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Röver T, Fuchs C, Asami K, Emmelmann C. Dimensioning of Biomimetic Beams under Bending for Additively Manufactured Structural Components. Biomimetics (Basel) 2024; 9:214. [PMID: 38667225 PMCID: PMC11048161 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics9040214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Revised: 03/26/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Additively manufactured mechanical components show great lightweight characteristics and can often be enhanced by integrating biomimetic geometrical features. This study focuses on one specific subcase, namely the substitution of solid cylindrical beams that are under bending with geometrically more complex biomimetic beams. Based on the pseudo-stem of the banana plant as a role model, six geometric beam designs were derived. Given the manufacturing constraints of the PBF-LB/M process, two abstractions were selected for detailed investigation in the main part of this study. The beam lengths were set to 100 mm. Based on parametric optimization simulations, optimal design parameters were identified for the two biomimetic abstractions for 26 different bending load cases ranging from 14 to 350 Nm. Analogous parameter optimizations were performed for a solid cylindrical beam design, which was used as a reference. The results provide detailed design solutions within the investigated intervals for biomimetic beams that can be substituted into more complex mechanical component designs with ease. The analysis provides information on which structures to use for the investigated loads. With the help of the developed numerical models, designers can easily generate biomimetic beam designs for specific bending load values.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Röver
- Hamburg University of Technology (TUHH), Institute of Laser and System Technologies (iLAS), Harburger Schloßstraße 28, 21079 Hamburg, Germany; (K.A.); (C.E.)
| | - Cedrik Fuchs
- Centerline Design GmbH, Spitzenrade 3, 24107 Quarnbek, Germany;
| | - Karim Asami
- Hamburg University of Technology (TUHH), Institute of Laser and System Technologies (iLAS), Harburger Schloßstraße 28, 21079 Hamburg, Germany; (K.A.); (C.E.)
| | - Claus Emmelmann
- Hamburg University of Technology (TUHH), Institute of Laser and System Technologies (iLAS), Harburger Schloßstraße 28, 21079 Hamburg, Germany; (K.A.); (C.E.)
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2
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Mathur J, Miller SR, Simpson TW, Meisel NA. Effects of Immersion on Knowledge Gain and Cognitive Load in Additive Manufacturing Process Education. 3D Print Addit Manuf 2024; 11:e787-e800. [PMID: 38689916 PMCID: PMC11057536 DOI: 10.1089/3dp.2022.0180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
Although the additive manufacturing (AM) market continues to grow, industries face barriers to AM adoption due to a shortage of skilled designers in the workforce that can apply AM effectively to meet this demand. This shortage is attributed to the high cost and infrastructural requirements of introducing high- barrier-to-entry AM processes such as powder bed fusion (PBF) into in-person learning environments. To meet the demands for a skilled AM workforce, it is important to explore other mediums of AM education, such as computer-aided instruction (CAI) and virtual reality (VR), which can increase access to hands-on learning experiences for inaccessible AM processes. However, limited work compares virtual and physical AM instruction or explores how the differences in immersion and presence between mediums can affect the knowledge gained and the mental effort exerted when learning about different AM processes. To address this gap in the literature, this research evaluates the use of CAI, VR, and in-person instruction in AM process education when learning about material extrusion (ME) and PBF. Our findings show that the differences in immersion and presence between CAI, VR, and in-person instruction do not have a statistically significant effect when learning about ME, but do have a significant effect when learning about PBF. Specifically, we found that VR generally yields equivalent effects in knowledge gain and cognitive load to in-person PBF education while offering advantages in both metrics over CAI learning. The findings from this work thus have significant implications for using VR as an alternative to in-person training to improve designer development in process-centric AM education of typically high-barrier-to-entry AM processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jayant Mathur
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Scarlett R. Miller
- Engineering Design, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Industrial Engineering and The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Timothy W. Simpson
- Department of Industrial Engineering and The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Nicholas A. Meisel
- Engineering Design, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
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3
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Chan AKC, Ranjitham Gopalakrishnan N, Traore YL, Ho EA. Formulating biopharmaceuticals using three-dimensional printing. J Pharm Pharm Sci 2024; 27:12797. [PMID: 38558867 PMCID: PMC10979422 DOI: 10.3389/jpps.2024.12797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Additive manufacturing, commonly referred to as three-dimensional (3D) printing, has the potential to initiate a paradigm shift in the field of medicine and drug delivery. Ever since the advent of the first-ever United States Food and Drug Administration (US FDA)-approved 3D printed tablet, there has been an increased interest in the application of this technology in drug delivery and biomedical applications. 3D printing brings us one step closer to personalized medicine, hence rendering the "one size fits all" concept in drug dosing obsolete. In this review article, we focus on the recent developments in the field of modified drug delivery systems in which various types of additive manufacturing technologies are applied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alistair K. C. Chan
- School of Pharmacy, University of Waterloo, Kitchener, ON, Canada
- Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | - Nehil Ranjitham Gopalakrishnan
- School of Pharmacy, University of Waterloo, Kitchener, ON, Canada
- Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | - Yannick Leandre Traore
- School of Pharmacy, University of Waterloo, Kitchener, ON, Canada
- Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | - Emmanuel A. Ho
- School of Pharmacy, University of Waterloo, Kitchener, ON, Canada
- Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, Waterloo, ON, Canada
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Sanders B, Cant E, Kelly CA, Jenkins M. The Effect of Powder Re-Use on the Coalescence Behaviour and Isothermal Crystallisation Kinetics of Polyamide 12 within Powder Bed Fusion. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:612. [PMID: 38475297 DOI: 10.3390/polym16050612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 02/17/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Polymer powder bed fusion (PBF) is becoming increasingly popular for the fabrication of lightweight, high-performance parts, particularly for medical and aerospace applications. This study investigates the effect of powder re-use and material aging on the coalescence behaviour, melt flowability, and isothermal crystallisation kinetics of polyamide-12 (PA-12) powder. With increased powder re-use, a progressive reduction in melt flowability and material coalescence is observed; at 200 °C, the particle consolidation time increases from 15 s in virgin powder to 180 s in powder recovered from build 6. The observed changes in the behaviour of PA-12 were attributed to polycondensation and cross-linking; these aging phenomena also create structural defects, which hinder the rate and extent of primary crystallisation. At an isothermal crystallisation temperature of 165 °C, the crystallisation half-time increased from 12.78 min in virgin powder to 23.95 min in powder re-used across six build cycles. As a result, the commonly used Avrami model was found to be unsuitable for modelling the crystallisation behaviour of aged PA-12 powder, with the co-efficient of determination (R2) reducing from >0.995 for virgin powder to as low as 0.795 for re-used powder. On the other hand, an alternative method, the Hay model, is able to successfully track full phase transformation within re-used powder (R2 > 0.99). These results highlight the importance of selecting the most appropriate model for analysing the crystallisation kinetics of PA-12 powder re-used across multiple build cycles. This understanding is crucial for obtaining the strong mechanical properties and dimensional precision required for the fabrication of functional, end-use parts within PBF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Sanders
