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Gupta VK, Park U, Siddiqi NJ, Huh YS, Sharma B. Amelioration of Hepatotoxic and Neurotoxic Effect of Cartap by Aloe vera in Wistar Rats. TOXICS 2023; 11:toxics11050472. [PMID: 37235286 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11050472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Pesticide exposure can pose a serious risk to nontarget animals. Cartap is being broadly used in agricultural fields. The toxic effects of cartap on the levels of hepatotoxicity and neurotoxicity have not been properly studied in mammalian systems. Therefore, the present work focused on the effect of cartap on the liver and brain of Wistar rats and made an assessment of the ameliorating potential of A. vera. The experimental animals were divided into 4 groups, comprising six rats in each: Group 1-Control; Group 2-A. vera; Group 3-Cartap; and Group 4-A. vera + Cartap. The animals orally given cartap and A. vera were sacrificed after 24 h of the final treatment and histological and biochemical investigations were conducted in liver and brain of Wistar rats. Cartap at sublethal concentrations caused substantial decreases in CAT, SOD, and GST levels in the experimental rats. The activity levels of transaminases and phosphatases in cartap group were also found to be substantially altered. The AChE activity was recorded as decreasing in RBC membrane and brain of the cartap-treated animals. The TNF-α and IL-6 level in serum were increased expressively in the cartap challenged groups. Histological investigation of liver showed disorganized hepatic cords and severely congested central veins due to cartap. However, the A. vera extract was observed to significantly protect against the effects of cartap toxicity. The protective impact of A. vera against cartap toxicity may be due to the existence of antioxidants in it. These findings suggest that A. vera may be developed as a potential supplement to the appropriate medication in the treatment of cartap toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivek Kumar Gupta
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj 211002, India
- NanoBio High-Tech Materials Research Center, Department of Biological Sciences and Bioengineering, Inha University, Incheon 22212, Republic of Korea
| | - Uichang Park
- NanoBio High-Tech Materials Research Center, Department of Biological Sciences and Bioengineering, Inha University, Incheon 22212, Republic of Korea
| | - Nikhat J Siddiqi
- FCSM-Department of Biochemistry, King Saud University, Riyadh 11495, Saudi Arabia
| | - Yun Suk Huh
- NanoBio High-Tech Materials Research Center, Department of Biological Sciences and Bioengineering, Inha University, Incheon 22212, Republic of Korea
| | - Bechan Sharma
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj 211002, India
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Kempuraj D, Zhang E, Gupta S, Gupta RC, Sinha NR, Mohan RR. Carbofuran pesticide toxicity to the eye. Exp Eye Res 2023; 227:109355. [PMID: 36572166 PMCID: PMC9918712 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2022.109355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Pesticide exposure to eyes is a major source of ocular morbidities in adults and children all over the world. Carbofuran (CF), N-methyl carbamate, pesticide is most widely used as an insecticide, nematicide, and acaricide in agriculture, forestry, and gardening. Contact or ingestion of carbofuran causes high morbidity and mortality in humans and pets. Pesticides are absorbed in the eye faster than other organs of the body and damage ocular tissues very quickly. Carbofuran exposure to eye causes blurred vision, pain, loss of coordination, anti-cholinesterase activities, weakness, sweating, nausea and vomiting, abdominal pain, endocrine, reproductive, and cytotoxic effects in humans depending on amount and duration of exposure. Pesticide exposure to eye injures cornea, conjunctiva, lens, retina, and optic nerve and leads to abnormal ocular movement and vision impairment. Additionally, anticholinesterase pesticides like carbofuran are known to cause salivation, lacrimation, urination, and defecation (SLUD). Carbofuran and its two major metabolites (3-hydroxycarbofuran and 3-ketocarbofuran) are reversible inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) which regulates acetylcholine (ACh), a neurohumoral chemical that plays an important role in corneal wound healing. The corneal epithelium contains high levels of ACh whose accumulation by AChE inhibition after CF exposure overstimulates muscarinic ACh receptors (mAChRs) and nicotinic ACh receptors (nAChRs). Hyper stimulation of mAChRs in the eye causes miosis (excessive constriction of the pupil), dacryorrhea (excessive flow of tears), or chromodacryorrhea (red tears). Recent studies reported alteration of autophagy mechanism in human cornea in vitro and ex vivo post carbofuran exposure. This review describes carbofuran toxicity to the eye with special emphasis on corneal morbidities and blindness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duraisamy Kempuraj
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans' Hospital, Columbia, MO, USA; One-Health One-Medicine Vision Research Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA; Institute for Neuro-Immune Medicine, Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Osteopathic Medicine, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA
| | - Eric Zhang
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans' Hospital, Columbia, MO, USA; Mason Eye Institute, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Suneel Gupta
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans' Hospital, Columbia, MO, USA; One-Health One-Medicine Vision Research Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Ramesh C Gupta
- Toxicology Department, Murray State University, Hopkinsville, KY, USA
| | - Nishant R Sinha
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans' Hospital, Columbia, MO, USA; One-Health One-Medicine Vision Research Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Rajiv R Mohan
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans' Hospital, Columbia, MO, USA; One-Health One-Medicine Vision Research Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA; Mason Eye Institute, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA.
