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Chea JD, Ruiz-Mercado GJ, Smith RL, Meyer DE, Gonzalez MA, Barrett WM. Material Flow Analysis and Occupational Exposure Assessment in Additive Manufacturing End-of-Life Material Management. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:9000-9012. [PMID: 38710661 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.4c01562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2024]
Abstract
Additive manufacturing (AM) offers a variety of material manufacturing techniques for a wide range of applications across many industries. Most efforts at process optimization and exposure assessment for AM are centered around the manufacturing process. However, identifying the material allocation and potentially harmful exposures in end-of-life (EoL) management is equally crucial to mitigating environmental releases and occupational health impacts within the AM supply chain. This research tracks the allocation and potential releases of AM EoL materials within the US through a material flow analysis. Of the generated AM EoL materials, 58% are incinerated, 33% are landfilled, and 9% are recycled by weight. The generated data set was then used to examine the theoretical occupational hazards during AM EoL material management practices through generic exposure scenario assessment, highlighting the importance of ventilation and personal protective equipment at all stages of AM material management. This research identifies pollution sources, offering policymakers and stakeholders insights to shape pollution prevention and worker safety strategies within the US AM EoL management pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- John D Chea
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Hosted by Office of Research & Development, US Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268, United States
| | - Gerardo J Ruiz-Mercado
- Office of Research & Development, US Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268, United States
- Chemical Engineering Graduate Program, Universidad del Atlántico, Puerto Colombia 080007, Colombia
| | - Raymond L Smith
- Office of Research & Development, US Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268, United States
| | - David E Meyer
- Office of Research & Development, US Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268, United States
| | - Michael A Gonzalez
- Office of Research & Development, US Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268, United States
| | - William M Barrett
- Office of Research & Development, US Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268, United States
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2
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Chuang YS, Berekute AK, Hsu HY, Wei HS, Gong WC, Hsu YY, Tsai CJ, Yu KP. Assessment of emissions and exposure in 3D printing workplaces in Taiwan. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2024; 21:270-286. [PMID: 38451632 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2024.2313655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) printing is an emerging and booming industry in Taiwan. Compared to traditional manufacturing, 3D printing has various advantages, such as advanced customization, additive manufacturing, reduced mold opening time, and reduced consumption of precursors. In this study, the real-time monitoring of particulate matter (PM) and total volatile organic compound (TVOC) emissions from various filaments is investigated using fused deposition modeling with material extrusion technology, a liquid-crystal display, a stereolithography apparatus based on vat photopolymerization technology, and binder jetting for occupational settings. An exposure assessment for nearby workers using the 3D printing process was performed, and improvement measures were recommended. Nine 3D printing fields were measured. The generation rate of ultrafine particles ranged from 1.19 × 1010 to 4.90 × 1012 #/min, and the geometric mean particle size ranged from 30.91 to 55.50 nm. The average concentration of ultrafine particles ranged from 2.31 × 103 to 7.36 × 104 #/cm3, and the PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations in each field ranged from 0.74 ± 0.27 to 12.46 ± 5.61 μg/m3 and from 2.39 ± 0.60 to 30.65 ± 21.26 μg/m3, respectively. The TVOC concentration ranged from 0.127 ± 0.012 to 1.567 ± 0.172 ppm. The respiratory deposition (RDUFPs) dose ranged from 2.02 × 1013 to 5.54 × 1014 nm2/day. Depending on the operating conditions, appropriate control and protective measures should be employed to protect workers' health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yung-Sheng Chuang
- Institute of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Abiyu Kerebo Berekute
- Institute of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Chemistry, College of Natural and Computational Sciences, Arba Minch University, Arbaminch, Ethiopia
| | - Hsuan-Yu Hsu
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu City, Taiwan
| | - Ho-Sheng Wei
- Institute of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Cheng Gong
- Department of Chemistry, College of Natural and Computational Sciences, Arba Minch University, Arbaminch, Ethiopia
| | - Ya-Yuan Hsu
- Institute of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health, Ministry of Labor, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Chuen-Jinn Tsai
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu City, Taiwan
| | - Kuo-Pin Yu
- Institute of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan
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3
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Minář J, Pilnaj D, Uřičář J, Veselý P, Dušek K. Application of solid-phase microextraction arrows for characterizing volatile organic compounds from 3D printing of acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylate filament. J Chromatogr A 2023; 1705:464180. [PMID: 37393779 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2023.464180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Revised: 05/28/2023] [Accepted: 06/25/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
