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Verma N, Raghuvanshi DS, Singh RV. Recent advances in the chemistry and biology of oleanolic acid and its derivatives. Eur J Med Chem 2024; 276:116619. [PMID: 38981335 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2024.116619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2024] [Revised: 06/01/2024] [Accepted: 06/22/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024]
Abstract
The pentacyclic triterpenes represent a significant class of plant bioactives with a variety of structures and a wide array of biological activities. These are biosynthetically produced via the mevalonate pathway although occasionally mixed pathways may also occur to introduce structural divergence. Oleanolic acid is one of the most explored bioactive from this class of compounds and possesses a broad spectrum of pharmacological and biological activities including liver protection, anti-cancer, atherosclerosis, anti-inflammation, antibacterial, anti-HIV, anti-oxidative, anti-diabetic etc. This review provides an overview of the latest research findings, highlighting the versatile medicinal and biological potential of oleanolic and its future prospects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Narsingh Verma
- R&D, Technology, and Innovation, Merck-Life Science, Jigani, Bangalore, 560100, India
| | | | - Ravindra Vikram Singh
- R&D, Technology, and Innovation, Merck-Life Science, Jigani, Bangalore, 560100, India.
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Qin Y, Li G, Wang L, Yin G, Zhang X, Wang H, Zheng P, Hua W, Cheng Y, Zhao Y, Zhang J. Modular preparation of biphenyl triazoles via click chemistry as non-competitive hyaluronidase inhibitors. Bioorg Chem 2024; 146:107291. [PMID: 38521011 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2024.107291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2024] [Revised: 03/06/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/25/2024]
Abstract
Hyaluronidase is a promising target in drug discovery, given its overexpression in a range of physiological and pathological processes, including tumor migration, skin aging, sagging, and wrinkling, as well as inflammation and bacterial infections. In this study, to identify novel hyaluronidase inhibitors, we applied click chemistry for the modular synthesis of 370 triazoles in 96-well plates, starting with biphenyl azide. Utilizing an optimized turbidimetric screening assay in microplates, we identified Fmoc-containing triazoles 5 and 6, as well as quinoline-containing triazoles 15 and 16, as highly effective hyaluronidase inhibitors. Subsequent research indicated that these triazoles potentially interact with a novel binding site of hyaluronidase. Notably, these inhibitors displayed minimal cytotoxicity and showed promising anti-inflammatory effects in LPS-stimulated macrophages. Remarkably, compound 6 significantly reduced NO release by 74 % at a concentration of 20 μM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiman Qin
- Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, School of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, PR China
| | - Guanyi Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, PR China
| | - Ling Wang
- Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, School of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, PR China
| | - Guangyuan Yin
- Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, School of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, PR China
| | - Xiang Zhang
- Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, School of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, PR China
| | - Hongxiang Wang
- Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, School of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, PR China
| | - Pengfei Zheng
- First School of Clinical Medicine, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, PR China
| | - Wentao Hua
- Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, School of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, PR China
| | - Yan Cheng
- Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, School of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, PR China
| | - Yaxue Zhao
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, PR China.
| | - Jiong Zhang
- Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, School of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, PR China.
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Duan SF, Song L, Guo HY, Deng H, Huang X, Shen QK, Quan ZS, Yin XM. Research status of indole-modified natural products. RSC Med Chem 2023; 14:2535-2563. [PMID: 38107170 PMCID: PMC10718587 DOI: 10.1039/d3md00560g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Indole is a heterocyclic compound formed by the fusion of a benzene ring and pyrrole ring, which has rich biological activity. Many indole-containing compounds have been sold on the market due to their excellent pharmacological activity. For example, vincristine and reserpine have been widely used in clinical practice. The diverse structures and biological activities of natural products provide abundant resources for the development of new drugs. Therefore, this review classifies natural products by structure, and summarizes the research progress of indole-containing natural product derivatives, their biological activities, structure-activity relationship and research mechanism which has been studied in the past 13 years, so as to provide a basis for the development of new drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Song-Fang Duan