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Gupta VK, Siddiqi NJ, Ojha AK, Sharma B. Hepatoprotective effect of
Aloe vera
against cartap‐ and malathion‐induced toxicity in Wistar rats. J Cell Physiol 2019; 234:18329-18343. [DOI: 10.1002/jcp.28466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Revised: 02/03/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vivek K. Gupta
- Department of Biochemistry Faculty of Science, University of Allahabad Allahabad Uttar Pradesh India
| | - Nikhat J. Siddiqi
- Department of Biochemistry Female Center for Scientific and Medical Colleges, College of Science, King Saud University Riyadh Saudi Arabia
| | - Anil K. Ojha
- Department of Zoology Faculty of Science, University of Allahabad Allahabad Uttar Pradesh India
| | - Bechan Sharma
- Department of Biochemistry Faculty of Science, University of Allahabad Allahabad Uttar Pradesh India
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Carbofuran hampers oligodendrocytes development leading to impaired myelination in the hippocampus of rat brain. Neurotoxicology 2019; 70:161-179. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2018.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2018] [Revised: 11/14/2018] [Accepted: 11/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Saini R, Kumar P, Hira SK, Manna PP. Evaluation of carbofuran-mediated toxicity against human lymphocytes and red blood cells in simulated wastewater degraded by coagulation-flocculation. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 24:15315-15324. [PMID: 28502049 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-017-9098-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2016] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Coagulation-flocculation in water treatment has been relied upon aluminum (Al) and iron (Fe) salts for treatment of contaminants present in source waters containing dissolved organic compounds. However, water quality deteriorates day by day which makes it urgent to improve the standards of the treatment procedure. Coagulation-flocculation-sedimentation performance of ferric chloride and alum was comparatively investigated for carbofuran treatment in simulated wastewater. Coagulation trails were performed in a jar test at several pH levels and coagulant doses to determine reduction efficiencies of carbofuran degradation and chemical oxygen demand (COD). Effect of carbofuran on proliferation, viability, and direct cytotoxicity was performed using human neuroblastoma cells U-87. Direct toxicity of carbofuran on human mononuclear cells and red blood cells (RBC) was also analyzed. Carbofuran and its derivatives were found to be relatively safe at low concentration (2-5 μM). However, at slightly higher concentration (8 μM), a moderate loss in viability and proliferative potential was observed. Taken together, these results suggest that carbofuran appears to be safe at moderate or low concentration with respect to viability of normal human lymphocytes and RBC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roli Saini
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University), Varanasi, 221005, India.
| | - Pradeep Kumar
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University), Varanasi, 221005, India.