3D printing is an extensively used manufacturing technique that can pose specific health concerns due to the emission of volatile organic compounds (VOC). Herein, a detailed characterization of 3D printing-related VOC using solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (SPME-GC/MS) is described for the first time. The VOC were extracted in dynamic mode during the printing from the acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylate filament in an environmental chamber. The effect of extraction time on the extraction efficiency of 16 main VOC was studied for four different commercial SPME arrows. The volatile and semivolatile compounds were the most effectively extracted by carbon wide range-containing and polydimethyl siloxane arrows, respectively. The differences in extraction efficiency between arrows were further correlated to the molecular volume, octanol-water partition coefficient, and vapour pressure of observed VOC. The repeatability of SPME arrows towards the main VOC was assessed from static mode measurements of filament in headspace vials. In addition, we performed a group analysis of 57 VOC classified into 15 categories according to their chemical structure. Divinylbenzene-polydimethyl siloxane arrow turned out to be a good compromise between the total extracted amount and its distribution among tested VOC. Thus, this arrow was used to demonstrate the usefulness of SPME for the qualification of VOC emitted during printing in a real-life environment. A presented methodology can serve as a fast and reliable method for the qualification and semi-quantification of 3D printing-related VOC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaroslav Minář
- Department of Electrotechnology, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague 160 00, Czech Republic.
| | - Dominik Pilnaj
- Department of Electrotechnology, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague 160 00, Czech Republic; Department of Environmental Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Environment, Jan Evangelista Purkyně University, Ústí nad Labem 400 96, Czech Republic
| | - Jonáš Uřičář
- Department of Electrotechnology, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague 160 00, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Veselý
- Department of Electrotechnology, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague 160 00, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Dušek
- Department of Electrotechnology, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague 160 00, Czech Republic
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4
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van Ree M, du Preez S, du Plessis JL. Emissions and Exposures Associated with the Use of an Inconel Powder during Directed Energy Deposition Additive Manufacturing. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:6206. [PMID: 37444054 PMCID: PMC10341570 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20136206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023]
Abstract
Additive manufacturing (AM) has been linked to potential exposure-related health risks, however, there is a paucity of sufficient research. This study aimed to supply information regarding emissions and exposure during directed energy deposition (DED) AM using inconel 718, with the main constituents being nickel, chromium, and cobalt. By using standardized occupational hygiene methods, the measurement strategy consisted of a combined approach, including powder characterization, particle emission monitoring, and personal exposure monitoring of AM operators. Powder characterization of virgin and used powder indicated no significant difference in particle size, shape, or elemental composition. Particle number emissions ranged between 102 and 105 p/cm3 for submicron particles (<1 µm in size). There was no significant difference in the particle emission rate between the three phases of AM or the two types of DED machines (p > 0.05). The particle emission rate for submicron particles peaked at 2.8 × 109 p/min. Metals of concern to human health were detected during the AM process but were considerably lower than the relevant exposure limits. This study confirms particle emissions, predominantly in the submicron range, above the background concentration during DED AM and, although insignificant in terms of potential health effects, AM operators are exposed to detectable concentrations of the metal constituents of inconel.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sonette du Preez
- Occupational Hygiene and Health Research Initiative (OHHRI), North-West University, Potchefstroom 2531, South Africa
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5
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Zhang Q, Weber RJ, Luxton TP, Peloquin DM, Baumann EJ, Black MS. Metal compositions of particle emissions from material extrusion 3D printing: Emission sources and indoor exposure modeling. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 860:160512. [PMID: 36442638 PMCID: PMC10259682 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Material extrusion 3D printing has been widely used in industrial, educational and residential environments, while its exposure health impacts have not been well understood. High levels of ultrafine particles are found being emitted from 3D printing and could pose a hazard when inhaled. However, metals that potentially transfer from filament additives to emitted particles could also add to the exposure hazard, which have not been well characterized for their emissions. This study analyzed metal (and metalloid) compositions of raw filaments and in the emitted particles during printing; studied filaments included pure polymer filaments with metal additives and composite filaments with and without metal powder. Our chamber study found that crustal metals tended to have higher partitioning factors from filaments to emitted particles; silicon was the most abundant element in emitted particles and had the highest yield per filament mass. However, bronze and stainless-steel powder added in composite filaments were less likely to transfer from filament to particle. For some cases, boron, arsenic, manganese, and lead were only detected in particles, which indicated external sources, such as the printers themselves. Heavy metals with health concerns were also detected in emitted particles, while their estimated exposure concentrations in indoor air were below air quality standards and occupational regulations. However, total particle exposure concentrations estimated for indoor environments could exceed ambient air fine particulate standards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Zhang
- Chemical Insights Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories Inc., Marietta, GA 30067, USA.
