Sex difference in long-distance open-water swimming races - does nationality play a role?

Where are the fastest master butterfly swimmers competing in the FINA World Masters Championships from?

While the butterfly stroke has received considerable attention in sports science, the origin of the fastest master butterfly swimmers remains unknown. The present study investigated which geographical locations produce the top-performing master butterfly swimmers within their age groups and gender. A total of 26,512 master butterfly swimmers (11,288 women and 15,224 men) competed in 50 m, 100 m and 200 m races in World Masters Championships held between 1986 and 2019. From each swimmer, the year of competition, first name, last name, age group and distance were recorded. Descriptive data were presented using mean, standard deviation, maximum and minimum values, and/or confidence intervals. The top 10 race times for master butterfly swimming and gender were identified for descriptive purposes. Nationalities were then grouped into six categories: the top five nationalities with the most appearances in the top 10 fastest times in butterfly swimming by distance each year and one group consisting of all other nationalities. In the event of a tie, the nationality with the most participants overall was selected. Generalized linear models (GLMs) with a gamma probability distribution and log link function were used to assess the effect of age groups and gender on swimming time. In summary, Germany had the fastest women butterfly master swimmers across all distances, while the USA had the fastest men butterfly master swimmers for all distances. Men covered all distances faster than women and younger swimmers were quicker than older swimmers. The results of this study can be utilized to determine the countries that produce the most successful master butterfly swimmers, providing a foundation for further research to explore the factors that lead to their success.

The beginning of success: Performance trends and cut-off values for junior and the U23 triathlon categories

Background

This study sought to determine cut-off values for each triathlon discipline to achieve podium in Junior (short distance; 750 m swim, 20 km cycle and 5 km run) and U23 (standard/Olympic distance; 1.5 km swim, 40 km cycle and 10 km run) triathlon events. Additionally, we aimed to investigate which discipline has the largest relationship with overall Junior and U23 triathlon performance, and the effect of sex and time in performance trends.

Methods

We included all data from Junior and U23 official races (International Triathlon Federation; ITU) of Junior (n = 3,314 finishes) and U23 (n = 5,092 finishes) categories held from 1999 to 2018.

Results

Men were significantly faster than women in both Junior (11.13%) and U23 (12.28%) categories. Swimming and cycling times were faster in 2009-2018 than in the 1999-2008 decade for men (3.36%; 6.49%), women junior (6.50%; 7.09%), men (0.15%; 3.46%) and women U23 (1.61%; 3.31%) respectively. Cycling was the discipline with the greatest influence on overall triathlon performance in Junior and U23 categories, regardless of sex or rank position. The cut-off values for the Junior category were (men/women): swimming, 9.2/9.4 min; cycling, 31.9/38.2 min; running, 16.8/18.9 min. U23's cut-off values were (men/women): swim, 18.0/19.4 min, cycling: 63.4/70.1 min; run, 33.9/38.7 min.

Conclusion

Cycling was the discipline with the greatest influence on overall performance for both men and women in Junior and U23 categories. Moreover, swimming and cycling performances increased over the years for both sexes.

Origin of the Fastest 5 km, 10 km and 25 km Open-Water Swimmers-An Analysis from 20 Years and 9819 Swimmers

In elite pool swimmers competing at world class level, mainly athletes from the United States of America and Australia are dominating. Little is known, however, for the nationality of dominating swimmers in elite open-water long-distance swimming races such as the official FINA races over 5 km, 10 km and 25 km-held since 2000. The aim of this study was to investigate the participation and performance trends by nationality of these elite open-water swimmers. Race results from all female and male swimmers competing in 5 km, 10 km and 25 km FINA races between 2000 and 2020 were analyzed. A total of 9819 swimmers competed between 2000 and 2020 in these races. The five countries that figure most times among the top ten in 5 km, 10 km and 25 km races over the years were Italy, Germany, Russia, Brazil and the Netherlands. In 10 km races, considering the all the athletes from each country, male athletes from Germany, Italy, and France presented faster race times than the other countries. In 10 km, female athletes presented no significant difference among the countries. In 5 and 25 km races, there were no differences between countries, for male and female athletes. Moreover, comparing only the 10 best results (top 10) from each country, there were no differences between countries in 5 km, 10 km and 25 km, for male and female athletes. Men were faster than women for all three distances. In summary, male swimmers from Europe (i.e., Germany, Italy, France) are dominating the 10 km FINA races. In the 5 km and 25 km FINA races, there is no dominating nationality, but among the top five countries in the top 10 over the years, three are European countries.

