestations, risk factors, and underlying pathophysiology. We also outline the potential sources of myofibroblast precursors and inflammatory mechanisms underlying their recruitment and transdifferentiation. Special attention is given to the potential role of mast cells in CNV and subretinal fibrosis, with a focus on putative mast cell mediators, tryptase and granzyme B. We summarize our findings on the role of GzmB in CNV and speculate how GzmB may be involved in the pathological transition from CNV to subretinal fibrosis in nAMD. Finally, we discuss the advantages and drawbacks of animal models of subretinal fibrosis and pinpoint potential therapeutic targets for subretinal fibrosis.

Olink Profiling of Aqueous Humor Identifies Novel Biomarkers for Wet Age-Related Macular Degeneration

Metabolic dysfunction is recognized as a contributing factor in the pathogenesis of wet age-related macular degeneration (wAMD). However, the specific metabolism-related proteins implicated in wAMD remain elusive. In this study, we assessed the expression profiles of 92 metabolism-related proteins in aqueous humor (AH) samples obtained from 44 wAMD patients and 44 cataract control patients. Our findings revealed significant alterations in the expression of 60 metabolism-related proteins between the two groups. Notably, ANGPTL7 and METRNL displayed promising diagnostic potential for wAMD, as evidenced by area under the curve values of 0.88 and 0.85, respectively. Subsequent validation studies confirmed the upregulation of ANGPTL7 and METRNL in the AH of wAMD patients and in choroidal neovascularization (CNV) models. Functional assays revealed that increased ANGPTL7 and METRNL played a pro-angiogenic role in endothelial biology by promoting endothelial cell proliferation, migration, tube formation, and spouting in vitro. Moreover, in vivo studies revealed the pro-angiogenic effects of ANGPTL7 and METRNL in CNV formation. In conclusion, our findings highlight the association between elevated ANGPTL7 and METRNL levels and wAMD, suggesting their potential as novel predictive and diagnostic biomarkers for this condition. These results underscore the significance of ANGPTL7 and METRNL in the context of wAMD pathogenesis and offer new avenues for future research and therapeutic interventions.

Intravitreal Dexamethasone as a Rescue for Anti-Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Therapy in Neovascular Age-Related Macular Degeneration with Persistent Disease Activity and High Treatment Demand

Purpose: To assess the impact of switching to, or adding, an intravitreal dexamethasone implant (Dex; Ozurdex®) in anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) therapy on disease stability and treatment intervals in eyes with neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nAMD) and persistent disease activity and high treatment demand. Methods: This retrospective noncomparative multicenter longitudinal case series included pseudophakic eyes with nAMD and persistent retinal fluid despite regular anti-VEGF therapy (ranibizumab or aflibercept) that received at least 1 intravitreal Dex implant. Visual acuity, central retinal thickness (CRT), and intraocular pressure were recorded before, and after, the addition of Dex to anti-VEGF therapy. Results: Sixteen eyes of 16 patients met the inclusion criteria of persistent fluid despite anti-VEGF therapy, under treatment intervals of ≤7 weeks in 14 instances. Patients were 80.9 ± 7.4 years old and had received 25.5 ± 17.4 anti-VEGF injections before Dex over a period of 36.4 ± 21.9 months before switching. The treatment interval increased from 5.5 ± 3.2 weeks between the last anti-VEGF and first Dex injection to 11.7 ± 7.3 weeks thereafter (P = 0.022). CRT remained stable (385.3 ± 152.1, 383.9 ± 129.7, and 458.3 ± 155.2 μm before switching as well as 12 and 24 months after switching; P = 0.78 and P = 0.36, respectively). An insignificant mean short-term early increase in visual acuity was not sustained over time. Conclusions: The addition of Dex resulted in a relevant and sustained increase in treatment intervals, whereas CRT and visual acuity remained stable in these difficult-to-treat eyes. It may be discussed whether inflammation or other steroid-responsive factors play a significant role in cases of nAMD with nonsatisfactory responses to anti-VEGF.

Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor C and D Signaling Pathways as Potential Targets for the Treatment of Neovascular Age-Related Macular Degeneration: A Narrative Review

The development of treatments targeting the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) signaling pathways have traditionally been firstly investigated in oncology and then advanced into retinal disease indications. Members of the VEGF family of endogenous ligands and their respective receptors play a central role in vasculogenesis and angiogenesis during both development and physiological homeostasis. They can also play a pathogenic role in cancer and retinal diseases. Therapeutic approaches have mostly focused on targeting VEGF-A signaling; however, research has shown that VEGF-C and VEGF-D signaling pathways are also important to the disease pathogenesis of tumors and retinal diseases. This review highlights the important therapeutic advances and the remaining unmet need for improved therapies targeting additional mechanisms beyond VEGF-A. Additionally, it provides an overview of alternative VEGF-C and VEGF-D signaling involvement in both health and disease, highlighting their key contributions in the multifactorial pathophysiology of retinal disease including neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nAMD). Strategies for targeting VEGF-C/-D signaling pathways will also be reviewed, with an emphasis on agents currently being developed for the treatment of nAMD.