- School of Metallurgy and Materials, University of Birmingham, Elms Road, Birmingham B15 2SE, UK
| | - Edward Cant
- The Manufacturing Technology Centre, Ansty Park, Coventry CV7 9JU, UK
| | | | - Michael Jenkins
- School of Metallurgy and Materials, University of Birmingham, Elms Road, Birmingham B15 2SE, UK
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Joshua RJN, Raj SA, Hameed Sultan MT, Łukaszewicz A, Józwik J, Oksiuta Z, Dziedzic K, Tofil A, Shahar FS. Powder Bed Fusion 3D Printing in Precision Manufacturing for Biomedical Applications: A Comprehensive Review. Materials (Basel) 2024; 17:769. [PMID: 38591985 PMCID: PMC10856375 DOI: 10.3390/ma17030769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024]
Abstract
Precision manufacturing requirements are the key to ensuring the quality and reliability of biomedical implants. The powder bed fusion (PBF) technique offers a promising solution, enabling the creation of complex, patient-specific implants with a high degree of precision. This technology is revolutionizing the biomedical industry, paving the way for a new era of personalized medicine. This review explores and details powder bed fusion 3D printing and its application in the biomedical field. It begins with an introduction to the powder bed fusion 3D-printing technology and its various classifications. Later, it analyzes the numerous fields in which powder bed fusion 3D printing has been successfully deployed where precision components are required, including the fabrication of personalized implants and scaffolds for tissue engineering. This review also discusses the potential advantages and limitations for using the powder bed fusion 3D-printing technology in terms of precision, customization, and cost effectiveness. In addition, it highlights the current challenges and prospects of the powder bed fusion 3D-printing technology. This work offers valuable insights for researchers engaged in the field, aiming to contribute to the advancement of the powder bed fusion 3D-printing technology in the context of precision manufacturing for biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajan John Nekin Joshua
- Department of Manufacturing Engineering, School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 632014, Tamil Nadu, India;
| | - Sakthivel Aravind Raj
- Department of Manufacturing Engineering, School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 632014, Tamil Nadu, India;
| | - Mohamed Thariq Hameed Sultan
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia;
- Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia
- Aerospace Malaysia Innovation Centre (944751-A), Prime Minister’s Department, MIGHT Partnership Hub, Jalan Impact, Cyberjaya 63000, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Andrzej Łukaszewicz
- Institute of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Bialystok University of Technology, Wiejska 45C, 15-351 Bialystok, Poland;
| | - Jerzy Józwik
- Department of Production Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Lublin University of Technology, Nadbystrzycka 36, 20-618 Lublin, Poland;
- Institute of Technical Sciences and Aviation, University College of Applied Sciences in Chełm, Pocztowa 54, 22-100 Chełm, Poland;
| | - Zbigniew Oksiuta
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Bialystok University of Technology, Wiejska 45C, 15-351 Bialystok, Poland;
| | - Krzysztof Dziedzic
- Institute of Computer Science, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Faculty, Lublin University of Technology, Nadbystrzycka 36, 20-618 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Arkadiusz Tofil
- Institute of Technical Sciences and Aviation, University College of Applied Sciences in Chełm, Pocztowa 54, 22-100 Chełm, Poland;
| | - Farah Syazwani Shahar
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia;
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Marrey M, Malekipour E, El-Mounayri H, Faierson EJ, Agarwal M. A Novel Framework of Developing a Predictive Model for Powder Bed Fusion Process. 3D Print Addit Manuf 2024; 11:179-196. [PMID: 38389679 PMCID: PMC10880639 DOI: 10.1089/3dp.2021.0255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
The powder bed fusion (PBF) process is a metal additive manufacturing process, which can build parts with any complexity from a wide range of metallic materials. PBF process research has predominantly focused on the impact of only a few parameters on product properties due to the lack of a systematic approach for predictive modeling of a large set of process parameters simultaneously. The pivotal challenges regarding this process require a quantitative approach for mapping the material properties and process parameters onto the ultimate quality; this will then enable the optimization of those parameters. In this study, we propose a two-phase framework for studying the process parameters and developing a predictive model for 316L stainless steel material. We also discuss the correlation between process parameters that is, laser specifications and mechanical properties, and how to obtain an optimum range of volumetric energy density for producing parts with high density (>99%), as well as better ultimate mechanical properties. In this article, we introduce and test an innovative approach for developing AM predictive models, with a relatively low error percentage (i.e., around 10%), which are used for process parameter selection in accordance with user or manufacturer part performance requirements. These models are based on techniques such as support vector regression, random forest regression, and neural network. It is shown that the intelligent selection of process parameters using these models can achieve a high density of up to 99.31% with uniform microstructure, which improves hardness, impact strength, and other mechanical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mallikharjun Marrey
- Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Purdue University, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
- Collaborative Additive Manufacturing Research Initiative (CAMRI), Purdue School of Engineering and Technology, IUPUI, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Ehsan Malekipour
- Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Purdue University, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
- Collaborative Additive Manufacturing Research Initiative (CAMRI), Purdue School of Engineering and Technology, IUPUI, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Hazim El-Mounayri
- Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Purdue University, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
- Collaborative Additive Manufacturing Research Initiative (CAMRI), Purdue School of Engineering and Technology, IUPUI, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Eric J. Faierson
- Quad City Manufacturing Laboratory, Western Illinois University, Rock Island, Illinois, USA
| | - Mangilal Agarwal
- Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Purdue University, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
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7
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Liu Y, Davies R, Yi N, McCutchion P, Chen B, Ghita O. Multiscale Porous Poly (Ether-Ether-Ketone) Structures Manufactured by Powder Bed Fusion Process. 3D Print Addit Manuf 2024; 11:219-230. [PMID: 38389676 PMCID: PMC10880674 DOI: 10.1089/3dp.2021.0317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
The aim of the study is to create a multiscale highly porous poly (ether-ether-ketone) (PEEK) structure while maintaining mechanical performance; the distribution of pores being generated by the manufacturing process combined with a porogen leaching operation. Salt at 70 wt% concentration was used as a porogen in a dry blend with PEEK powder sintered in the powder bed fusion process. The printed porous PEEK structures were examined and evaluated by scanning electron microscopy, microcomputed tomography, and mechanical testing. The PEEK structures incorporating 70 wt% salt achieved 79-86% porosity, a compressive yield strength of 4.1 MPa, and a yield strain of ∼60%. Due to the salt leaching process, the PEEK porous frameworks were fabricated without the need to drastically reduce the process parameters (defined by the energy density [ED]), hence maintaining the structural integrity and good mechanical performance. The compression results highlighted that the performance is influenced by the printing orientation, level of the PEEK particle coalescence (controlled here by the ED), pore/cell wall thickness, and subsequently, the overall porosity framework. The porous printed PEEK structures could find potential uses in a wide range of applications from tissue engineering, filtration and separation to catalysts, drug release, and gas storage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaan Liu
- Engineering, College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Davies
- Engineering, College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Nan Yi