| | - Rodney J Weber
- School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Todd P Luxton
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH 45224, USA
| | - Derek M Peloquin
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH 45224, USA; Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
| | - Eric J Baumann
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH 45224, USA
| | - Marilyn S Black
- Chemical Insights Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories Inc., Marietta, GA 30067, USA
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Bowers LN, Stefaniak AB, Knepp AK, LeBouf RF, Martin SB, Ranpara AC, Burns DA, Virji MA. Potential for Exposure to Particles and Gases throughout Vat Photopolymerization Additive Manufacturing Processes. BUILDINGS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 12:10.3390/buildings12081222. [PMID: 37961074 PMCID: PMC10641710 DOI: 10.3390/buildings12081222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Vat photopolymerization (VP), a type of additive manufacturing process that cures resin to build objects, can emit potentially hazardous particles and gases. We evaluated two VP technologies, stereolithography (SLA) and digital light processing (DLP), in three separate environmental chambers to understand task-based impacts on indoor air quality. Airborne particles, total volatile organic compounds (TVOCs), and/or specific volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were monitored during each task to evaluate their exposure potential. Regardless of duration, all tasks released particles and organic gases, though concentrations varied between SLA and DLP processes and among tasks. Maximum particle concentrations reached 1200 #/cm3 and some aerosols contained potentially hazardous elements such as barium, chromium, and manganese. TVOC concentrations were highest for the isopropyl alcohol (IPA) rinsing, soaking, and drying post-processing tasks (up to 36.8 mg/m3), lowest for the resin pouring pre-printing, printing, and resin recovery post-printing tasks (up to 0.1 mg/m3), and intermediate for the curing post-processing task (up to 3 mg/m3). Individual VOCs included, among others, the potential occupational carcinogen acetaldehyde and the immune sensitizer 2-hydroxypropyl methacrylate (pouring, printing, recovery, and curing tasks). Careful consideration of all tasks is important for the development of strategies to minimize indoor air pollution and exposure potential from VP processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren N. Bowers
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV 26505, USA
| | | | - Alycia K. Knepp
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV 26505, USA
| | - Ryan F. LeBouf
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV 26505, USA
| | - Stephen B. Martin
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV 26505, USA
| | - Anand C. Ranpara
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV 26505, USA
| | - Dru A. Burns
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV 26505, USA
| | - M. Abbas Virji
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV 26505, USA
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7
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Dobrzyńska E, Kondej D, Kowalska J, Szewczyńska M. Exposure to chemical substances and particles emitted during additive manufacturing. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:40273-40278. [PMID: 35484457 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-20347-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Additive manufacturing is an innovative technology that allows the production of three-dimensional objects replicating digital models. The aim of this study was to identify whether the use of this technology in a room without mechanical ventilation system may pose a health risk to its users due to the emission of chemical compounds and fine particles. Measurements were conducted in a furnished space with natural ventilation only, during additive manufacturing on a fused deposition modeling printer with 9 different filaments. Both chemicals and particles were sampled. Volatile organic compounds and phthalic acid esters were determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry detection. Carbonyl compounds were determined using the high-performance liquid chromatography with diode-array detection method. Fine particle emission studies were carried out using a DiSCmini particle counter (Testo). In the air samples, numerous chemical substances were identified including both the monomers of the individual materials used for printing such as styrene and other degradation products (formaldehyde, toluene, xylenes). Moreover, 3D printing process released particles with modal diameters ranging from 22.1 to 106.7 nm and increased the number concentration of particles in the workplace air. The results of analyses, depending on the type of material applied, showed the presence of particles and chemical substances in the working environment that may pose a risk to human health. Most of the identified substances can be harmful when inhaled and irritating to eyes and skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elżbieta Dobrzyńska