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Interdisciplinary Program of Biological Functional Molecules, College of Integration Science, Yanbian University Yanji 133002 China +86 0433 243 6020 +86 0433 243 6019
| | - Lei Song
- Yanbian University Hospital, Yanbian University Yanji 133002 People's Republic of China
| | - Hong-Yan Guo
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Interdisciplinary Program of Biological Functional Molecules, College of Integration Science, Yanbian University Yanji 133002 China +86 0433 243 6020 +86 0433 243 6019
| | - Hao Deng
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Interdisciplinary Program of Biological Functional Molecules, College of Integration Science, Yanbian University Yanji 133002 China +86 0433 243 6020 +86 0433 243 6019
| | - Xing Huang
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Interdisciplinary Program of Biological Functional Molecules, College of Integration Science, Yanbian University Yanji 133002 China +86 0433 243 6020 +86 0433 243 6019
| | - Qing-Kun Shen
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Interdisciplinary Program of Biological Functional Molecules, College of Integration Science, Yanbian University Yanji 133002 China +86 0433 243 6020 +86 0433 243 6019
| | - Zhe-Shan Quan
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Interdisciplinary Program of Biological Functional Molecules, College of Integration Science, Yanbian University Yanji 133002 China +86 0433 243 6020 +86 0433 243 6019
| | - Xiu-Mei Yin
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Interdisciplinary Program of Biological Functional Molecules, College of Integration Science, Yanbian University Yanji 133002 China +86 0433 243 6020 +86 0433 243 6019
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Huang S, Li H, Xu J, Zhou H, Seeram NP, Ma H, Gu Q. Chemical constituents of industrial hemp roots and their anti-inflammatory activities. J Cannabis Res 2023; 5:1. [PMID: 36642726 PMCID: PMC9841654 DOI: 10.1186/s42238-022-00168-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 11/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Although the chemical constituents of the aerial parts of Cannabis have been extensively studied, phytochemicals of Cannabis roots are not well characterized. Herein, we investigated the chemical constituents of industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) roots and evaluated the anti-inflammatory activities of phytochemicals isolated from the hemp roots extract. METHODS An ethyl acetate extract of hemp roots was subjected to a combination of chromatographic columns to isolate phytochemicals. The chemical structures of the isolates were elucidated based on spectroscopic analyses (by nuclear magnetic resonance and mass spectrometry). The anti-inflammatory effects of phytochemicals from hemp roots were evaluated in an anti-inflammasome assay using human monocyte THP-1 cells. RESULTS Phytochemical investigation of hemp roots extract led to the identification of 32 structurally diverse compounds including six cannabinoids (1-6), three phytosterols (26-28), four triterpenoids (22-25), five lignans (17-21), and 10 hydroxyl contained compounds (7-16), three fatty acids (29-31), and an unsaturated chain hydrocarbon (32). Compounds 14-21, 23, 27, and 32 were identified from the Cannabis species for the first time. Cannabinoids (1-5) reduced the level of cytokine tumor necrosis-alpha (by 38.2, 58.4, 47.7, 52.2, and 56.1%, respectively) and 2 and 5 also decreased the interleukin-1β production (by 42.2 and 92.4%, respectively) in a cell-based inflammasome model. In addition, non-cannabinoids including 11, 13, 20, 25, 29, and 32 also showed selective inhibition of interleukin-1β production (by 23.7, 22.5, 25.6, 78.0, 24.1, 46.6, and 25.4%, respectively) in THP-1 cells. CONCLUSION The phytochemical constituent of a hemp roots extract was characterized and compounds from hemp roots exerted promising anti-inflammatory effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shijie Huang
- grid.12981.330000 0001 2360 039XResearch Center for Drug Discovery, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, 510006 Guangzhou, China
| | - Huifang Li
- grid.20431.340000 0004 0416 2242Bioactive Botanical Research Laboratory, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, 02881 Kingston, RI USA
| | - Jun Xu
- grid.12981.330000 0001 2360 039XResearch Center for Drug Discovery, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, 510006 Guangzhou, China
| | - Huihao Zhou
- grid.12981.330000 0001 2360 039XResearch Center for Drug Discovery, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, 510006 Guangzhou, China
| | - Navindra P. Seeram
- grid.20431.340000 0004 0416 2242Bioactive Botanical Research Laboratory, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, 02881 Kingston, RI USA
| | - Hang Ma
- grid.20431.340000 0004 0416 2242Bioactive Botanical Research Laboratory, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, 02881 Kingston, RI USA
| | - Qiong Gu
- grid.12981.330000 0001 2360 039XResearch Center for Drug Discovery, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, 510006 Guangzhou, China