- Engineering, College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Paul McCutchion
- Engineering, College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Binling Chen
- Engineering, College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Oana Ghita
- Engineering, College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
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Mann M, Davies R, Lawrence C, Ghita O. Prototype Design for Grading Structures in Powder Bed Fusion Processes. 3D Print Addit Manuf 2023; 10:1320-1335. [PMID: 38116209 PMCID: PMC10726185 DOI: 10.1089/3dp.2022.0063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
While targeted alignment in certain additive manufacturing (AM) methods such as material extrusion (MEX) and stereolithography (SLA) has been well documented in the research community, a method for targeted alignment of added fillers or fibrous materials in powder bed fusion (PBF) AM devices has yet to be successfully achieved. Similarly, incorporation of multimaterials does not work easily with any of the AM technologies. This study creates a prototype design that could be integrated into a PBF system to allow for multimaterial layer deposition and alignment of powders and powder blends. The rheological properties of polyamide powder and a range of polyamide composite blends (incorporating milled carbon fibre, graphite flakes, polytetrafluoroethylene, and glass microspheres) in different concentrations were studied, and together with the particle size distribution and particle morphology analysis were applied for the design of a prototype hopper for incorporation in the PBF system to create targeted multimaterial deposition. Different concept designs, multichambered and multi-hopper with hopper angles calculated specifically for the composite blend powders selected, were proposed. Initial deposition trials outside a PBF process were tested, and the deposited layers were measured.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Mann
- Centre for Additive Layer Manufacturing, Exeter Technologies Group, Streatham Campus, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Davies
- Centre for Additive Layer Manufacturing, Exeter Technologies Group, Streatham Campus, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Chris Lawrence
- QinetiQ, Advanced Services and Products, Cody Technology Park, Ively Road, Farnborough, United Kingdom
| | - Oana Ghita
- Centre for Additive Layer Manufacturing, Exeter Technologies Group, Streatham Campus, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
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Assenhöj M, Almstrand AC, Kokelj S, Ljunggren SA, Olin AC, Karlsson H. Occupational exposure and health surveys at metal additive manufacturing facilities. Front Public Health 2023; 11:1292420. [PMID: 38054074 PMCID: PMC10694287 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1292420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Additive manufacturing is a novel state-of-the art technology with significant economic and practical advantages, including the ability to produce complex structures on demand while reducing the need of stocking materials and products. Additive manufacturing is a technology that is here to stay; however, new technologies bring new challenges, not only technical but also from an occupational health and safety perspective. Herein, leading Swedish companies using metal additive manufacturing were studied with the aim of investigating occupational exposure and the utility of chosen exposure- and clinical markers as predictors of potential exposure-related health risks. Methods Exposure levels were investigated by analysis of airborne dust and metals, alongside particle counting instruments measuring airborne particles in the range of 10 nm-10 μm to identify dusty work tasks. Health examinations were performed on a total of 48 additive manufacturing workers and 39 controls. All participants completed a questionnaire, underwent spirometry, and blood and urine sampling. A subset underwent further lung function tests. Results Exposure to inhalable dust and metals were low, but particle counting instruments identified specific work tasks with high particle emissions. Examined health parameters were well within reference values on a group level. However, statistical analysis implied an impact on workers kidney function and possible airway inflammation. Conclusion The methodology was successful for investigating exposure-related health risks in additive manufacturing. However, most participants have been working <5 years. Therefore, long-term studies are needed before we can conclusively accept or reject the observed effects on health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Assenhöj
- Occupational and Environmental Medicine Center in Linköping, Department of Health, Medicine and Caring Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Ann-Charlotte Almstrand
- Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Region Västra Götaland, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Occupational and Environmental Medicine, School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Institute of Medicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Spela Kokelj
- Occupational and Environmental Medicine, School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Institute of Medicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Stefan A. Ljunggren
- Occupational and Environmental Medicine Center in Linköping, Department of Health, Medicine and Caring Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Anna-Carin Olin
- Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Region Västra Götaland, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Occupational and Environmental Medicine, School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Institute of Medicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Helen Karlsson
- Occupational and Environmental Medicine Center in Linköping, Department of Health, Medicine and Caring Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
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Suzuki A, Sasa Y, Kobashi M, Kato M, Segawa M, Shimono Y, Nomoto S. Persistent Homology Analysis of the Microstructure of Laser-Powder-Bed-Fused Al-12Si Alloy. Materials (Basel) 2023; 16:7228. [PMID: 38005157 PMCID: PMC10673303 DOI: 10.3390/ma16227228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Revised: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 11/08/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023]
Abstract
The laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) process provides the cellular microstructure (primary α phase surrounded by a eutectic Si network) inside hypo-eutectic Al-Si alloys. The microstructure changes to the particle-dispersed microstructure with heat treatments at around 500 °C. The microstructural change leads to a significant reduction in the tensile strength. However, the microstructural descriptors representing the cellular and particle-dispersed microstructures have not been established, resulting in difficulty in terms of discussion regarding the structure-property relationship. In this study, an attempt was made to analyze the microstructure in L-PBF-built and subsequently heat-treated Al-12Si (mass%) alloys using the persistent homology, which can analyze the spatial distributions and connections of secondary phases. The zero-dimensional persistent homology revealed that the spacing between adjacent Si particles was independent of Si particle size in the as-built alloy, whereas fewer Si particles existed near large Si particles in the heat-treated alloy. Furthermore, the first principal component of a one-dimensional persistent homology diagram would represent the microstructural characteristics from cellular to particle-dispersed morphology. These microstructural descriptors were strongly correlated with the tensile and yield strengths. This study provides a new insight into the microstructural indices describing unique microstructures in L-PBF-built alloys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asuka Suzuki
- Department of Materials Process Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, 1, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8603, Japan; (Y.S.); (M.K.)
| | - Yusuke Sasa
- Department of Materials Process Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, 1, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8603, Japan; (Y.S.); (M.K.)
| | - Makoto Kobashi
- Department of Materials Process Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, 1, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8603, Japan; (Y.S.); (M.K.)
| | - Masaki Kato
- Aichi Center for Industry and Science Technology, 1267-1 Akiai, Yakusa-cho, Toyota 470-0356, Japan;
| | - Masahito Segawa
- ITOCHU Techno-Solutions Corporation, Toranomon Kamiyacho Trust Tower, Minato-ku, Tokyo 105-6907, Japan; (M.S.); (Y.S.)
| | - Yusuke Shimono
- ITOCHU Techno-Solutions Corporation, Toranomon Kamiyacho Trust Tower, Minato-ku, Tokyo 105-6907, Japan; (M.S.); (Y.S.)