Risk Factors and Predictors of Hypothermia and Dropouts During Open-Water Swimming Competitions

PURPOSE

To measure core temperature (Tcore) in open-water (OW) swimmers during a 25-km competition and identify the predictors of Tcore drop and hypothermia-related dropouts.

METHODS

Twenty-four national- and international-level OW swimmers participated in the study. Participants completed a personal questionnaire and a body fat/muscle mass assessment before the race. The average speed was calculated on each lap over a 2500-m course. Tcore was continuously recorded via an ingestible temperature sensor (e-Celsius, BodyCap). Hypothermia-related dropouts (H group) were compared with finishers (nH group).

RESULTS

Average prerace Tcore was 37.5°C (0.3°C) (N = 21). 7 participants dropped out due to hypothermia (H, n = 7) with a mean Tcore at dropout of 35.3°C (1.5°C). Multiple logistic regression analysis found that body fat percentage and initial Tcore were associated with hypothermia (G2 = 17.26, P < .001). Early Tcore drop ≤37.1°C at 2500 m was associated with a greater rate of hypothermia-related dropouts (71.4% vs 14.3%, P = .017). Multiple linear regression found that body fat percentage and previous participation were associated with Tcore drop (F = 4.95, P = .019). There was a positive correlation between the decrease in speed and Tcore drop (r = .462, P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

During an OW 25-km competition at 20°C to 21°C, lower initial Tcore and lower body fat, as well as premature Tcore drop, were associated with an increased risk of hypothermia-related dropout. Lower body fat and no previous participation, as well as decrease in swimming speed, were associated with Tcore drop.

Cut-Off Values in the Prediction of Success in Olympic Distance Triathlon

Cut-off points and performance-related tools are needed for the development of the Olympic distance triathlon. The purposes of the present study were (i) to determine cut-off values to reach the top three positions in an Olympic distance triathlon; (ii) to identify which discipline present the highest influence on overall race performance and if it has changed over the decades. Data from 1989 to 2019 (n = 52,027) from all who have competed in an official Olympic distance triathlon events (World Triathlon Series and Olympics) were included. The cut-off value to achieve a top three position was calculated. Linear regressions were applied for performance trends overall and for the top three positions of each race. Men had cut-off values of: swimming = 19.5 min; cycling = 60.7 min; running = 34.1 min. Women's cut-off values were: swimming = 20.7 min; cycling = 71.6 min; running = 38.1 min. The running split seemed to be the most influential in overall race time regardless of rank position or sex. In conclusion, cut-offs were established, which can increase the chances of achieving a successful rank position in an Olympic triathlon. Cycling is the discipline with the least influence on overall performance for both men and women in the Olympic distance triathlon. This influence pattern has not changed in the last three decades.

Sex Differences in Swimming Disciplines-Can Women Outperform Men in Swimming?