Vorolanib, sunitinib, and axitinib: A comparative study of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor inhibitors and their anti-angiogenic effects

PURPOSE

Pathological angiogenesis and vascular instability are observed in diabetic retinopathy (DR), diabetic macular edema (DME), and wet age-related macular degeneration (wAMD). Many receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) including vascular endothelial growth factor receptors (VEGFRs) contribute to angiogenesis, whereas the RTK TIE2 is important for vascular stability. Pan-VEGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) such as vorolanib, sunitinib, and axitinib are of therapeutic interest over current antibody treatments that target only one or two ligands. This study compared the anti-angiogenic potential of these TKIs.

METHODS

A kinase HotSpot™ assay was conducted to identify TKIs inhibiting RTKs associated with angiogenesis and vascular stability. Half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) for VEGFRs and TIE2 was determined for each TKI. In vitro angiogenesis inhibition was investigated using a human umbilical vein endothelial cell sprouting assay, and in vivo angiogenesis was studied using the chorioallantoic membrane assay. Melanin binding was assessed using a melanin-binding assay. Computer modeling was conducted to understand the TIE2-axitinib complex as well as interactions between vorolanib and VEGFRs.

RESULTS

Vorolanib, sunitinib, and axitinib inhibited RTKs of interest in angiogenesis and exhibited pan-VEGFR inhibition. HotSpot™ assay and TIE2 IC50 values showed that only axitinib potently inhibited TIE2 (up to 89%). All three TKIs effectively inhibited angiogenesis in vitro. In vivo, TKIs were more effective at inhibiting VEGF-induced angiogenesis than the anti-VEGF antibody bevacizumab. Of the three TKIs, only sunitinib bound melanin. TKIs differ in their classification and binding to VEGFRs, which is important because type II inhibitors have greater selectivity than type I TKIs.

CONCLUSIONS

Vorolanib, sunitinib, and axitinib exhibited pan-VEGFR inhibition and inhibited RTKs associated with pathological angiogenesis. Of the three TKIs, only axitinib potently inhibited TIE2 which is an undesired trait as TIE2 is essential for vascular stability. The findings support the use of vorolanib for therapeutic inhibition of angiogenesis observed in DR, DME, and wAMD.

Challenges and opportunities of developing small-molecule therapies for age-related macular degeneration

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the leading cause of vision loss in senior adults. The disease can be categorized into two types: wet AMD and dry AMD. Wet AMD, also known as exudative or neovascular AMD, is less common but more severe than dry AMD and is responsible for 90% of the visual impairment caused by AMD and affects 20 million people worldwide. Current treatment options mainly involve biologics that inhibit the vascular endothelial growth factor or complement pathways. However, these treatments have limitations such as high cost, injection-related risks, and limited efficacy. Therefore, new therapeutic targets and strategies have been explored to improve the outcomes of patients with AMD. A promising approach is the use of small-molecule drugs that modulate different factors involved in AMD pathogenesis, such as tyrosine kinases and integrins. Small-molecule drugs offer advantages, such as oral administration, low cost, good penetration, and increased specificity for the treatment of wet and dry AMD. This review summarizes the current status and prospects of small-molecule drugs for the treatment of wet AMD. These advances are expected to support the development of effective and targeted treatments for patients with AMD.

Gene therapy for age-related macular degeneration: potential, feasibility, and pitfalls

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The landscape for age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is rapidly changing with addition of biosimilars and now United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved nonneovascular AMD (nnAMD) treatment options. These developments have inspired a burgeoning pipeline of gene therapy approaches focused on similar antivascular endothelial growth factors (VEGF) and complement related pathways. Historic and more recent setbacks in the gene therapy pipeline, including intraocular inflammatory reactions, have raised important concerns for adverse events related to AMD therapeutics both for gene and nongene approaches. The specific clinical profile of these therapeutics approaching later stage clinical trials are complex and under active investigation; however, these options hold promise to disrupt the current landscape and change management paradigms for one of the leading causes of vision loss worldwide.