| | - Sukeharu Nomoto
- National Institute for Materials Science, 1-2-1, Sengen, Tsukuba 305-0047, Japan;
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Liu Y, Yi N, Davies R, McCutchion P, Ghita O. Powder Bed Fusion Versus Material Extrusion: A Comparative Case Study on Polyether-Ether-Ketone Cranial Implants. 3D Print Addit Manuf 2023; 10:941-954. [PMID: 37886420 PMCID: PMC10599438 DOI: 10.1089/3dp.2021.0300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
As the choice of additive manufacturing (AM) technologies is becoming wider with reliable processes and a wider range of materials, the selection of the right technology to fabricate a certain product is becoming increasingly difficult from a technical and cost perspective. In this study polyether-ether-ketone cranial implants were manufactured by two AM techniques: powder bed fusion (PBF) and fused filament fabrication (FFF) and their dimensional accuracy, compression performance, and drop tower impact behavior were evaluated and compared. The results showed that both types of specimens differed from the original computer-aided design; although the origin of the deviation was different, the PBF samples were slightly inaccurate owing to the printing process where the accuracy of the FFF samples was influenced by postprocessing and removal of the scaffolds. The cranial implants fabricated using the FFF method absorbed more energy during the compression and impact tests in comparison with the PBF process. The failure mechanisms revealed that FFF samples have a higher ability to deform and a more consistent failure mechanisms, with the damage localized around the puncture head region. The brittle nature of the PBF samples, a feature observed with other polymers as well, led to complete failure of the cranial implants into several pieces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaan Liu
- Engineering, College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Nan Yi
- Engineering, College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Davies
- Engineering, College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Paul McCutchion
- Engineering, College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Oana Ghita
- Engineering, College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
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12
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Zinovieva O, Romanova V, Dymnich E, Zinoviev A, Balokhonov R. A Review of Computational Approaches to the Microstructure-Informed Mechanical Modelling of Metals Produced by Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing. Materials (Basel) 2023; 16:6459. [PMID: 37834596 PMCID: PMC10573704 DOI: 10.3390/ma16196459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023]
Abstract
In the rapidly evolving field of additive manufacturing (AM), the predictability of part properties is still challenging due to the inherent multiphysics complexity of the technology. This results in time-consuming and costly experimental guess-and-check approaches for manufacturing each individual design. Through synthesising advancements in the field, this review argues that numerical modelling is instrumental in mitigating these challenges by working in tandem with experimental studies. Unique hierarchical microstructures induced by extreme AM process conditions- including melt pool patterns, grains, cellular-dendritic substructures, and precipitates-affect the final part properties. Therefore, the development of microstructure-informed mechanical models becomes vital. Our review of numerical studies explores various modelling approaches that consider the microstructural features explicitly and offers insights into multiscale stress-strain analysis across diverse materials fabricated by powder bed fusion AM. The literature indicates a growing consensus on the key role of multiscale integrated process-structure-property-performance (PSPP) modelling in capturing the complexity of AM-produced materials. Current models, though increasingly sophisticated, still tend to relate only two elements of the PSPP chain while often focusing on a single scale. This emphasises the need for integrated PSPP approaches validated by a solid experimental base. The PSPP paradigm for AM, while promising as a concept, is still in its infantry, confronting multifaceted challenges that require in-depth, multidisciplinary expertise. These challenges range from accounting for multiphysics phenomena (e.g., advanced laser-material interaction) and their interplay (thermo-mechanical and microstructural evolution for simulating Type II residual stresses), accurately defined assumptions (e.g., flat molten surface during AM or purely epitaxial solidification), and correctly estimated boundary conditions for each element of the PSPP chain up to the need to balance the model's complexity and detalisation in terms of both multiphysics and discretisation with efficient multitrack and multilayer simulations. Efforts in bridging these gaps would not only improve predictability but also expedite the development and certification of new AM materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Zinovieva
- School of Engineering and Technology, University of New South Wales Canberra, Campbell, ACT 2612, Australia;
| | - Varvara Romanova
- Institute of Strength Physics and Materials Science, 634055 Tomsk, Russia; (E.D.); (R.B.)
| | - Ekaterina Dymnich
- Institute of Strength Physics and Materials Science, 634055 Tomsk, Russia; (E.D.); (R.B.)
| | - Aleksandr Zinoviev
- School of Engineering and Technology, University of New South Wales Canberra, Campbell, ACT 2612, Australia;
| | - Ruslan Balokhonov
- Institute of Strength Physics and Materials Science, 634055 Tomsk, Russia; (E.D.); (R.B.)
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13
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Fojtík F, Potrok R, Hajnyš J, Ma QP, Kudrna L, Měsíček J. Quantification and Analysis of Residual Stresses in Braking Pedal Produced via Laser- Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing Technology. Materials (Basel) 2023; 16:5766. [PMID: 37687459 PMCID: PMC10488369 DOI: 10.3390/ma16175766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023]
Abstract
This study focuses on the experimental verification of residual stress (RS) in a 3D-printed braking pedal using the Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) method with SS316L material. The RS was measured at two representative locations using the hole drilling method (HDM) and the dividing method, which are semi-destructive and destructive methods of RS measurement, respectively. The finite element method (FEM) was used with Ansys Workbench 2020R2 and Simufact Additive 2021 software to determine the magnitude of RS. The results provide insights into how RS is incorporated into metal 3D-printed components and the available tools for predicting RS. This information is essential for experts to improve the accuracy and functionality of SLM parts when post-subtractive or additive manufacturing processes are used. Overall, this study contributes to the advancement of knowledge on the effects of RS on 3D-printed metal components, which can inform future research and development in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- František Fojtík
- Department of Applied Mechanics, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 70800 Ostrava, Czech Republic
| | - Roman Potrok
- Department of Applied Mechanics, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 70800 Ostrava, Czech Republic
| | - Jiří Hajnyš
- Department of Machining, Assembly and Engineering Metrology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 70800 Ostrava, Czech Republic; (J.H.)
| | - Quoc-Phu Ma
- Department of Machining, Assembly and Engineering Metrology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 70800 Ostrava, Czech Republic; (J.H.)
| | - Lukáš Kudrna
- Department of Machine and Industrial Design, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 70800 Ostrava, Czech Republic
| | - Jakub Měsíček
- Department of Machining, Assembly and Engineering Metrology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 70800 Ostrava, Czech Republic; (J.H.)