- Central Institute for Labour Protection - National Research Institute, Czerniakowska 16, 00-701, Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Dorota Kondej
- Central Institute for Labour Protection - National Research Institute, Czerniakowska 16, 00-701, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Joanna Kowalska
- Central Institute for Labour Protection - National Research Institute, Czerniakowska 16, 00-701, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Małgorzata Szewczyńska
- Central Institute for Labour Protection - National Research Institute, Czerniakowska 16, 00-701, Warsaw, Poland
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Alijagic A, Engwall M, Särndahl E, Karlsson H, Hedbrant A, Andersson L, Karlsson P, Dalemo M, Scherbak N, Färnlund K, Larsson M, Persson A. Particle Safety Assessment in Additive Manufacturing: From Exposure Risks to Advanced Toxicology Testing. FRONTIERS IN TOXICOLOGY 2022; 4:836447. [PMID: 35548681 PMCID: PMC9081788 DOI: 10.3389/ftox.2022.836447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Additive manufacturing (AM) or industrial three-dimensional (3D) printing drives a new spectrum of design and production possibilities; pushing the boundaries both in the application by production of sophisticated products as well as the development of next-generation materials. AM technologies apply a diversity of feedstocks, including plastic, metallic, and ceramic particle powders with distinct size, shape, and surface chemistry. In addition, powders are often reused, which may change the particles’ physicochemical properties and by that alter their toxic potential. The AM production technology commonly relies on a laser or electron beam to selectively melt or sinter particle powders. Large energy input on feedstock powders generates several byproducts, including varying amounts of virgin microparticles, nanoparticles, spatter, and volatile chemicals that are emitted in the working environment; throughout the production and processing phases. The micro and nanoscale size may enable particles to interact with and to cross biological barriers, which could, in turn, give rise to unexpected adverse outcomes, including inflammation, oxidative stress, activation of signaling pathways, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity. Another important aspect of AM-associated risks is emission/leakage of mono- and oligomers due to polymer breakdown and high temperature transformation of chemicals from polymeric particles, both during production, use, and in vivo, including in target cells. These chemicals are potential inducers of direct toxicity, genotoxicity, and endocrine disruption. Nevertheless, understanding whether AM particle powders and their byproducts may exert adverse effects in humans is largely lacking and urges comprehensive safety assessment across the entire AM lifecycle—spanning from virgin and reused to airborne particles. Therefore, this review will detail: 1) brief overview of the AM feedstock powders, impact of reuse on particle physicochemical properties, main exposure pathways and protective measures in AM industry, 2) role of particle biological identity and key toxicological endpoints in the particle safety assessment, and 3) next-generation toxicology approaches in nanosafety for safety assessment in AM. Altogether, the proposed testing approach will enable a deeper understanding of existing and emerging particle and chemical safety challenges and provide a strategy for the development of cutting-edge methodologies for hazard identification and risk assessment in the AM industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andi Alijagic
- Man-Technology-Environment Research Center (MTM), Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
- Inflammatory Response and Infection Susceptibility Centre (iRiSC), Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
- *Correspondence: Andi Alijagic,
| | - Magnus Engwall
- Man-Technology-Environment Research Center (MTM), Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
| | - Eva Särndahl
- Inflammatory Response and Infection Susceptibility Centre (iRiSC), Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
| | - Helen Karlsson
- Department of Health, Medicine and Caring Sciences, Occupational and Environmental Medicine Center in Linköping, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Alexander Hedbrant
- Inflammatory Response and Infection Susceptibility Centre (iRiSC), Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
| | - Lena Andersson
- Inflammatory Response and Infection Susceptibility Centre (iRiSC), Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
| | - Patrik Karlsson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
| | | | - Nikolai Scherbak
- Man-Technology-Environment Research Center (MTM), Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
| | | | - Maria Larsson
- Man-Technology-Environment Research Center (MTM), Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
| | - Alexander Persson
- Inflammatory Response and Infection Susceptibility Centre (iRiSC), Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
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9