RECENT FINDINGS

This review covers current gene therapy approaches for neovascular AMD (nAMD) and nnAMD. Intravitreal, suprachoroidal, and subretinal delivery routes are discussed with attention to technical procedure, capabilities for transgene delivery to target tissue, immunogenicity, and collateral effects. Suprachoroidal delivery is an emerging approach which may bridge some of the practical drawbacks for intravitreal and subretinal methods, though with less elaborated immunologic profile. In parallel to delivery modification, viral vectors have been cultivated to target specific cells, with promising enhancements in adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors and persistent interest in alternate viral and nonviral delivery vectors. Ongoing questions such as steroid or immunosuppressive regimen and economic considerations from a payer and societal perspective are discussed.

SUMMARY

The present review discusses emerging gene therapy options which could foster new, more durable nAMD and nnAMD therapeutics. These options will need refinement with regards to route, vector, and dosage, and specialists must decipher the specific clinical risk benefit profile for individual patients. Ongoing concerns for immunogenicity or dosage related adverse events could stifle progress, while further vector development and refined delivery techniques have the potential to change the safety and efficacy of currently options in the pipeline.

Analysis of the Molecular Mechanism of Xueshuantong in the Treatment of Wet Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD) Using GEO Datasets, Network Pharmacology, and Molecular Docking

At present, the main treatment method for wet AMD is single anti-VEGF therapy, which can require multiple injections, is costly and may have poor efficacy. Studies and clinical experiments have shown that the oral Chinese medicine Xueshuantong combined with anti-VEGF therapy is more effective, and this study aims to explore the molecular mechanism. The TCMSP database was used to identify the main Xueshuantong components. The PubChem database and SWISS Target Prediction data were used to find the SMILES molecular formulas of compounds and corresponding target genes and disease-related genes were searched using the GEO, DisGeNET, and GeneCards databases. Venny was used to identify the intersecting wet AMD-related genes and Xueshuantong targets and Cytoscape software was used to construct direct links between the drug components and disease targets. Then, PPI networks were constructed using the STRING website. R software was used for GO and KEGG enrichment analyses. Cytoscape software was used for topological analyses, and AutoDock Vina v.1.1.2 software was used for molecular docking. 64 compounds corresponding to four drugs were found by the TCMSP database, 1001 total drug targets were found by the PubChem database, 607 wet AMD target genes were found by the GEO, DisGeNET, and GeneCards databases, and 87 Xueshuantong target genes for wet AMD were obtained. Then, by constructing the drug component and disease target network and PPI network, we found that the components closely interacted with VEGF, TNF, caspase 3, CXCL8, and AKT1, which suggested that the therapeutic effects might be related to the inhibition of neovascularization, inflammation, and AKT pathway. Then, GO enrichment analysis showed that the biological processes response to hypoxia, positive regulation of angiogenesis, and inflammatory response were enriched. KEGG enrichment results showed that the HIF-1 and pi3k-akt pathways may mediate the inhibition of wet AMD by Xueshuantong. Topological analysis results identified 10 key proteins, including VEGF, TNF, AKT1, and TLR4. The results of molecular docking also confirmed their strong binding to their respective compounds. In this study, it was confirmed that Xueshuantong could inhibit wet AMD by targeting VEGF, TNF, TLR4, and AKT1, multichannel HIF-1, and the PI3K-AKT pathway, which further proved the therapeutic effects of Xueshuantong combined with single anti-VEGF therapy on wet AMD and provided new insights into the study of novel molecular drug targets for the treatment of wet AMD.

Profiling in-vitro release of verteporfin from VISUDYNE® liposomal formulation and investigating verteporfin binding to human serum albumin

VISUDYNE® is a liposomal formulation of verteporfin, used in the photodynamic therapy of age-related macular degeneration via intravenous administration. In this study, we developed a new in vitro method to quantify verteporfin release from VISUDYNE® under conditions that replicate in vivo conditions using human serum albumin (HSA). Verteporfin release from the liposomes was quantified using capillary electrophoresis (CE) with optical detection. Verteporfin binding to HSA was quantified by measuring HSA fluorescence that is quenched by drugs binding to specific HSA binding sites. The binding constant of verteporfin to HSA was calculated using the Stern Volmer plot and found to be 1.966 × 107 M-1 at 37 °C. Verteporfin binding to HSA involves one albumin binding site and the binding molar ratio between verteporfin and HSA is approximately 1:1. A rapid partitioning of verteporfin from VISUDYNE® onto HSA takes place within 10 min and involves the release of more than 90% of the verteporfin at physiological temperatures. This study verifies this approach of using CE to rapidly separate liposome and HSA-bound drug, thus minimizing drug release artifacts created with other methods.