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14
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Zhang W, Tong M, Harrison NM. Multipart Build Effects on Temperature and Residual Stress by Laser Beam Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing. 3D Print Addit Manuf 2023; 10:749-761. [PMID: 37609592 PMCID: PMC10440682 DOI: 10.1089/3dp.2021.0143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/24/2023]
Abstract
Laser beam powder bed fusion (PBF-LB) is a leading technique among metal additive manufacturing (AM), and it has a wide range of applications in aerospace and medical devices. Most of the existing PBF-LB process modeling is mainly based on the fabrication of a single part on a large build plate, which is not reflective of the practical multipart PBF-LB manufacturing. The effects of batch size on the thermal and mechanical behavior of additively manufactured parts have not been investigated. In this work, the multipart PBF-LB thermomechanical modeling framework was proposed for the first time. The effects of sample numbers (1, 2, and 4) on temperature and residual stress (RS) of part-scale components were computationally investigated. It is found that RS within the parts decreased with increasing number of components per build. Parts located at the central areas of the build plate had larger RS than at the border. These findings can be beneficial for informing AM designers and operators of the optimum printing setup to minimize RS of metal parts in PBF-LB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenyou Zhang
- Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, College of Science and Engineering, NUI Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Mingming Tong
- Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, College of Science and Engineering, NUI Galway, Galway, Ireland
- I-Form, SFI Research Centre for Advanced Manufacturing, Ireland
- Ryan Institute for Environmental, Marine and Energy Research, NUI Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Noel M. Harrison
- Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, College of Science and Engineering, NUI Galway, Galway, Ireland
- I-Form, SFI Research Centre for Advanced Manufacturing, Ireland
- Ryan Institute for Environmental, Marine and Energy Research, NUI Galway, Galway, Ireland
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15
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Yao L, Ramesh A, Xiao Z, Chen Y, Zhuang Q. Multimetal Research in Powder Bed Fusion: A Review. Materials (Basel) 2023; 16:4287. [PMID: 37374471 DOI: 10.3390/ma16124287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 06/02/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
This article discusses the different forms of powder bed fusion (PBF) techniques, namely laser powder bed fusion (LPBF), electron beam powder bed fusion (EB-PBF) and large-area pulsed laser powder bed fusion (L-APBF). The challenges faced in multimetal additive manufacturing, including material compatibility, porosity, cracks, loss of alloying elements and oxide inclusions, have been extensively discussed. Solutions proposed to overcome these challenges include the optimization of printing parameters, the use of support structures, and post-processing techniques. Future research on metal composites, functionally graded materials, multi-alloy structures and materials with tailored properties are needed to address these challenges and improve the quality and reliability of the final product. The advancement of multimetal additive manufacturing can offer significant benefits for various industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liming Yao
- State Key Laboratory of Robotics and Systems (HIT), Harbin 150000, China
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
| | - Aditya Ramesh
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
| | - Zhongmin Xiao
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
| | - Yang Chen
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
| | - Quihui Zhuang
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Chongqing University of Technology, Chongqing 400054, China
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16
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Pandelidi C, Blakis R, Lee KPM, Bateman S, Brandt M, Kajtaz M. Thermal and Oxidative Aging Effects of Polyamide-11 Powder Used in Multi-Jet Fusion. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15102395. [PMID: 37242970 DOI: 10.3390/polym15102395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The transition of additive manufacturing (AM) from a technique for rapid prototyping to one for manufacturing of near net or net components has been led by the development of methods that can repeatedly fabricate quality parts. High-speed laser sintering and the recently developed multi-jet fusion (MJF) processes have seen quick adoption from industry due to their ability to produce high-quality components relatively quickly. However, the recommended refresh ratios of new powder led to notable amounts of used powder being discarded. In this research, polyamide-11 powder, typically used in AM, was thermally aged to investigate its properties at extreme levels of reuse. The powder was exposed to 180 °C in air for up to 168 h and its chemical, morphological, thermal, rheological, and mechanical properties were examined. To decouple the thermo-oxidative aging phenomena from AM process related effects, such as porosity, rheological and mechanical properties characterisation was performed on compression-moulded specimens. It was found that exposure notably affected the properties of both the powder and the derived compression-moulded specimens within the first 24 h of exposure; however, consecutive exposure did not have a significant effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chrysoula Pandelidi
- Centre for Additive Manufacturing, School of Engineering, RMIT University, GPO Box 2476, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia
| | - Ryan Blakis
- Centre for Additive Manufacturing, School of Engineering, RMIT University, GPO Box 2476, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia
| | - Kok Peng Marcian Lee
- Centre for Additive Manufacturing, School of Engineering, RMIT University, GPO Box 2476, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia
| | - Stuart Bateman
- Centre for Additive Manufacturing, School of Engineering, RMIT University, GPO Box 2476, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia
| | - Milan Brandt
- Centre for Additive Manufacturing, School of Engineering, RMIT University, GPO Box 2476, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia
| | - Mladenko Kajtaz
- Centre for Additive Manufacturing, School of Engineering, RMIT University, GPO Box 2476, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia
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17
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Do NBD, Imenes K, Aasmundtveit KE, Nguyen HV, Andreassen E. Thermal Conductivity and Mechanical Properties of Polymer Composites with Hexagonal Boron Nitride-A Comparison of Three Processing Methods: Injection Moulding, Powder Bed Fusion and Casting. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15061552. [PMID: 36987332 PMCID: PMC10053309 DOI: 10.3390/polym15061552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2022] [Revised: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Materials providing heat dissipation and electrical insulation are required for many electronic and medical devices. Polymer composites with hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) may fulfil such requirements. The focus of this study is to compare composites with hBN fabricated by injection moulding (IM), powder bed fusion (PBF) and casting. The specimens were characterised by measuring thermal conductivity, tensile properties, hardness and hBN particle orientation. A thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) was selected as the matrix for IM and PBF, and an epoxy was the matrix for casting. The maximum filler weight fractions were 65%, 55% and 40% for IM, casting and PBF, respectively. The highest thermal conductivity (2.1 W/m∙K) was measured for an IM specimen with 65 wt% hBN. However, cast specimens had the highest thermal conductivity for a given hBN fraction. The orientation of hBN platelets in the specimens was characterised by X-ray diffraction and compared with numerical simulations. The measured thermal conductivities were discussed by comparing them with four models from the literature (the effective medium approximation model, the Ordóñez-Miranda model, the Sun model, and the Lewis-Nielsen model). These models predicted quite different thermal conductivities vs. filler fraction. Adding hBN increased the hardness and tensile modulus, and the tensile strength at high hBN fractions. The strength had a minimum as the function of filler fraction, while the strain at break decreased. These trends can be explained by two mechanisms which occur when adding hBN: reinforcement and embrittlement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nu Bich Duyen Do
- Department of Microsystems, University of South-Eastern Norway, 3184 Borre, Norway
| | - Kristin Imenes
- Department of Microsystems, University of South-Eastern Norway, 3184 Borre, Norway
| | - Knut E Aasmundtveit
- Department of Microsystems, University of South-Eastern Norway, 3184 Borre, Norway
| | - Hoang-Vu Nguyen
- Department of Microsystems, University of South-Eastern Norway, 3184 Borre, Norway
| | - Erik Andreassen
- Department of Microsystems, University of South-Eastern Norway, 3184 Borre, Norway
- SINTEF Industry, 0373 Oslo, Norway
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18
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Mohanty S, Gokuldoss Prashanth K. Metallic Coatings through Additive Manufacturing: A Review. Materials (Basel) 2023; 16:2325. [PMID: 36984204 PMCID: PMC10056185 DOI: 10.3390/ma16062325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Revised: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Metallic additive manufacturing is expeditiously gaining attention in advanced industries for manufacturing intricate structures for customized applications. However, the inadequate surface quality has inspired the inception of metallic coatings through additive manufacturing methods. This work presents a brief review of the different genres of metallic coatings adapted by industries through additive manufacturing technologies. The methodologies are classified according to the type of allied energies used in the process, such as direct energy deposition, binder jetting, powder bed fusion, hot spray coatings, sheet lamination, etc. Each method is described in detail and supported by relevant literature. The paper also includes the needs, applications, and challenges involved in each process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shalini Mohanty