In recent years, the interest of female dominance in long-distance swimming has grown where several newspaper articles have been published speculating about female performance and dominance—especially in open-water ultra-distance swimming. The aim of this narrative review is to review the scientific literature regarding the difference between the sexes for all swimming strokes (i.e., butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, freestyle and individual medley), different distances (i.e., from sprint to ultra-distances), extreme conditions (i.e., cold water), different ages and swimming integrated in multi-sports disciplines, such as triathlon, in various age groups and over calendar years. The influence of various physiological, psychological, anthropometrical and biomechanical aspects to potentially explain the female dominance was also discussed. The data bases Scopus and PUBMED were searched by April 2020 for the terms ’sex–difference–swimming’. Long-distance open-water swimmers and pool swimmers of different ages and performance levels were mainly investigated. In open-water long-distance swimming events of the ’Triple Crown of Open Water Swimming’ with the ’Catalina Channel Swim’, the ’English Channel Swim’ and the ’Manhattan Island Marathon Swim’, women were about 0.06 km/h faster than men. In master swimmers (i.e., age groups 25–29 to 90–94 years) competing in the FINA (Fédération Internationale de Natation) World Championships in pool swimming in freestyle, backstroke, butterfly, breaststroke, individual medley and in 3000-m open-water swimming, women master swimmers appeared able to achieve similar performances as men in the oldest age groups (i.e., older than 75–80 years). In boys and girls aged 5–18 years—and listed in the all-time top 100 U.S. freestyle swimming performances from 50 m to 1500 m—the five fastest girls were faster than the five fastest boys until the age of ~10 years. After the age of 10 years, and until the age of 17 years, however, boys were increasingly faster than girls. Therefore, women tended to decrease the existing sex differences in specific age groups (i.e., younger than 10 years and older than 75–80 years) and swimming strokes in pool-swimming or even to overperform men in long-distance open-water swimming (distance of ~30 km), especially under extreme weather conditions (water colder than ~20 °C). Two main variables may explain why women can swim faster than men in open-water swimming events: (i) the long distance of around 30 km, (ii) and water colder than ~20 °C. Future studies may investigate more detailed (e.g., anthropometry) the very young (<10 years) and very old (>75–80 years) age groups in swimming

The Role of Nationality in Ultra-Endurance Sports: The Paradigm of Cross-Country Skiing and Long-Distance Running

Although the variation of performance by nationality in endurance sports such as marathon has been well studied, little information exists so far on the role of nationality on performance in ultra-endurance sports. The aim of the present study was to review the role of nationality on cross-country skiing and ultra-endurance running. Scopus and PubMed were searched using the syntax "nationality AND (ultra-endurance OR ultra-marathon OR cross-country skiing) in 1/4/2020. This search identified 17 articles, whose references were further examined for relevant literature. It was observed that Russian athletes dominated ultra-endurance running and cross-country skiing races. It was shown that these races were in other countries, where it was assumed that only the best Russians competed. Potential explanations could be misuse of performance enhancing substances, historical, climate-geographical and psychophysiological (e.g., combination of genetic and social factors). In summary, recent studies found a dominance of Russian athletes in specific races (i.e., 'Comrades Marathon', 'Vasaloppet', and 'Engadin Ski Marathon') and disciplines (i.e., ultra-marathon running, cross-country skiing) over a period of several decades. Future studies are need to investigate other events and other sport disciplines to confirm this Russian dominance.

Ultra-triathlon-Pacing, performance trends, the role of nationality, and sex differences in finishers and non-finishers

Ultra-triathlons are defined as triathlons longer than the traditional Ironman distance and became more popular in the last two decades; however, scarce scientific evidence of these events are available. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the trends of performance, pacing, nationality, sex differences, and rate of non-finishers in ultra-triathlons. Data from 1985 to 2018 were collected including Double Iron, Triple Iron, Quintuple Iron, and Deca Iron ultra-triathlons. Different pacing patterns by event and sex were observed (P < .05); athletes spent less %time in swimming and cycling, and more %time in running as the distance of event was longer; women spent more %time in cycling and less% time in running in Double and Triple. Performance analysis showed a negative trend over time for men and women since 1985. Switzerland, France, and Germany were the fastest nations in ultra-triathlons. The frequency of North Americans competing in Europe was very low (<5%), whereas Europeans often competed in North America (~25%). The rate of non-finishers between sexes was similar in all races with the exception of Deca Iron ultra-triathlon, which was much greater (~20%) for women. Non-finishers had slower race times in swimming and cycling splits than finishers. In conclusion, ultra-triathletes should redistribute their energy among swimming, cycling, and running depending on their sex and distance of race. Performance in ultra-triathlons has been decreasing in men and women over the years, but sex difference in performance remained. Europeans were the fastest ultra-triathletes and compete in Europe and North America. Additionally, non-finishers were slower swimmers and cyclists than finishers.

