Associations between heavy-vehicle driver compensation methods, fatigue-related driving behavior, and sleepiness

Applying a Health Equity Lens to Work-Related Motor Vehicle Safety in the United States

Motor vehicle crashes (MVCs) are the leading cause of fatal work-related injuries in the United States. Research assessing sociodemographic risk disparities for work-related MVCs is limited, yet structural and systemic inequities at work and during commutes likely contribute to disproportionate MVC risk. This paper summarizes the literature on risk disparities for work-related MVCs by sociodemographic and employment characteristics and identifies worker populations that have been largely excluded from previous research. The social-ecological model is used as a framework to identify potential causes of disparities at five levels-individual, interpersonal, organizational, community, and public policy. Expanded data collection and analyses of work-related MVCs are needed to understand and reduce disparities for pedestrian workers, workers from historically marginalized communities, workers with overlapping vulnerabilities, and workers not adequately covered by employer policies and safety regulations. In addition, there is a need for more data on commuting-related MVCs in the United States. Inadequate access to transportation, which disproportionately affects marginalized populations, may make travel to and from work less safe and limit individuals' access to employment. Identifying and remedying inequities in work-related MVCs, whether during the day or while commuting, will require the efforts of industry and multiple public sectors, including public health, transportation, and labor.

The Impact of Financial and Non-Financial Work Incentives on the Safety Behavior of Heavy Truck Drivers

The goal of the research is to determine how compensation affects the safety behavior of truck drivers and consequently the frequency of traffic accidents. For this purpose, a survey was conducted on a sample of 220 truck drivers in international road transport in the EU, where the results of the Structural Equation Model (SEM) show that in the current state of the transport sector, financial and non-financial incentives have a positive impact on the work and safety behavior of drivers. Financial incentives also have an impact on drivers' increased perception of their driving ability, while moving violations continue to have a major impact on the number of accidents. The proposed improvements enable decision-makers at the highest level to adopt legal solutions to help manage the issues that have been affecting the industry from a work, social and safety point of view for the past several years. The results of the research therefore represent an important guideline for improvements to the legislature as well as in the systematization of truck driver compensation within companies.

Truck driver reported unrealistically tight delivery schedules linked to their opinions of maximum speed limits and hours-of-service rules and their compliance with these safety laws and regulations

Objectives

The study objectives were to examine U.S. long-haul truck drivers (LHTDs)' opinions on their safety needs and to assess the associations of driver reported unrealistically tight delivery schedules with: (1) their opinions on their compensation, maximum speed limits, and Hours-of-Service (HOS) regulations, and (2) their behaviors of noncompliance with these safety laws and regulations.

Methods

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health analyzed data from its 2010 national survey of LHTD health and injury. A total of 1,265 drivers completed the survey. Logistic regression was used to examine the associations between driver reported unrealistically tight delivery schedule and their opinion on safety and unsafe driving behaviors.

Results

Drivers who reported often receiving an unrealistically tight delivery schedule (an estimated 15.5% of LHTDs) were significantly more likely than drivers who reported never receiving an unrealistically tight delivery schedule to report that: (1) increasing the current maximum speed limit on interstate highways by 10 miles per hour (mph) would improve safety (odds ratio (OR) = 2.1); (2) strictly enforcing HOS rules would not improve safety (OR = 1.8); (3) they often drove 10 mph or more over the speed limit (OR = 7.5); (4) HOS regulations were often violated (OR = 10.9); (5) they often continued to drive despite fatigue, bad weather, or heavy traffic because their must delivery or pick up a load at a given time (OR = 7.5); and (6) their work was never adequately rewarded (OR = 4.5). When presented with 11 potential safety strategies, the largest percentage of LHTDs (95.4%) selected that building more truck stops/parking areas would improve truck driver safety.

Conclusions

Driver reported unrealistically tight delivery schedules are associated with drivers' beliefs in safety laws/regulations and risk-taking behaviors. LHTDs see building more truck stops/rest areas as the most wanted safety need among the 11 potential safety strategies that were asked about in the survey.

Effects of driver sleepiness and fatigue on violations among truck drivers in India

This study aims at capturing the influence of driver drowsiness on prevalence of traffic violations among long-haul truck drivers. The study is based on a roadside survey of 453 long-haul truck drivers, stopping at eateries and rest locations on highways connected to three Indian cities- Mumbai, Indore and Nagpur. The survey questionnaire was categorized into three sections: driver demographics, work-rest schedules and safety critical driver behavior (violations and lapses) in the last five years. The questions regarding unsafe driving practices like speeding, overtaking were combined to form a single factor 'violations' using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). A generalized linear model using negative binomial regression predicted young drivers (aged below 25 years), long working hours, insufficient sleeping hours, driving after mid-night, sleepiness on the wheel and frequent traffic violations as significant contributors of violations among the long-haul truck drivers.