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Tallinn University of Technology, 12818 Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Konda Gokuldoss Prashanth
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Tallinn University of Technology, 12818 Tallinn, Estonia
- CBCMT, School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 630014, Tamil Nadu, India
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19
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Schlicht S, Drummer D. Eutectic In Situ Modification of Polyamide 12 Processed through Laser-Based Powder Bed Fusion. Materials (Basel) 2023; 16:2050. [PMID: 36903165 PMCID: PMC10003968 DOI: 10.3390/ma16052050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Laser-based powder bed fusion (LPBF) of polymers allows for the additive manufacturing of dense components with high mechanical properties. Due to inherent limitations of present material systems suitable for LPBF of polymers and required high processing temperatures, the present paper investigates the in situ modification of material systems using powder blending of p-aminobenzoic acid and aliphatic polyamide 12, followed by subsequent laser-based additive manufacturing. Prepared powder blends exhibit a considerable reduction of required processing temperatures dependent on the fraction of p-aminobenzoic acid, allowing for the processing of polyamide 12 at a build chamber temperature of 141.5 °C. An elevated fraction of 20 wt% of p-aminobenzoic acid allows for obtaining a considerably increased elongation at break of 24.65% ± 2.87 while exhibiting a reduced ultimate tensile strength. Thermal investigations demonstrate the influence of the thermal material history on thermal properties, associated with the suppression of low-melting crystalline fractions, yielding amorphous material properties of the previously semi-crystalline polymer. Based on complementary infrared spectroscopic analysis, the increased presence of secondary amides can be observed, indicating the influence of both covalently bound aromatic groups and hydrogen-bound supramolecular structures on emerging material properties. The presented approach represents a novel methodology for the energy-efficient in situ preparation of eutectic polyamides, potentially allowing for the manufacturing of tailored material systems with adapted thermal, chemical, and mechanical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Schlicht
- Institute of Polymer Technology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Am Weichselgarten 10, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
- Collaborative Research Center 814, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Am Weichselgarten 10, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Dietmar Drummer
- Institute of Polymer Technology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Am Weichselgarten 10, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
- Collaborative Research Center 814, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Am Weichselgarten 10, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
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20
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Chepiga T, Zhilyaev P, Ryabov A, Simonov AP, Dubinin ON, Firsov DG, Kuzminova YO, Evlashin SA. Process Parameter Selection for Production of Stainless Steel 316L Using Efficient Multi-Objective Bayesian Optimization Algorithm. Materials (Basel) 2023; 16:1050. [PMID: 36770057 PMCID: PMC9919176 DOI: 10.3390/ma16031050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Additive manufacturing is a modern technique to produce parts with a complex geometry. However, the choice of the printing parameters is a time-consuming and costly process. In this study, the parameter optimization for the laser powder bed fusion process was investigated. Using state-of-the art multi-objective Bayesian optimization, the set of the most-promising process parameters (laser power, scanning speed, hatch distance, etc.), which would yield parts with the desired hardness and porosity, was established. The Gaussian process surrogate model was built on 57 empirical data points, and through efficient sampling in the design space, we were able to obtain three points in the Pareto front in just over six iterations. The produced parts had a hardness ranging from 224-235 HV and a porosity in the range of 0.2-0.37%. The trained model recommended using the following parameters for high-quality parts: 58 W, 257 mm/s, 45 µm, with a scan rotation angle of 131 degrees. The proposed methodology greatly reduces the number of experiments, thus saving time and resources. The candidate process parameters prescribed by the model were experimentally validated and tested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timur Chepiga
- Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, 121205 Moscow, Russia
| | - Petr Zhilyaev
- Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, 121205 Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexander Ryabov
- Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, 121205 Moscow, Russia
| | | | - Oleg N. Dubinin
- Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, 121205 Moscow, Russia
- World-Class Research Center, State Marine Technical University, 190121 Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Denis G. Firsov
- Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, 121205 Moscow, Russia
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21
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Polozov I, Gracheva A, Popovich A. Interface Characterization of Bimetallic Ti-6Al-4V/Ti2AlNb Structures Prepared by Selective Laser Melting. Materials (Basel) 2022; 15:8528. [PMID: 36500024 PMCID: PMC9735680 DOI: 10.3390/ma15238528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Additive Manufacturing (AM) of multimaterial components is a promising way of fabricating parts with improved functional properties. It allows for the combination of materials with different properties into a single component. The Ti2AlNb-based intermetallic alloy provides high temperature strength, while the Ti-6Al-4V (Ti64) alloy has good fracture toughness, ductility, and a relatively low cost. A combination of these alloys into a single component can be used to produce advanced multimaterial parts. In this work, Ti2AlNb/Ti-6Al-4V bimetallic structures were fabricated from pre-alloyed powders using the Selective Laser Melting (SLM) process. The effects of high-temperature substrate preheating, post-processing by annealing, and hot isostatic pressing on defect formation, the microstructural evolution of the interface area, and the mechanical properties of the bimetallic samples were investigated. High-temperature substrate preheating during the SLM process was necessary to prevent reheat cracking of the Ti2AlNb part, while annealing and hot isostatic pressing post-processing improved the chemical and microstructural homogeneity of the transition zone and enhanced the tensile properties of the bimetallic structure.
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22
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Kremer R, Etzkorn J, Palkowski H, Foadian F. Corrosion Resistance of 316L/CuSn10 Multi-Material Manufactured by Powder Bed Fusion. Materials (Basel) 2022; 15:8373. [PMID: 36499870 PMCID: PMC9741008 DOI: 10.3390/ma15238373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Revised: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Research and industry are calling for additively manufactured multi-materials, as these are expected to create more efficient components, but there is a lack of information on corrosion resistance, especially since there is a risk of bimetallic corrosion with two metallic components. In this study, the corrosion behaviour of a multi-material made of 316L and CuSn10 is investigated before and after a stress relief annealing using linear sweep voltammetry. For this purpose, a compromise had to be found in the heat treatment parameters in order to be able to treat both materials together. In addition, additively manufactured and rolled samples were investigated and used as a reference. Interaction of the two materials in the multi-material could be demonstrated, but further investigations are necessary to clearly assess the behaviour. In particular, the transition region of the two materials should be investigated. In this study, a stress relief heat treatment at 400 °C caused a slight improvement in the corrosion resistance and reduced the scatter of the measurements significantly. No significant difference was measured between the additively produced and rolled samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Kremer
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Dortmund University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Sonnenstr. 96, 44139 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Johannes Etzkorn
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Dortmund University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Sonnenstr. 96, 44139 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Heinz Palkowski
- Institute of Metallurgy, Clausthal University of Technology, Robert-Koch-Strasse 42, 38678 Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Germany
| | - Farzad Foadian
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Dortmund University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Sonnenstr. 96, 44139 Dortmund, Germany
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23