| | - Sumit Kumar Hira
- Department of Zoology, Burdwan University, Burdwan, West Bengal, 713104, India
| | - Partha Pratim Manna
- Immunobiology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India
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Goulart TLS, Boyle RT, Souza MM. Cytotoxicity of the association of pesticides Roundup Transorb® and Furadan 350 SC® on the zebrafish cell line, ZF-L. Toxicol In Vitro 2015; 29:1377-84. [PMID: 26065625 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2015.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2014] [Revised: 05/15/2015] [Accepted: 06/06/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The present study aimed to ascertain the cytotoxicity of pesticides commonly used in rice cultivation, through in vitro assays employing the ZF-L cell line. The in vitro analyses investigated three cellular targets (cell membrane integrity, mitochondrial activity and lysosomal stability) in cells exposed to concentrations of Roundup Transorb® (67.7 μg L(-1), 135.4 μg L(-1) and 270.8 μg L(-1)), Furadan 350 SC® (0.1 μg L(-1), 0.05 μg L(-1) and 0.02 μg L(-1)). We also tested these products in combination. We analyzed the defensive capacity of the cells by measuring the activity of xenobiotic extruder proteins, as well as the expression of these same proteins. Cytotoxic effects of both pesticides were observed individually, as well as with the mixture of both products; including an inhibitory effect on the activity of xenobiotic extrusion. When exposed to the insecticide Furadan, and also the mixture of Furadan and Roundup, there was an increase in the expression of P glycoproteins (P-gps). There was also a negative correlation with cytotoxicity, mainly exhibited by mitochondrial activity and lysosomal integrity, but also with respect to the activity of P-gps. We observed that concentrations below those allowed by law were toxic regarding all parameters tested in this study, with the exception of mitochondrial function. Taken together, our results suggest that toxicity may be due to the surfactants present in the commercial formulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- T L S Goulart
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia de Ambientes Aquáticos Continentais, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
| | - R T Boyle
- Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
| | - M M Souza
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia de Ambientes Aquáticos Continentais, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, Rio Grande, RS, Brazil; Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, Rio Grande, RS, Brazil.
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Ghosh MC, Ray AK. Membrane phospholipid augments cytochrome P4501a enzymatic activity by modulating structural conformation during detoxification of xenobiotics. PLoS One 2013; 8:e57919. [PMID: 23469105 PMCID: PMC3585281 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0057919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2012] [Accepted: 01/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 is a superfamily of membrane-bound hemoprotein that gets involved with the degradation of xenobiotics and internal metabolites. Accumulated body of evidence indicates that phospholipids play a crucial role in determining the enzymatic activity of cytochrome P450 in the microenvironment by modulating its structure during detoxification; however, the structure-function relationship of cytochrome P4501A, a family of enzymes responsible for degrading lipophilic aromatic hydrocarbons, is still not well defined. Inducibility of cytochrome P4501A in cultured catfish hepatocytes in response to carbofuran, a widely used pesticide around the world, was studied earlier in our laboratory. In this present investigation, we observed that treating catfish with carbofuran augmented total phospholipid in the liver. We examined the role of phospholipid on the of cytochrome P4501A-marker enzyme which is known as ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) in the context of structure and function. We purified the carbofuran-induced cytochrome P4501A protein from catfish liver. Subsequently, we examined the enzymatic activity of purified P4501A protein in the presence of phospholipid, and studied how the structure of purified protein was influenced in the phospholipid environment. Membrane phospholipid appeared to accelerate the enzymatic activity of EROD by changing its structural conformation and thus controlling the detoxification of xenobiotics. Our study revealed the missing link of how the cytochrome P450 restores its enzymatic activity by changing its structural conformation in the phospholipid microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manik C Ghosh
- Department of Physiology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, United States of America.
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Kaur B, Khera A, Sandhir R. Attenuation of cellular antioxidant defense mechanisms in kidney of rats intoxicated with carbofuran. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 2012; 26:393-8. [PMID: 22807346 DOI: 10.1002/jbt.21433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2012] [Revised: 06/10/2012] [Accepted: 06/15/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Carbofuran, an anticholinestrase carbamate, is commonly used as an insecticide. Its toxic effect on kidney is less established. The present study was designed to investigate the effect of carbofuran on kidneys and to understand the mechanism involved in its nephrotoxicity. Male Wistar rats were divided into two groups of eight animals each; control animals received sunflower oil (vehicle) and carbofuran exposed animals were treated with carbofuran (1 mg/kg body weight) orally for 28 days. At the end of the treatment, significant increase was observed in urea and creatinine levels in serum along with the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase, suggesting nephrotoxicity. The antioxidant defense system of animals treated with carbofuran was altered in terms of increased lipid peroxidation, reduced glutathione, and total thiols and decreased activity of antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase and catalase). The results indicate that carbofuran is nephrotoxic and increased oxidative stress appears to be involved in its nephrotoxic effects.