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Hong-In P, Chaiyana W. Potential cosmeceutical lamellar liquid crystals containing black longan (Dimocarpus longan Lour.) seed extract for MMP-1 and hyaluronidase inhibition. Sci Rep 2022; 12:7683. [PMID: 35538179 PMCID: PMC9091220 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-11554-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The aims of this study were to evaluate the biological activities of black Dimocarpus longan Lour. seed extracts and develop a lamellar liquid crystal (LLC). Different solvents, including petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, and 95% v/v ethanol, were used in the maceration of black D. longan seeds. The inhibitory activities on matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) and hyaluronidase were evaluated. The irritating potency of D. longan seed extracts was determined using the hen's egg chorioallantoic membrane test. The extract with the strongest anti-ageing activities and no irritant impact was examined for its chemical contents using high-performance liquid chromatography and incorporated into the LLC. Various factors affecting the LLC formulations, including surfactant types and amounts, thickening agent types and amounts, and various oil types, were investigated. The results demonstrated that the ethyl acetate extract (EtOAc) was the most potent inhibitor of MMP-1 (IC50 = 21.7 ± 5.4 µg/mL) and hyaluronidase (oleanolic acid equivalent = 0.44 ± 0.03 g per g extract). Interestingly, its MMP-1 inhibition was equivalent to that of oleanolic acid, corilagin, and gallic acid. Furthermore, its hyaluronidase inhibition was equivalent to that of gallic acid and ellagic acid. Gallic acid, which was the most abundant compound (15.6% ± 0.06% w/w) was suggested as the compound responsible for the biological activities of EtOAc extract. Considering its potential anti-skin ageing properties with no irritation of EtOAc extract, it was incorporated into the most suitable LLC, which was composed of 5% w/w Lexfeel® D5 oil, 0.5% w/w Carbopol® U21, 2% w/w Liquid Crystal Cream Maker, and 92.5% w/w DI water. The LLC containing EtOAc extract presented birefringence under a polarizing light microscope, indicating its crystallinity. The formulation had good stability after heating-cooling cycles in terms of external appearance, crystallinity, viscosity, and pH (5.5). As a result, it is recommended as a potential cosmeceutical formulation for anti-skin wrinkling. It is proposed that more research be conducted on the safety and efficacy of the treatment on human volunteers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Preaploy Hong-In
- Master's Degree Program in Cosmetic Science, Faculty of Pharmacy, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand.,Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand
| | - Wantida Chaiyana
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand. .,Research Center of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand. .,Innovation Center for Holistic Health, Nutraceuticals, and Cosmeceuticals, Faculty of Pharmacy, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand.
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Luo Z, He H, Tang T, Zhou J, Li H, Seeram NP, Li D, Zhang K, Ma H, Wu P. Synthesis and Biological Evaluations of Betulinic Acid Derivatives With Inhibitory Activity on Hyaluronidase and Anti-Inflammatory Effects Against Hyaluronic Acid Fragment Induced Inflammation. Front Chem 2022; 10:892554. [PMID: 35601554 PMCID: PMC9115581 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2022.892554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously reported that the structural modifications of pentacyclic triterpenoids including oleanolic acid resulted in enhanced hyaluronidase inhibitory activity but whether this applies to other pentacyclic triterpenoids such as betulinic acid (BA) is unknown. Herein, we synthesized BA derivatives with an α,β-unsaturated ketene moiety and evaluated for their: 1) hyaluronidase inhibitory activity and, 2) anti-inflammatory effects against lipopolysaccharides (LPS) induced inflammation. Compared to BA, the BA derivatives exerted improved anti-hyaluronidase activity (26.3%-72.8% vs. 22.6%) and anti-inflammatory effects by reducing nitrite production in BV2 cells (3.9%-46.8% vs. 3.4%) and RAW264.7 cells (22.7%-49.2% vs. 20.4%). BA derivatives inhibited LPS-induced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in THP-1 cells (15.2%-22.4%). BA derivatives also exerted promising anti-inflammatory effects against hyaluronic acid fragment induced nitrite production (8.6%-35.6%) in THP-1 cells. BA derivatives showed augmented anti-hyaluronidase and anti-inflammatory effects but further biological evaluations using in vivo models are warranted to confirm their efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhujun Luo
- School of Biotechnology and Health Sciences, Wuyi University, Jiangmen, China,International Healthcare Innovation Institute, Jiangmen, China
| | - Hao He
- School of Biotechnology and Health Sciences, Wuyi University, Jiangmen, China,International Healthcare Innovation Institute, Jiangmen, China,Bioactive Botanical Research Laboratory, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, NY, United States,School of Chemical Engineering, Shanxi Institute of Science and Technology, Jincheng, China
| | - Tiantian Tang
- Laboratory of Nutrition and Development, Key Laboratory of Major Diseases in Children, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China,Beijing Pediatric Research Institute, Beijing Children’s Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China,National Center for Children’s Health, Beijing, China
| | - Jun Zhou
- School of Biotechnology and Health Sciences, Wuyi University, Jiangmen, China,International Healthcare Innovation Institute, Jiangmen, China
| | - Huifang Li
- School of Biotechnology and Health Sciences, Wuyi University, Jiangmen, China,International Healthcare Innovation Institute, Jiangmen, China,Bioactive Botanical Research Laboratory, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, NY, United States