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Hou ZJ, Wang Q, Zhao CG, Zheng J, Tian JM, Ge XH, Liu YG. Online Monitoring Technology of Metal Powder Bed Fusion Processes: A Review. Materials (Basel) 2022; 15:ma15217598. [PMID: 36363190 PMCID: PMC9656737 DOI: 10.3390/ma15217598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Revised: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Metal powder bed fusion (PBF) is an advanced metal additive manufacturing (AM) technology. Compared with traditional manufacturing techniques, PBF has a higher degree of design freedom. Currently, although PBF has received extensive attention in fields with high-quality standards such as aerospace and automotive, there are some disadvantages, namely poor process quality and insufficient stability, which make it difficult to apply the technology to the manufacture of critical components. In order to surmount these limitations, it is necessary to monitor the process. Online monitoring technology can detect defects in time and provide certain feedback control, so it can greatly enhance the stability of the process, thereby ensuring its quality of the process. This paper presents the current status of online monitoring technology of the metal PBF process from the aspects of powder recoating monitoring, powder bed inspection, building process monitoring, and melt layer detection. Some of the current limitations and future trends are then highlighted. The combination of these four-part monitoring methods can make the quality of PBF parts highly assured. We unanimously believe that this article can be helpful for future research on PBF process monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuo-Jun Hou
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Xiamen University of Technology, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Qing Wang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Xiamen University of Technology, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Chen-Guang Zhao
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Xiamen University of Technology, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Jun Zheng
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Xiamen University of Technology, Xiamen 361021, China
- 3D METALWERKS Co., Ltd., Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Ju-Mei Tian
- Engineering Research Center of Fujian University for Stomatological Biomaterials, Xiamen Medical College, Xiamen 361023, China
| | - Xiao-Hong Ge
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Xiamen University of Technology, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Yuan-Gang Liu
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China
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24
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Peng X, Kong L, Han W, Wang S. Multi-Sensor Image Fusion Method for Defect Detection in Powder Bed Fusion. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:8023. [PMID: 36298369 PMCID: PMC9607996 DOI: 10.3390/s22208023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Revised: 10/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Multi-sensor defect detection technology is a research hotspot for monitoring the powder bed fusion (PBF) processes, of which the quality of the captured defect images and the detection capability is the vital issue. Thus, in this study, we utilize visible information as well as infrared imaging to detect the defects in PBF parts that conventional optical inspection technologies cannot easily detect. A multi-source image acquisition system was designed to simultaneously acquire brightness intensity and infrared intensity. Then, a multi-sensor image fusion method based on finite discrete shearlet transform (FDST), multi-scale sequential toggle operator (MSSTO), and an improved pulse-coupled neural networks (PCNN) framework were proposed to fuse information in the visible and infrared spectra to detect defects in challenging conditions. The image fusion performance of the proposed method was evaluated with different indices and compared with other fusion algorithms. The experimental results show that the proposed method achieves satisfactory performance in terms of the averaged information entropy, average gradient, spatial frequency, standard deviation, peak signal-to-noise ratio, and structural similarity, which are 7.979, 0.0405, 29.836, 76.454, 20.078 and 0.748, respectively. Furthermore, the comparison experiments indicate that the proposed method can effectively improve image contrast and richness, enhance the display of image edge contour and texture information, and also retain and fuse the main information in the source image. The research provides a potential solution for defect information fusion and characterization analysis in multi-sensor detection systems in the PBF process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing Peng
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Ultra-Precision Optical Manufacturing, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
- College of Intelligence Science, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China
- Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Integrated Logistics Support, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China
| | - Lingbao Kong
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Ultra-Precision Optical Manufacturing, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
- Yiwu Research Institute, Fudan University, Chengbei Road, Yiwu City 322000, China
| | - Wei Han
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Ultra-Precision Optical Manufacturing, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Shixiang Wang
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Ultra-Precision Optical Manufacturing, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
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25
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Karcz S, Skrabalak G, Brudnik A, Gajoch G. Dust Particle Counter for Powder Bed Fusion Process. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:7614. [PMID: 36236713 PMCID: PMC9571449 DOI: 10.3390/s22197614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Revised: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The paper presents a novel dust detector based on an innovative laser system that can be successfully used in applications where continuous dust monitoring is necessary. The measurements obtained with FeNi18Co9Mo5 (maraging MS1 steel) particles are compared with the particle fall times calculated using the Navier-Stokes equation. The measurement powder was subjected to sieve analysis and laser system detection. Based on the results obtained, a formula was developed to determine the dust concentration depending on the number and size of particles. With filtration applied, the detector measurement range was from 16 to 100 µm. The developed solution can be the basis for the development of a dedicated sensor for powder bed fusion processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanisław Karcz
- Łukasiewicz Research Network—Krakow Institute of Technology, Zakopiańska 73 Street, 30-418 Cracow, Poland
| | - Grzegorz Skrabalak
- Łukasiewicz Research Network—Krakow Institute of Technology, Zakopiańska 73 Street, 30-418 Cracow, Poland
| | - Andrzej Brudnik
- Institute of Electronics, AGH University of Science and Technology, Al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Cracow, Poland
| | - Grzegorz Gajoch
- Institute of Electronics, AGH University of Science and Technology, Al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Cracow, Poland
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26
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Lee HJ. Effects of the Energy Density on Pores, Hardness, Surface Roughness, and Tensile Characteristics of Deposited ASTM 316L Specimens with Powder-Bed Fusion Process. Materials (Basel) 2022; 15:6672. [PMID: 36234012 PMCID: PMC9573657 DOI: 10.3390/ma15196672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Revised: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Powder bed fusion (PBF) is a typical metal-AM process. Studies on the process parameters are required to fabricate the desired shape without defects in the PBF process. The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of energy density on the pore, hardness, surface roughness, and tensile characteristics of deposited ASTM 316L specimens using a powder-bed fusion process. Twenty-seven types of specimens with different laser powers, scanning speeds, and overlap ratios were fabricated using the PBF process. The effects of the energy density on the porosity, hardness, surface roughness, tensile strength, and fracture properties of ASTM 316L specimens were examined. The relationships between these properties and energy density are discussed. A critical energy density level was suggested as 79 J/mm3 considering these characteristics. With the critical energy density level, relative density, surface roughness (Ra) and hardness were observed 99.5%, 1.2 μm, and 240 HV, respectively. Additionally, these characteristics were improved with increasing energy density. Five representative conditions were chosen to fabricate tensile specimens with the ASTM 316L powder through the PBF process. Tensile characteristics, including ultimate strength, yield strength, strain, and fracture shape, were examined for different energy densities. The best tensile characteristics were observed with the highest energy density level of 155 J/mm3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ho-Jin Lee
- Smart Manufacturing Technology R&D Group, Korea Institute of Industrial Technology, Daegu 42994, Korea
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27
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Villapun Puzas VM, Carter LN, Schröder C, Colavita PE, Hoey DA, Webber MA, Addison O, Shepherd DET, Attallah MM, Grover LM, Cox SC. Surface Free Energy Dominates the Biological Interactions of Postprocessed Additively Manufactured Ti-6Al-4V. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2022; 8:4311-4326. [PMID: 36127820 PMCID: PMC9554875 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.2c00298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Additive manufacturing (AM) has emerged as a disruptive
technique
within healthcare because of its ability to provide personalized devices;
however, printed metal parts still present surface and microstructural
defects, which may compromise mechanical and biological interactions.
This has made physical and/or chemical postprocessing techniques essential
for metal AM devices, although limited fundamental knowledge is available
on how alterations in physicochemical properties influence AM biological
outcomes. For this purpose, herein, powder bed fusion Ti-6Al-4V samples
were postprocessed with three industrially relevant techniques: polishing,
passivation, and vibratory finishing. These surfaces were thoroughly
characterized in terms of roughness, chemistry, wettability, surface
free energy, and surface ζ-potential. A significant increase
in Staphylococcus epidermidis colonization
was observed on both polished and passivated samples, which was linked
to high surface free energy donor γ– values
in the acid–base, γAB component. Early osteoblast
attachment and proliferation (24 h) were not influenced by these properties,
although increased mineralization was observed for both these samples.