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Abstract
Wistar rats of 6-8 weeks in age weighing between 120-150 g were exposed to the fixed doses of each of the carbamate pesticides such as cartap (50% LD(50)) and carbofuran (50% LD(50)) as well as a combination of these two with 25% LD(50) of each for one week. The effect of treatments was studied in terms of serum lipid parameters such as high-density lipoprotein, total cholesterol, triglyceride, low-density lipoprotein and very low-density lipoprotein. Treatment with individual doses of carbofuran (50% LD(50)) and cartap (50 % LD(50)) caused significant alterations in the levels of serum lipid parameters. The pesticides treatment resulted in marked decrease in the level of serum high-density lipoprotein where as that of other lipids got significantly elevated. Further, the rats exhibited relatively higher impact of pesticides when treated with the compounds in combination (25 % LD(50) of each). The results indicated that these compounds when used together may exert enhanced effect on the levels of serum lipids in rat.
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Brkić DV, Vitorović SL, Gašić SM, Nešković NK. Carbofuran in water: Subchronic toxicity to rats. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2008; 25:334-341. [PMID: 21783871 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2007.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2007] [Revised: 10/26/2007] [Accepted: 11/04/2007] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Carbofuran toxicity on rats was studied during subchronic exposure. Female and male rats were administered carbofuran in drinking water in concentrations of 25, 100 and 400ppm for a period of 90 days. Clinical symptoms, water consumption, body weight gain, organ weight, pathological and histopathological changes in the liver and kidneys were observed and biochemical and haematological examinations were carried out. The results obtained show that carbofuran administered to rats caused a significant decrease in water consumption as well as in brain, serum and erythrocyte cholinesterase activities. Statistically significant increases in relation to the control were found in the serum enzyme activities. The haematological data showed that carbofuran had no significant effect on Hb concentration and total RBC, but total WBC showed a significant statistical decrease. The histopathological changes in liver and kidneys were observed. However, cell regeneration in the liver and kidneys was found in all test groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dragica V Brkić
- Institute of Pesticides and Environmental Protection, Banatska 31-b, P.O. Box 163, 11080 Belgrade, Serbia
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Al. Sahhaf ZY. Toxicity of Sumithion in Albino Rats: Hematological and Biochemical Studies. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.3923/jas.2006.2959.2962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Abstract
Carbofuran is a nematicide used in agricultural fields throughout the world. Indiscriminate use of this pesticide poses severe detrimental effects on our ecosystem. We have shown that it induces the CYP1A (cytochrome P4501A) monooxygenase enzyme system in cultured hepatocytes from Indian catfish, Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch). We have quantified this induction by measuring the activity of the enzyme 7-ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD), synthesized from CYP1A1 gene. The induction followed a dose-dependent relationship with carbofuran. The dose-dependent curve of EROD using carbofuran was very much similar with beta-napthoflavone, which is a known inducer of CYP1A1. Coexposure of these compounds to the culture media showed a synergistic effect on the enzyme activity. A blocker of aromatic hydrocarbon receptor, alpha-napthoflavone, blocked carbofuran-induced EROD activity in a dose-dependent manner. All these findings suggest that metabolism of carbofuran might be mediated by the CYP1A monooxygenase system through binding of the aromatic hydrocarbon receptor. We have also studied the superinduction phenomenon, which is a typical characteristic of the CYP1A gene in our system.