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Zhang Q, Davis AY, Black MS. Emissions and Chemical Exposure Potentials from Stereolithography Vat Polymerization 3D Printing and Post-processing Units. ACS CHEMICAL HEALTH & SAFETY 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chas.2c00002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Qian Zhang
- Chemical Insights Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories Inc., Marietta, Georgia 30067, United States
| | - Aika Y. Davis
- Chemical Insights Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories Inc., Marietta, Georgia 30067, United States
| | - Marilyn S. Black
- Chemical Insights Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories Inc., Marietta, Georgia 30067, United States
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10
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Väisänen A, Alonen L, Ylönen S, Hyttinen M. Organic compound and particle emissions of additive manufacturing with photopolymer resins and chemical outgassing of manufactured resin products. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2022; 85:198-216. [PMID: 34763622 DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2021.1998814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Photopolymer resins are applied at an increasing rate in additive manufacturing (AM) industry as vat photopolymerization (VP) and material jetting (MJ) methods gain more popularity. The aim of this study was to measure volatile organic compound (VOC), carbonyl compound, ultrafine particle (UFP), and particulate matter (PM10) air concentrations emitted in 3D printer operations. Individual chemicals were identified when multiple photopolymer resin feedstocks were used in various VP and MJ printers. The size distributions of UFPs, and indoor air parameters were also monitored. Finally, the VOC outgassing of the cured resin materials was determined over 84 days. The data demonstrated that 3D printer operators were exposed to low concentrations of airborne exposure agents as follows: average concentrations of VOCs were between 41 and 87 µg/m3, UFP number levels ranged between 0.19 and 3.62 × 103 number/cm3; however, no impact was detected on air parameters or PM10 concentrations. A majority of the UFPs existed in the 10-45 nm size range. The identified compounds included hazardous species included sensitizing acrylates and carcinogenic formaldehyde. The outgassed products included similar compounds that were encountered during the AM processes, and post-processing solvents. Products heated to 37°C emitted 1.4‒2.9-fold more VOCs than at room temperature. Total emissions were reduced by 84‒96% after 28 days roughly from 3000-14000 to 100-1000 µg/m2/hr. In conclusion, resin printer operators are exposed to low concentrations of hazardous emissions, which might result in adverse health outcomes during prolonged exposure. Manufactured resin products are suggested to be stored for 4 weeks after their production to reduce potential consumer VOC hazards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antti Väisänen
- Faculty of Science and Forestry, Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Lauri Alonen
- School of Engineering and Technology, Savonia University of Applied Sciences, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Sampsa Ylönen
- School of Engineering and Technology, Savonia University of Applied Sciences, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Marko Hyttinen
- Faculty of Science and Forestry, Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
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11
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Dobrzyńska E, Kondej D, Kowalska J, Szewczyńska M. State of the art in additive manufacturing and its possible chemical and particle hazards-review. INDOOR AIR 2021; 31:1733-1758. [PMID: 34081372 PMCID: PMC8596642 DOI: 10.1111/ina.12853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Revised: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Additive manufacturing, enabling rapid prototyping and so-called on-demand production, has become a common method of creating parts or whole devices. On a 3D printer, real objects are produced layer by layer, thus creating extraordinary possibilities as to the number of applications for this type of devices. The opportunities offered by this technique seem to be pushing new boundaries when it comes to both the use of 3D printing in practice and new materials from which the 3D objects can be printed. However, the question arises whether, at the same time, this solution is safe enough to be used without limitations, wherever and by everyone. According to the scientific reports, three-dimensional printing can pose a threat to the user, not only in terms of physical or mechanical hazards, but also through the potential emissions of chemical substances and fine particles. Thus, the presented publication collects information on the additive manufacturing, different techniques, and ways of printing with application of diverse raw materials. It presents an overview of the last 5 years' publications focusing on 3D printing, especially regarding the potential chemical and particle emission resulting from the use of such printers in both the working environment and private spaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elżbieta Dobrzyńska