Working conditions and sleepiness while driving among truck drivers

Objective: The objective of this study is to identify the role of working conditions as predictors of sleepiness while driving among truck drivers. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study carried out among truck drivers who transported grains to Paranaguá Port, Paraná, Brazil. The truck drivers were interviewed and completed a self-administered questionnaire to collect data on sociodemographic and behavioral variables, working conditions, consumption of illicit psychoactive substances, and sleep patterns. Drivers were considered to be sleepy while driving if they reported a medium or high probability of napping while driving at night, during the daytime, or while stopped in traffic. The statistical analysis used logistic regression models progressively adjusted for age, behavioral variables, sleep duration, and other working conditions. Results: In total, 670 male drivers, with a mean age of 41.9 (±11.1) years, were enrolled. The prevalence of sleepiness while driving was 31.5%. After model adjustments, the following working conditions were associated with sleepiness while driving: Distance from the last shipment of more than 1,000 km (odds ratio [OR] = 1.54; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.07-2.23) and a formal labor contract with a productivity-based salary (OR = 2.65; 95% CI, 1.86-3.78). Consumption of illicit psychoactive substances (OR = 1.99; 95% CI, 1.14-3.47) was also associated with sleepiness while driving. Conclusions: Distance traveled and a formal labor contract with productivity-based earnings were the working conditions associated with sleepiness while driving, regardless of other working or behavioral characteristics, age, consumption of illicit psychoactive substances, and sleep duration.

Effects of strategic early-morning caffeine gum administration on association between salivary alpha-amylase and neurobehavioural performance during 50 h of sleep deprivation

Self-assessment is the most common method for monitoring performance and safety in the workplace. However, discrepancies between subjective and objective measures have increased interest in physiological assessment of performance. In a double-blind placebo-controlled study, 23 healthy adults were randomly assigned to either a placebo (n = 11; 5 F, 6 M) or caffeine condition (n = 12; 4 F, 8 M) while undergoing 50 h (i.e. two days) of total sleep deprivation. In previous work, higher salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) levels were associated with improved psychomotor vigilance and simulated driving performance in the placebo condition. In this follow-up article, the effects of strategic caffeine administration on the previously reported diurnal profiles of sAA and performance, and the association between sAA and neurobehavioural performance were investigated. Participants were given a 10 h baseline sleep opportunity (monitored via standard polysomnography techniques) prior to undergoing sleep deprivation (total sleep time: placebo = 8.83 ± 0.48 h; caffeine = 9.01 ± 0.48 h). During sleep deprivation, caffeine gum (200 mg) was administered at 01:00 h, 03:00 h, 05:00 h, and 07:00 h to participants in the caffeine condition (n = 12). This strategic administration of caffeine gum (200 mg) has been shown to be effective at maintaining cognitive performance during extended wakefulness. Saliva samples were collected, and psychomotor vigilance and simulated driving performance assessed at three-hour intervals throughout wakefulness. Caffeine effects on diurnal variability were compared with previously reported findings in the placebo condition (n = 11). The impact of caffeine on the circadian profile of sAA coincided with changes in neurobehavioural performance. Higher sAA levels were associated with improved performance on the psychomotor vigilance test during the first 24 h of wakefulness in the caffeine condition. However, only the association between sAA and response speed (i.e. reciprocal-transform of mean reaction time) was consistent across both days of sleep deprivation. The association between sAA and driving performance was not consistent across both days of sleep deprivation. Results show that the relationship between sAA and reciprocal-transform of mean reaction time on the psychomotor vigilance test persisted in the presence of caffeine, however the association was relatively weaker as compared with the placebo condition.

The Impact of Work Organization, Job Stress, and Sleep on the Health Behaviors and Outcomes of U.S. Long-Haul Truck Drivers

Background. Compared with other occupations, long-haul truck drivers (LHTD) engage in excessively unhealthy behaviors and experience disproportionately poor health outcomes. Health promotion efforts targeting LHTDs focus on improving individual-level behaviors; however, this occupation is replete with adverse work organization characteristics, high job stress, and compromised sleep health, which are hypothesized to cause poor health behaviors and outcomes among LHTDs. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the connections between work characteristics, job stress, and sleep outcomes, and health behaviors and physical and mental health outcomes among LHTDs. Method. This was a cross-sectional study, using interviewer-administered surveys with LHTDs (n = 260). Bivariate correlation analysis was used to explore the associations among work organization, job stress, sleep health, and health behaviors and outcomes. Logistic regression analyses were used to determine whether these work organization, job stress, and sleep factors predicted health behaviors and outcomes. Results. Long work hours of more than 11 hours daily (odds ratio [OR] = 2.34) resulted in increased odds of high caffeine consumption. High job stress (OR = 0.48) and poor sleep quality (OR = 0.42) led to decreased odds for spending at least 1 hour daily for cooking/eating. Low sleep duration, less than 7 hours daily (OR = 2.55), led to increased odds of a physical health diagnosis. Both high job stress (OR = 3.58) and poor sleep quality (OR = 2.22) resulted in increased odds of a mental health diagnosis. Conclusion. Health promotion efforts targeting LHTDs need to be coupled with upstream policy, environmental, and systems-level change, especially at the governmental and trucking industry levels.