Changes in Jumping and Throwing Performances in Age-Group Athletes Competing in the European Masters Athletics Championships between 1978 and 2017

The results of master athletes have been used previously to examine the age-related differences in aerobic capacity, however, less research has been conducted on the variation of jumping and throwing performances with aging. Therefore, the aim of the present study of elite master athletes was to investigate (a) the age-related differences in throwing (i.e., discus, hammer, javelin, and shot put) and jumping events (i.e., high jump, long jump, pole vault, and triple jump) in 5-year age-group intervals from 35-39 to 95-99 years of elite master athletes, and (b) the trends in performance and sex differences. The top eight female and male finalists for each age group and in each event from 20 European Masters Athletics Championships held between 1978 and 2017 were considered. Overall, 13,673 observations from 4726 master athletes were analyzed. For each event separately, a mixed regression model was performed with sex, age group, calendar year, and interaction terms (sex-age group, sex-year) defined as fixed effects. Performances were improving over time with a linear trend overall for each event. Men had better performances as compared to women, (i.e., in triple jump the estimated difference was 2.58 m, p < 0.001). Performances declined with age for each event (i.e., in triple jump, compared with the age group 45-49 years, performance in the age group 35-39 years was 0.98 m better and performance in the age group 85-89 years was 6.24 m worse). The decline of male performances with age was either slower or faster than the decline of female performances depending on age groups and events.

Celebrating 40 Years of Ironman: How the Champions Perform

We aimed to determine which discipline had the greater performance improvements in the history of Ironman triathlon in Hawaii and also which discipline had the greater influence in overall race time. Data from 1983 to 2018 of the top three women and men of each year who competed in the Ironman World Championship were included. In addition to exploratory data analyses, linear regressions between split times and years of achievement were performed. Further, a stepwise multiple linear regression was applied using total race time as the dependent variable and split times as the independent variables. Both women and men significantly improved their performances from 1983 to 2018 in the Ironman World Championship. Swimming had the largest difference in improvements between men and women (3.0% versus 12.1%, respectively). A negative and significant decrease in each discipline was identified for both women and men, with cycling being the discipline with the greatest reduction. The results from the stepwise multiple regression indicated that cycling was the discipline with the highest influence on overall race time for both sexes. Based on the findings of this study, cycling seems to be the Ironman triathlon discipline that most improved overall race times and is also the discipline with the greatest influence on the overall race time of elite men and women in the Ironman World Championship.

The effect of sex, age and performance level on pacing of Ironman triathletes

The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of sex, age and performance level on pacing of Ironman triathletes. Split times (i.e. swimming, cycling, and running) and overall race times of 343,345 athletes competing between 2002 and 2015 in 253 different Ironman triathlon races were analyzed. Participants were classified into nine performance groups according to their overall race time. Times in swimming, cycling, running and transition were expressed as percentage of the overall race time. Women spent relatively less time (%) in swimming, running and transition time, and more time (%) in cycling than men (p < 0.001). The fastest performance group was relatively faster in running (34.8 ± 1.4 versus 40.3 ± 3.0%, η²= 0.098) and transition time (0.9 ± 0.3 versus 2.2 ± 0.6%, η²= 0.178), and relatively slower in swimming (10.2 ± 0.8 versus 9.8 ± 1.5%, η²= 0.018) and cycling (54.1 ± 1.4 versus 47.8 ± 2.8%, η²= 0.138) than the slowest performance group (p < 0.001). The younger age groups were relatively faster in swimming, running and transition time, but relatively slower in cycling. In summary, the fastest Ironman triathletes were the relatively fastest in running and transition times. Thus, race tactics in an Ironman triathlon should focus on saving energy during swimming and cycling for the running split.