- Central Institute for Labour Protection—National Research InstituteWarsawPoland
| | - Dorota Kondej
- Central Institute for Labour Protection—National Research InstituteWarsawPoland
| | - Joanna Kowalska
- Central Institute for Labour Protection—National Research InstituteWarsawPoland
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12
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Properties and Characteristics of Three-Dimensional Printed Head Models Used in Simulation of Neurosurgical Procedures: A Scoping Review. World Neurosurg 2021; 156:133-146.e6. [PMID: 34571242 DOI: 10.1016/j.wneu.2021.09.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2021] [Revised: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Intracranial surgery can be complex and high risk. Safety, ethical and financial factors make training in the area challenging. Head model 3-dimensional (3D) printing is a realistic training alternative to patient and traditional means of cadaver and animal model simulation. OBJECTIVE To describe important factors relating to the 3D printing of human head models and how such models perform as simulators. METHODS Searches were performed in PubMed, the Cochrane Library, Scopus, and Web of Science. Articles were screened independently by 3 reviewers using Covidence software. Data items were collected under 5 categories: study information; printers and processes; head model specifics; simulation and evaluations; and costs and production times. RESULTS Forty articles published over the last 10 years were included in the review. A range of printers, printing methods, and substrates were used to create head models and tissue types. Complexity of the models ranged from sections of single tissue type (e.g., bone) to high-fidelity integration of multiple tissue types. Some models incorporated disease (e.g., tumors and aneurysms) and artificial physiology (e.g., pulsatile circulation). Aneurysm clipping, bone drilling, craniotomy, endonasal surgery, and tumor resection were the most commonly practiced procedures. Evaluations completed by those using the models were generally favorable. CONCLUSIONS The findings of this review indicate that those who practice surgery and surgical techniques on 3D-printed head models deem them to be valuable assets in cranial surgery training. Understanding how surgical simulation on such models affects surgical performance and patient outcomes, and considering cost-effectiveness, are important future research endeavors.
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Runström Eden G, Tinnerberg H, Rosell L, Möller R, Almstrand AC, Bredberg A. Exploring Methods for Surveillance of Occupational Exposure from Additive Manufacturing in Four Different Industrial Facilities. Ann Work Expo Health 2021; 66:163-177. [PMID: 34486024 PMCID: PMC8855698 DOI: 10.1093/annweh/wxab070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Revised: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
3D printing, a type of additive manufacturing (AM), is a rapidly expanding field. Some adverse health effects have been associated with exposure to printing emissions, which makes occupational exposure studies important. There is a lack of exposure studies, particularly from printing methods other than material extrusion (ME). The presented study aimed to evaluate measurement methods for exposure assessment in AM environments and to measure exposure and emissions from four different printing methods [powder bed fusion (PBF), material extrusion (ME), material jetting (MJ), and vat photopolymerization] in industry. Structured exposure diaries and volatile organic compound (VOC) sensors were used over a 5-day working week. Personal and stationary VOC samples and real-time particle measurements were taken for 1 day per facility. Personal inhalable and respirable dust samples were taken during PBF and MJ AM. The use of structured exposure diaries in combination with measurement data revealed that comparatively little time is spent on actual printing and the main exposure comes from post-processing tasks. VOC and particle instruments that log for a longer period are a useful tool as they facilitate the identification of work tasks with high emissions, highlight the importance of ventilation and give a more gathered view of variations in exposure. No alarming levels of VOCs or dust were detected during print nor post-processing in these facilities as adequate preventive measures were installed. As there are a few studies reporting negative health effects, it is still important to keep the exposure as low as reasonable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gunilla Runström Eden
- University of Gothenburg, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Håkan Tinnerberg
- University of Gothenburg, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Lars Rosell
- RISE, Research Institutes of Sweden, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Rickie Möller
- University of Gothenburg, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Ann-Charlotte Almstrand
- University of Gothenburg, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Anna Bredberg
- RISE, Research Institutes of Sweden, Gothenburg, Sweden