Systemic Dendrimer-Peptide Therapies for Wet Age-Related Macular Degeneration

Wet age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is an end-stage event in a complex pathogenesis of macular degeneration, involving the abnormal growth of blood vessels at the retinal pigment epithelium driven by vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Current therapies seek to interrupt VEGF signaling to halt the progress of neovascularization, but a significant patient population is not responsive. New treatment modalities such as integrin-binding peptides (risuteganib/Luminate/ALG-1001) are being explored to address this clinical need but these treatments necessitate the use of intravitreal injections (IVT), which carries risks of complications and restricts its availability in less-developed countries. Successful systemic delivery of peptide-based therapeutics must overcome obstacles such as degradation by proteinases in circulation and off-target binding. In this work, we present a novel dendrimer-integrin-binding peptide (D-ALG) synthesized with a noncleavable, "clickable" linker. In vitro, D-ALG protected the peptide payload from enzymatic degradation for up to 1.5 h (~90% of the compound remained intact) in a high concentration of proteinase (2 mg/mL) whereas ~90% of free ALG-1001 was degraded in the same period. Further, dendrimer conjugation preserved the antiangiogenic activity of ALG-1001 in vitro with significant reductions in endothelial vessel network formation compared to untreated controls. In vivo, direct intravitreal injections of ALG-1001 and D-ALG produced reductions in the CNV lesion area but in systemically dosed animals, only D-ALG produced significant reductions of CNV lesion area at 14 days. Imaging data suggested that the difference in efficacy may be due to more D-ALG remaining in the target area than ALG-1001 after administration. The results presented here offer a clinically relevant route for peptide therapeutics by addressing the major obstacles that these therapies face in delivery.

Targeted long-term noninvasive treatment of choroidal neovascularization by biodegradable nanoparticles

Choroidal neovascularization (CNV) is the main cause of vision loss in patients with wet age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Currently, treatment of these conditions requires repeated intravitreal injections, which may lead to complications such as infection and hemorrhage. So, we have developed a noninvasive method for treating CNV with nanoparticles, namely, Angiopoietin1-anti CD105-PLGA nanoparticles (AAP NPs), which targets the CNV to enhance drug accumulation at the site. These nanoparticles, with PLGA as a carrier, can slowly release encapsulated Angiopoietin 1 (Ang 1) and target the choroidal neovascularization marker CD105 to enhance drug accumulation, increases vascular endothelial cadherin (VE-cadherin) expression between vascular endothelial cells, effectively reduce neovascularization leakage and inhibit Angiopoietin 2(Ang 2) secretion by endothelial cells. In a rat model of laser-induced CNV, intravenous injection of AAP NPs exerted a good therapeutic effect in reducing CNV leakage and area. In short, these synthetic AAP NPs provide an effective alternative treatment for AMD and meet the urgent need for noninvasive treatment in neovascular ophthalmopathy. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This work describes the synthesis, injection-mediated delivery, in vitro and in vivo efficacy of targeted nanoparticles with encapsulated Ang1; via these nanoparticles, the drug can be targeted to choroidal neovascularization lesions for continuous treatment. The release of Ang1 can effectively reduce neovascularization leakage, maintain vascular stability, and inhibit Ang2 secretion and inflammation. This study provides a new approach for the treatment of wet age-related macular degeneration.

Proteotranscriptomic analyses reveal distinct interferon-beta signaling pathways and therapeutic targets in choroidal neovascularization

Aim

To investigate the molecular mechanism underlying the onset of choroidal neovascularization (CNV).

Methods

Integrated transcriptomic and proteomic analyses of retinas in mice with laser-induced CNV were performed using RNA sequencing and tandem mass tag. In addition, the laser-treated mice received systemic interferon-β (IFN-β) therapy. Measurements of CNV lesions were acquired by the confocal analysis of stained choroidal flat mounts. The proportions of T helper 17 (Th17) cells were determined by flow cytometric analysis.

Results

A total of differentially expressed 186 genes (120 up-regulated and 66 down-regulated) and 104 proteins (73 up-regulated and 31 down-regulated) were identified. The gene ontology and KEGG pathway analyses indicated that CNV was mainly associated with immune and inflammatory responses, such as cellular response to IFN-β and Th17 cell differentiation. Moreover, the key nodes of the protein-protein interaction network mainly involved up-regulated proteins, including alpha A crystallin and fibroblast growth factor 2, and were verified by Western blotting. To confirm the changes in gene expression, real-time quantitative PCR was performed. Furthermore, levels of IFN-β in both the retina and plasma, as measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), were significantly lower in the CNV group than in the control group. IFN-β treatment significantly reduced CNV lesion size and promoted the proliferation of Th17 cells in laser-treated mice.

Conclusions

This study demonstrates that the occurrence of CNV might be associated with the dysfunction of immune and inflammatory processes and that IFN-β could serve as a potential therapeutic target.