| | - Navindra P. Seeram
- Bioactive Botanical Research Laboratory, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, NY, United States
| | - Dongli Li
- School of Biotechnology and Health Sciences, Wuyi University, Jiangmen, China,International Healthcare Innovation Institute, Jiangmen, China
| | - Kun Zhang
- School of Biotechnology and Health Sciences, Wuyi University, Jiangmen, China,International Healthcare Innovation Institute, Jiangmen, China,*Correspondence: Kun Zhang, ; Hang Ma, ; Panpan Wu,
| | - Hang Ma
- School of Biotechnology and Health Sciences, Wuyi University, Jiangmen, China,International Healthcare Innovation Institute, Jiangmen, China,Bioactive Botanical Research Laboratory, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, NY, United States,*Correspondence: Kun Zhang, ; Hang Ma, ; Panpan Wu,
| | - Panpan Wu
- School of Biotechnology and Health Sciences, Wuyi University, Jiangmen, China,International Healthcare Innovation Institute, Jiangmen, China,*Correspondence: Kun Zhang, ; Hang Ma, ; Panpan Wu,
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Gębalski J, Graczyk F, Załuski D. Paving the way towards effective plant-based inhibitors of hyaluronidase and tyrosinase: a critical review on a structure-activity relationship. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2022; 37:1120-1195. [PMID: 35470749 PMCID: PMC9045780 DOI: 10.1080/14756366.2022.2061966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Human has used plants to treat many civilisation diseases for thousands of years. Examples include reserpine (hypertension therapy), digoxin (myocardial diseases), vinblastine and vincristine (cancers), and opioids (palliative treatment). Plants are a rich source of natural metabolites with multiple biological activities, and the use of modern approaches and tools allowed finally for more effective bioprospecting. The new phytochemicals are hyaluronidase (Hyal) inhibitors, which could serve as anti-cancer drugs, male contraceptives, and an antidote against venoms. In turn, tyrosinase inhibitors can be used in cosmetics/pharmaceuticals as whitening agents and to treat skin pigmentation disorders. However, the activity of these inhibitors is stricte dependent on their structure and the presence of the chemical groups, e.g. carbonyl or hydroxyl. This review aims to provide comprehensive and in-depth evidence related to the anti-tyrosinase and anti-Hyal activity of phytochemicals as well as confirming their efficiency and future perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Gębalski
- Department of Pharmaceutical Botany and Pharmacognosy, Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Filip Graczyk
- Department of Pharmaceutical Botany and Pharmacognosy, Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Daniel Załuski
- Department of Pharmaceutical Botany and Pharmacognosy, Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Bydgoszcz, Poland
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Kirk RD, Akanji T, Li H, Shen J, Allababidi S, Seeram NP, Bertin MJ, Ma H. Evaluations of Skin Permeability of Cannabidiol and Its Topical Formulations by Skin Membrane-Based Parallel Artificial Membrane Permeability Assay and Franz Cell Diffusion Assay. Med Cannabis Cannabinoids 2022; 5:129-137. [PMID: 36467778 PMCID: PMC9710319 DOI: 10.1159/000526769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 08/13/2022] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Cannabinoids including cannabidiol (CBD) have attracted enormous interest as bioactive ingredients for various dermatological and/or cosmeceutical uses. However, topical applications of cannabinoids might be limited without a fundamental understanding of their skin permeability. Herein, we aimed to evaluate the skin permeability of CBD and its topical formulations using artificial skin membrane assays. The solubility and stability of CBD in various surfactants that are commonly used in topical applications were also evaluated. METHODS CBD and two CBD-incorporated topical formulations (cream and gel) were prepared for this study. Computational predictions (SwissADME and DERMWIN™) and the parallel artificial membrane permeability assay (PAMPA) were used to evaluate the skin permeability of CBD isolate. The Franz cell diffusion (in vitro release testing) assay was used to evaluate the skin permeability of CBD formulations. The solubility and stability of CBD in surfactants were assessed by high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry analysis. RESULTS CBD isolate showed favorable skin permeability in the SwissADME and DERMWIN™ predictions (-Log Kp of 3.6 and 5.7 cm/s, respectively) and PAMPA (-LogPe value of 5.0 at pH of 6.5 and 7.4). In addition, CBD had higher solubility (378.4 μg/mL) in surfactant Tween 20 as compared to its solubility in polyisobutene. In an acidic environment (pH 5 and 6), Tween 20 maintained the CBD content at 81% and 70% over 30 days, respectively. CBD in the formulations of cream and gel also had moderate skin permeability in the Franz cell diffusion assay. CONCLUSION Data from artificial membrane-based assays support that CBD is a skin permeable cannabinoid and the permeability and stability of its formulations may be influenced by several factors such as surfactant and pH environment. Findings from our study suggest that CBD may have suitable skin permeability for the development of dermatological and/or cosmeceutical applications but further studies using in vivo models are warranted to confirm this.
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