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Stefaniak A, Du Preez S, Du Plessis JL. Additive Manufacturing for Occupational Hygiene: A Comprehensive Review of Processes, Emissions, & Exposures. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART B, CRITICAL REVIEWS 2021; 24:1-50. [PMID: 34139957 PMCID: PMC8678392 DOI: 10.1080/10937404.2021.1936319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
This comprehensive review introduces occupational (industrial) hygienists and toxicologists to the seven basic additive manufacturing (AM) process categories. Forty-six articles were identified that reported real-world measurements for all AM processes, except sheet lamination. Particles released from powder bed fusion (PBF), material jetting (MJ), material extrusion (ME), and directed energy deposition (DED) processes exhibited nanoscale to submicron scale; real-time particle number (mobility sizers, condensation nuclei counters, miniDiSC, electrical diffusion batteries) and surface area monitors (diffusion chargers) were generally sufficient for these processes. Binder jetting (BJ) machines released particles up to 8.5 µm; optical particle sizers (number) and laser scattering photometers (mass) were sufficient for this process. PBF and DED processes (powdered metallic feedstocks) released particles that contained respiratory irritants (chromium, molybdenum), central nervous system toxicants (manganese), and carcinogens (nickel). All process categories, except those that use metallic feedstocks, released organic gases, including (but not limited to), respiratory irritants (toluene, xylenes), asthmagens (methyl methacrylate, styrene), and carcinogens (benzene, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde). Real-time photoionization detectors for total volatile organics provided useful information for processes that utilize polymer feedstock materials. More research is needed to understand 1) facility-, machine-, and feedstock-related factors that influence emissions and exposures, 2) dermal exposure and biological burden, and 3) task-based exposures. Harmonized emissions monitoring and exposure assessment approaches are needed to facilitate inter-comparison of study results. Improved understanding of AM process emissions and exposures is needed for hygienists to ensure appropriate health and safety conditions for workers and for toxicologists to design experimental protocols that accurately mimic real-world exposure conditions.ABBREVIATIONS ABS : acrylonitrile butadiene styrene; ACGIH® TLV® : American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists Threshold Limit Value; ACH : air change per hour; AM : additive manufacturing; ASA : acrylonitrile styrene acrylate; AVP : acetone vapor polishing; BJ : binder jetting; CAM-LEM : computer-aided manufacturing of laminated engineering materials; CNF : carbon nanofiber; CNT : carbon nanotube; CP : co-polyester; CNC : condensation nuclei counter; CVP : chloroform vapor polishing; DED : directed energy deposition; DLP : digital light processing; EBM : electron beam melting; EELS : electron energy loss spectrometry; EDB : electrical diffusion batteries; EDX : energy dispersive x-ray analyzer; ER : emission rate; FDM™ : fused deposition modeling; FFF : fused filament fabrication; IAQ : indoor air quality; LSP : laser scattering photometer; LCD : liquid crystal display; LDSA : lung deposited particle surface area; LOD : limit of detection; LOM : laminated object manufacturing; LOQ : limit of quantitation; MCE : mixed cellulose ester filter; ME : material extrusion; MJ : material jetting; OEL : occupational exposure limit; OPS : optical particle sizer; PBF : powder bed fusion; PBZ : personal breathing zone; PC : polycarbonate; PEEK : poly ether ether ketone; PET : polyethylene terephthalate; PETG : Polyethylene terephthalate glycol; PID : photoionization detector; PLA : polylactic acid; PM1 : particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter less than 1 µm; PM2.5 : particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 µm; PM10 : particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter less than 10 µm; PSL : plastic sheet lamination; PVA : polyvinyl alcohol; REL : recommended exposure limit; SDL : selective deposition lamination; SDS : safety data sheet; SEM : scanning electron microscopy; SL : sheet lamination; SLA : stereolithography; SLM : selective laser melting; SMPS : scanning mobility particle sizer; SVOC : semi-volatile organic compound; TEM : transmission electron microscopy; TGA : thermal gravimetric analysis; TPU : thermo polyurethane; UAM : ultrasonic additive manufacturing; UC : ultrasonic consolidation; TVOC : total volatile organic compounds; TWA : time-weighted average; VOC : volatile organic compound; VP : vat photopolymerization.
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Affiliation(s)
- A.B. Stefaniak
- Respiratory Health Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - S Du Preez
- North-West University, Occupational Hygiene and Health Research Initiative, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - JL Du Plessis
- North-West University, Occupational Hygiene and Health Research Initiative, Potchefstroom, South Africa
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