Jumping and throwing performance in the World Masters' Athletic Championships 1975-2016

Participation and performance of elite age group athletes from 35-39 to 95-99 years competing in World Masters Athletics (WMA) Championships 1975-2016 were examined for throwing (discus, hammer, javelin and shot put) and jumping (high jump, long jump, pole vault and triple jump) events. Overall, 21,723 observations from 8,974 master athletes were analysed. A mixed regression model with sex, age group, calendar year and interactions terms (sex-age group; sex-year) defined as fixed effects was performed for each event separately. Performances over time were increasing overall for each event, with a cubic trend. Compared with women, men had better performances (e.g. in triple jump the estimated difference was 3.378 meters, p < 0.001). However, women improved their performance more than men across calendar years. Performances declined with age for each event (e.g. in triple jump, compared with age group 45-49 years, performance in age group 35-39 years was 1.041 meter better and in age group 85-89 years was 5.342 meter worse). In summary, performance in jumping and throwing events of WMA Championships improved across calendar years, whereas the decline of performance with age was dependent on sex and event.

Differences in pacing of cross-country skiers by nationality - The example of Vasaloppet 2004-2017

It has been previously observed that athletes of certain origin nationality dominate particular sports; however, this phenomenon has been less studied in cross-country (XC) skiing, especially with regards to performance-related aspects, such as pacing. The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of nationality on pacing strategies of XC skiers who finished the "Vasaloppet" from 2004 to 2017. We studied 183,919 finishers (19,465 women and 164,454 men), classified into 15 nationalities, i.e. nationalities with number of finishers larger than 0.25% of the total number of finishers. In women, athletes from Russia (7:47:46 h:min:s) were the fastest and athletes from Denmark (10:01:03 h:min:s) the slowest (p < 0.001, η² = 0.057). In men, athletes from Russia (6:33:03 h:min:s) were the fastest and athletes from Denmark (9:03:27 h:min:s) the slowest (p < 0.001, η² = 0.069). In women and men, a small nationality× split interaction on speed was observed (p < 0.001, η² = 0.016-0.019) with Russians presenting a more even pacing compared to their slower counterparts. It was concluded that fast nationalities present a more even pacing, which should be attributed to the general trend of fast athletes for a more even pacing.

Sex difference in open-water swimming-The Triple Crown of Open Water Swimming 1875-2017

The aim of the present study was to compare swimming performances of successful finishers of the 'Triple Crown of Open Water Swimming' from 1875 to 2017, assessing the effects of sex, the place of event and the nationality of swimmers. Data from 535 finishers in ‘Catalina Channel Swim’, 1,606 finishers in ‘English Channel Swim’ and 774 finishers in ‘Manhattan Island Marathon Swim’ were analysed. We performed different analyses and regression model fittings for all swimmers and annual top-5 finishers. Effects (sex, event, time, nationality) and interaction terms (event—time) were examined through a multi-variable spline mixed regression model. Considering all swimmers, we found that (i) women were approximately 0.06 km/h faster than men (p = 0.011) and (ii) Australians were 0.13 km/h faster than Americans (p = 0.004) and Americans were 0.19 km/h faster than British (p<0.001) and 0.21 km/h faster than Canadians (p = 0.015). When considering annual top-5 finishers, we found that (i) women were 0.07 km/h slower than men (p = 0.042) and (ii) Australians were not faster than Americans (p = 0.149) but Americans were 0.21 km/h faster than British (p<0.001). Our findings improved the knowledge about swim performances over time, in the three events, considering the effects of sex and the nationality of swimmers.