Ebb and Flow in Parent-Child Interactions: Shifts from Early through Middle Childhood

Associations Between Paternal Play and Executive Function in Deaf and Hard of Hearing Children

PURPOSE

Responsive and dynamic aspects of father-child play are associated with behavioral and neurocognitive development in children and could represent an important contributor to executive function (EF) skills for children who are deaf and hard of hearing (DHH). This study examined associations between paternal behaviors during play and EF skills of DHH children and children with typical hearing (TH).

METHOD

Father-child dyads in families with DHH children (n = 30) and TH children (n = 29) participated in a 15-min video-recorded free-play session that was coded for parental behaviors using Parent-Child Interaction Rating Scales and Rough and Tumble Play Quality. Families also completed an age-appropriate version of the Behavior Rating Index of Executive Function as a measure of child EF.

RESULTS

DHH children were rated as having significantly more everyday difficulties with working memory than TH children. Fathers of DHH children were rated as more intrusive during play than fathers of TH children; however, there were no other differences between paternal groups on coded dimensions of father child play. Paternal respect for child autonomy was associated with fewer child difficulties with planning and organization skills and paternal play engagement was associated with fewer child EF difficulties. Moderation analyses revealed that paternal sensitivity was associated with more working memory difficulties and paternal respect for child autonomy was associated with fewer working memory difficulties for DHH children only.

CONCLUSIONS

Paternal play could be an important environmental context for DHH outcomes. Fathers supporting independent play might generally support EF. Paternal engagement in play might also benefit EF. Results highlight paternal behavioral attributes that could lead to potential father-embedded intervention models.

Value Profiles During Middle Childhood: Developmental Processes and Social Behavior

Little is known about how children's value priorities develop over time. This study identifies children's value priority profiles and follows their development during middle childhood. Australian children (N = 609; ages 5-12 at Time 1) reported their values over 2 years. Latent Transition Analysis indicated four profiles: Social-Focus, Self-Focus, Growth-Focus and Undifferentiated. Within person development was characterized by profile stability or transfer to the Social-Focus profile. Younger children were more likely to have an Undifferentiated profile (or Self-Focus among boys) than older ones. Girls were more likely to have a Social-Focus profile or transfer to it, and less likely to have a Self- or Growth-Focus profile than boys. Social-Focus profile membership over time predicted more prosocial and less aggressive behavior.

Concurrent associations between mothers' references to internal states and children's social understanding in middle childhood

Although it is well established that features of maternal speech are associated with children's social understanding in the preschool years, few studies explore this relationship in middle childhood. Within the context of a prospective longitudinal study of a representative community sample of families (subsample n = 207, mean age = 82.88 months), we investigated concurrent associations between mothers' internal state language and aspects of 7-year-olds' social understanding, including children's understanding of belief and spontaneous references to internal states during free play. When sociodemographic, maternal, and child characteristics were controlled, mothers' references to their own cognitions were associated with dimensions of children's social understanding. Our findings suggest that exposure to others' perspectives contributes to children's advanced understanding of minds, which has implications for interventions that foster social understanding.

Linking Parenting and Social Competence in School-Aged Boys and Girls: Differential Socialization, Diathesis-Stress, or Differential Susceptibility?

Girls generally demonstrate superior skill levels in social competence compared to boys. The exact relations of parenting with these gender differences are currently unclear. Gender differences may occur due to exposure to different parenting strategies (differential socialization model) or due to a different impact of similar parenting strategies for boys and girls (differential susceptibility and diathesis-stress model).

Objective: In this study we assessed both hypotheses using a multi-method multi-informant approach. We investigated (1) to what extent different parenting strategies mediate the relation between gender and social competence and (2) whether gender and age moderate the relation between parenting strategies and social competence.

Design: Parenting strategies were observed during home visits and social competence was assessed using parent and teacher questionnaires and performance-based neurocognitive tasks (N = 98, aged 4 to 8).

Results: (1) Parenting strategies did not mediate the relation between gender and social competence. (2) Gender moderated the association between parental questioning style and children’s level of social competence: parents asking fewer questions was associated with poorer social cognitive skills in boys only. Parental supportive presence and intrusiveness were related to aspects of social competence irrespective of gender. Age moderated the relation between parenting and aspects of social competence, though in various (unexpected) directions.

Conclusion: Our findings do not support the differential socialization hypothesis and provide partial evidence for a diathesis-stress model as an explanation for parental influence on gender differences in social competence.

Maternal Sensitivity Predicts Fewer Sleep Problems at Early Adolescence for Toddlers with Negative Emotionality: A Case of Differential Susceptibility

Theory underscores the importance of parenting in sleep development, but few studies have examined whether links vary by temperament. To address this gap, we tested whether potential links between early maternal sensitivity and early adolescent sleep problems varied by child negative emotionality and delay of gratification. Using data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (N = 820), we found that high maternal sensitivity predicted fewer bedtime problems and longer sleep duration at 6th grade for toddlers with high negative emotionality, whereas low maternal sensitivity predicted the reverse. No differences were observed for low negative emotionality. Moreover, delay of gratification predicted fewer bedtime problems at 6th grade, but did not moderate associations between maternal sensitivity, negative emotionality, and sleep. Findings demonstrate that high, but not low, negative emotionality renders toddlers differentially susceptible and receptive to maternal sensitivity in relation to sleep.

An Exploration of Jamaican Mothers' Perceptions of Closeness and Intimacy in the Mother-Child Relationship during Middle Childhood

Research on Jamaican mother–child relationships has had a limited focus on authoritarian parenting styles and selected discipline practices such as corporal punishment. This study examined Jamaican mothers’ experiences of closeness and connectedness with their children to provide a holistic perspective on Jamaican-parent–child relationships. Thirty mothers (17 middle class and 13 lower class) living in Kingston and St. Andrew, Jamaica, participated in a 1-h to 1.5-h semi-structured, open-ended interview regarding their 8- to 12-year-old children. Thematic analyses indicated that mothers experienced closeness through intimate interactions (e.g., shared projects, shared physical affection, mutuality, and child self-disclosure) and parent–child nurturance. Both mothers and children were active in creating contexts for closeness. Mothers also reported experiences that temporarily damaged their connection with their children. The findings suggest that the construct of parent–child intimacy may be useful in teasing out the psychological meanings and interpersonal processes of parent–child relatedness in cultural research.

Human infancy and parenting in global perspective: specificity

We address three long-standing fundamental questions about early human development and parental caregiving within a specificity framework using data from 796 infant-mother dyads from 11 societies worldwide. Adopting a cross-society view opens a vista on universal biological origins of, and contextual influences on, infant behaviours and parenting practices. We asked: how do infant behaviours and parenting practices vary across societies? How do infant behaviours relate to other infant behaviours, and how do parent practices relate to other parent practices? Are infant behaviours and parent practices related to one another? Behaviours of firstborn five-month infants and parenting practices of their mothers were microanalysed from videorecords of extensive naturally occurring interactions in the home. In accord with behavioural specificity, biological expectations and cultural influences, we find that infants and mothers from diverse societies exhibit mean-level society differences in their behaviours and practices; domains of infant behaviours generally do not cohere, nor do domains of maternal practices; and only specific infant behaviours and mother practices correspond. Few relations were moderated by society.