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Affiliation(s)
- M C Ghosh
- Department of Animal Physiology, Bose Institute, Calcutta, India
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Gupta RC, Goad JT, Milatovic D, Dettbarn WD. Cholinergic and noncholinergic brain biomarkers of insecticide exposure and effects. Hum Exp Toxicol 2000; 19:297-308. [PMID: 10918524 DOI: 10.1191/096032700678815927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this investigation was to determine the distribution of cholinergic and noncholinergic biomarkers in discrete brain regions (cortex, stem, striatum, hippocampus, and cerebellum) of rats treated with dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO, controls), and insecticides such as carbofuran (CARB, 1.5 mg/kg, sc), or methyl parathion (MPTH, 5 mg/kg, ip). Both insecticides produced characteristic signs of anticholinesterase nature within 5-7 min after injection. In controls, analyses of the brain regions revealed a wide variability in the values of cholinergic (acetylcholinesterase, AChE) and noncholinergic (creatine kinase, CK; and lactic dehydrogenase, LDH, and their isoenzymes) biomarkers. The highest activities of AChE and LDH were found in the striatum (1661+/-23 micromol/g/h and 57,720+/-478 IU/l, respectively) and lowest in the cerebellum (118+/-6 micromol/g/h) and 39,480+/-918 IU/l, respectively). However, the activity of CK was found highest in the cerebellum (742,560+/-798 IU/l) and lowest in the hippocampus (353,400+/-11,696 IU/l). Each brain region showed a characteristic profile of CK and LDH isoenzymes. Among the CK isoenzymes, activity of CK-BB was highest (77.5-89.3%), followed by CK-MM (6.7-15.6%), and least CK-MB (0-6.9%). The cerebellum had no CK-MB activity. In all brain regions, CK-MM isoenzyme had only the CK-MM3 subform. Among the LDH isoenzymes, activity of LDH-4 was highest in all brain regions (23-40%), except the cerebellum in which LDH-1 was highest (29%). Compared to the brain, control serum contained very little CK and LDH activity, but serum had three distinct CK and five distinct LDH isoenzymes. Unlike brain regions, serum had three CK-MM subforms. Each insecticide induced characteristic alterations in brain biomarkers. AChE activity was maximally inactivated in cortex (90. 6%) with CARB, and in cerebellum (95.3%) with MPTH. With either insecticide, the least inhibition of AChE occurred in the striatum. Unlike AChE, carboxylesterase (CarbE) did not show brain regional variability in controls, and its activity was uniformly inhibited in all brain regions by CARB and comparatively greater by MPTH. CARB- or MPTH-induced characteristic alterations in CK, LDH, and their isoenzymes in the brain, which were also reflected in serum, as a result of their leakage from the brain by increased permeability due to depletion of ATP (38-57% and 33-47%, respectively) and phosphocreatine (PCr, 23-42% and 56-65%, respectively).
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Affiliation(s)
- R C Gupta
- Murray State University, Breathitt Veterinary Center, Toxicology Department, Hopkinsville, Kentucky, USA
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Abstract
Carbofuran, an anticholinesterase carbamate, is commonly used as an insecticide, nematicide, and acaricide in agricultural practice throughout the world. Due to its widespread use in agriculture, contamination of food, water, and air has become imminent, and consequently adverse health effects are inevitable in humans, animals, wildlife, and fish. Currently, carbofuran's involvement is most frequently encountered in malicious poisoning. The literature on chemical properties, acute toxicity data, poisoning incidences, pharmacokinetics, and mechanism of toxicity of carbofuran is briefly reviewed. Much emphasis is given to the metabolism of carbofuran, and the impact of carbofuran and its two major metabolites (3-hydroxycarbofuran and 3-ketocarbofuran) on overall toxicity. Biochemical (cholinergic and noncholinergic), hematological, and immunological effects induced by carbofuran are discussed in detail. Carbofuran and/or its major metabolites can cross the placental barrier and produce serious effects on the maternal-placental-fetal unit. Carbofuran's toxicity can be potentiated by simultaneous exposure with other cholinesterase inhibitors. Literature on various biomarkers of carbofuran exposure and on induced adverse health effects is also presented. To date, a combination of atropine and memantine remains the most effective antidotal treatment against acute carbofuran toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- R C Gupta
- Toxicology Section, Breathitt Veterinary Center, Murray State University, Hopkinsville, Kentucky 42240
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