The relative importance of real-time in-cab and external feedback in managing fatigue in real-world commercial transport operations

OBJECTIVE

Real-time driver monitoring systems represent a solution to address key behavioral risks as they occur, particularly distraction and fatigue. The efficacy of these systems in real-world settings is largely unknown. This article has three objectives: (1) to document the incidence and duration of fatigue in real-world commercial truck-driving operations, (2) to determine the reduction, if any, in the incidence of fatigue episodes associated with providing feedback, and (3) to tease apart the relative contribution of in-cab warnings from 24/7 monitoring and feedback to employers.

METHODS

Data collected from a commercially available in-vehicle camera-based driver monitoring system installed in a commercial truck fleet operating in Australia were analyzed. The real-time driver monitoring system makes continuous assessments of driver drowsiness based on eyelid position and other factors. Data were collected in a baseline period where no feedback was provided to drivers. Real-time feedback to drivers then occurred via in-cab auditory and haptic warnings, which were further enhanced by direct feedback by company management when fatigue events were detected by external 24/7 monitors. Fatigue incidence rates and their timing of occurrence across the three time periods were compared.

RESULTS

Relative to no feedback being provided to drivers when fatigue events were detected, in-cab warnings resulted in a 66% reduction in fatigue events, with a 95% reduction achieved by the real-time provision of direct feedback in addition to in-cab warnings (p < 0.01). With feedback, fatigue events were shorter in duration a d occurred later in the trip, and fewer drivers had more than one verified fatigue event per trip.

CONCLUSIONS

That the provision of feedback to the company on driver fatigue events in real time provides greater benefit than feedback to the driver alone has implications for companies seeking to mitigate risks associated with fatigue. Having fewer fatigue events is likely a reflection of the device itself and the accompanying safety culture of the company in terms of how the information is used. Data were analysed on a per-truck trip basis, and the findings are indicative of fatigue events in a large-scale commercial transport fleet. Future research ought to account for individual driver performance, which was not possible with the available data in this retrospective analysis. Evidence that real-time driver monitoring feedback is effective in reducing fatigue events is invaluable in the development of fleet safety policies, and of future national policy and vehicle safety regulations. Implications for automotive driver monitoring are discussed.

Do management practices support or constrain safe driving behaviour? A multi-level investigation in a sample of occupational drivers

It has been estimated that one-third of all work-related deaths occur while driving for work-related purposes. Despite this, many organisations are unaware of the practices, beyond those that identify and control the impact of unforeseen events (i.e., risk management), that predispose drivers to risk. This study addresses the issue by identifying the management practices operationalised as, High Performance Workplace Systems (HPWS) that influence safe driver behaviour. The study also explores the value given to safety by senior level management as a moderator of the relationship between HPWS practices and driver behaviour. Each factor was tested within a two level hierarchical model consisting of 911 drivers, nested within 161 supervisors and 83 organisations. The findings highight that under conditions of high investment in job and work design, communication and selection practices, drivers reported poorer driving behaviour. An interaction effect also demonstrated that under conditions of high investment in remuneration, drivers reported safer behaviour, but only when they perceived that managers valued and prioritised safety. The findings challenge current thinking in the management of workplace road safety.

Do not blame the driver: a systems analysis of the causes of road freight crashes

Although many have advocated a systems approach in road transportation, this view has not meaningfully penetrated road safety research, practice or policy. In this study, a systems theory-based approach, Rasmussens's (1997) risk management framework and associated Accimap technique, is applied to the analysis of road freight transportation crashes. Twenty-seven highway crash investigation reports were downloaded from the National Transport Safety Bureau website. Thematic analysis was used to identify the complex system of contributory factors, and relationships, identified within the reports. The Accimap technique was then used to represent the linkages and dependencies within and across system levels in the road freight transportation industry and to identify common factors and interactions across multiple crashes. The results demonstrate how a systems approach can increase knowledge in this safety critical domain, while the findings can be used to guide prevention efforts and the development of system-based investigation processes for the heavy vehicle industry. A research agenda for developing an investigation technique to better support the application of the Accimap technique by practitioners in road freight transportation industry is proposed.