In contrast, osteoblast differentiation on stainless steel was driven
by a combination of roughness and chemistry. Collectively, this study
highlights that surface free energy is a key driver between AM surfaces
and cell interactions. In particular, while low acid–base components
resulted in a desired reduction in S. epidermidis colonization, this was followed by reduced mineralization. Thus,
while surface free energy can be used as a guide to AM device development,
optimization of bacterial and mammalian cell interactions should be
attained through a combination of different postprocessing techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luke N Carter
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston B15 2TT, U.K
| | - Christian Schröder
- School of Chemistry, CRANN and AMBER Research Centres, Trinity College Dublin, College Green, Dublin 2 D02 PN4, Ireland
| | - Paula E Colavita
- School of Chemistry, CRANN and AMBER Research Centres, Trinity College Dublin, College Green, Dublin 2 D02 PN4, Ireland
| | - David A Hoey
- Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College, Trinity Centre for Biomedical Engineering, Dublin D02 R590, Ireland.,Department of Mechanical Manufacturing and Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, Trinity College, Dublin D02 DK07, Ireland
| | - Mark A Webber
- Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Colney NR4 7UQ, U.K.,Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Colney NR4 7TJ, U.K
| | - Owen Addison
- Faculty of Dentistry, Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, King's College London, London SE1 9RT, U.K
| | | | - Moataz M Attallah
- School of Materials and Metallurgy, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston B15 2TT, U.K
| | - Liam M Grover
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston B15 2TT, U.K
| | - Sophie C Cox
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston B15 2TT, U.K
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28
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Xu Y, Huang H, Wu M, Tian Y, Wan Q, Shi B, Hu T, Spintzyk S. Rapid Additive Manufacturing of a Superlight Obturator for Large Oronasal Fistula in Pediatric Patient. Laryngoscope 2022; 133:1507-1512. [PMID: 36098478 DOI: 10.1002/lary.30352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
This study developed a novel digital workflow to fabricate a 3D printed hollow obturator for the prosthetic reconstruction of palatal fistula. It will provide cleft surgeons and therapists a choice for treating children with large palatal fistula before the appropriate age for surgical reconstruction. Laryngoscope, 2022.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yichen Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Department of Oral Prosthodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Hanyao Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Min Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yuting Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Department of Preventive Dentistry, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Qianbin Wan
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Department of Oral Prosthodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Bing Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Tao Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Department of Preventive Dentistry, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Sebastian Spintzyk
- ADMiRE Lab-Additive Manufacturing, Intelligent Robotics, Sensors and Engineering, School of Engineering and IT, Carinthia University of Applied Sciences, Villach, Austria
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29
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Grzelak K, Bielecki M, Kluczyński J, Szachogłuchowicz I, Śnieżek L, Torzewski J, Łuszczek J, Słoboda Ł, Wachowski M, Komorek Z, Małek M, Zygmuntowicz J. A Comparative Study on Laser Powder Bed Fusion of Differently Atomized 316L Stainless Steel. Materials (Basel) 2022; 15:ma15144938. [PMID: 35888403 PMCID: PMC9317792 DOI: 10.3390/ma15144938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Revised: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The significant growth of Additive Manufacturing (AM), visible over the last ten years, has driven an increase in demand for small gradation metallic powders of a size lower than 100 µm. Until now, most affordable powders for AM have been produced using gas atomization. Recently, a new, alternative method of powder production based on ultrasonic atomization with melting by electric arc has appeared. This paper summarizes the preliminary research results of AM samples made of two AISI 316L steel powder batches, one of which was obtained during Ultrasonic Atomization (UA) and the other during Plasma Arc Gas Atomization (PAGA). The comparison starts from powder particle statistical distribution, chemical composition analysis, density, and flowability measurements. After powder analysis, test samples were produced using AM to observe the differences in microstructure, porosity, and hardness. Finally, the test campaign covered an analysis of mechanical properties, including tensile testing with Digital Image Correlation (DIC) and Charpy’s impact tests. A comparative study of parts made of ultrasonic and gas atomization powders confirms the likelihood that both methods can deliver material of similar properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Grzelak
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Robots & Machine Design, Military University of Technology, 2 Gen. S. Kaliskiego St., 00-908 Warsaw, Poland; (K.G.); (I.S.); (L.Ś.); (J.T.); (J.Ł.); (M.W.)
| | - Marcin Bielecki
- 3D LAB Sp. z o.o. Farbiarska 63B St., 02-862 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Janusz Kluczyński
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Robots & Machine Design, Military University of Technology, 2 Gen. S. Kaliskiego St., 00-908 Warsaw, Poland; (K.G.); (I.S.); (L.Ś.); (J.T.); (J.Ł.); (M.W.)
- Correspondence: (J.K.); (Ł.S.)
| | - Ireneusz Szachogłuchowicz
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Robots & Machine Design, Military University of Technology, 2 Gen. S. Kaliskiego St., 00-908 Warsaw, Poland; (K.G.); (I.S.); (L.Ś.); (J.T.); (J.Ł.); (M.W.)
| | - Lucjan Śnieżek
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Robots & Machine Design, Military University of Technology, 2 Gen. S. Kaliskiego St., 00-908 Warsaw, Poland; (K.G.); (I.S.); (L.Ś.); (J.T.); (J.Ł.); (M.W.)
| | - Janusz Torzewski
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Robots & Machine Design, Military University of Technology, 2 Gen. S. Kaliskiego St., 00-908 Warsaw, Poland; (K.G.); (I.S.); (L.Ś.); (J.T.); (J.Ł.); (M.W.)
| | - Jakub Łuszczek
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Robots & Machine Design, Military University of Technology, 2 Gen. S. Kaliskiego St., 00-908 Warsaw, Poland; (K.G.); (I.S.); (L.Ś.); (J.T.); (J.Ł.); (M.W.)
| | - Łukasz Słoboda
- 3D LAB Sp. z o.o. Farbiarska 63B St., 02-862 Warsaw, Poland;
- Correspondence: (J.K.); (Ł.S.)
| | - Marcin Wachowski
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Robots & Machine Design, Military University of Technology, 2 Gen. S. Kaliskiego St., 00-908 Warsaw, Poland; (K.G.); (I.S.); (L.Ś.); (J.T.); (J.Ł.); (M.W.)
| | - Zenon Komorek
- Faculty of Materials Engineering, Institute of Materials Engineering, Military University of Technology, 2 Gen. S. Kaliskiego St., 00-908 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Marcin Małek
- Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geodesy, Institute of Civil Engineering, Military University of Technology, 2 Gen. S. Kaliskiego St., 00-908 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Justyna Zygmuntowicz
- Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, 141 Woloska St., 02-507 Warsaw, Poland;
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30
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Zárybnická L, Petrů J, Krpec P, Pagáč M. Effect of Additives and Print Orientation on the Properties of Laser Sintering-Printed Polyamide 12 Components. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:1172. [PMID: 35335502 DOI: 10.3390/polym14061172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, is becoming increasingly popular for prototype processing in industrial practice. Laser sintering, which is a laser powder bed fusion technique, is a versatile and common 3D printing technology, which enables compact and high-quality products. Polyamide 12, a popular 3D printing material, provides reliable mechanical and thermal properties. Weaknesses in applying this technology for polyamide 12 include incomplete information regarding the application of various types of additives and different printing orientations with respect to the properties. This study aimed to investigate the influence of various additives (including carbon fiber, glass fiber, flame retardant, and aluminum powder) combined with polyamide 12, using processing of predefined powder refreshing mixture on the properties of a finished product. The thermal, surface, and mechanical properties of samples printed with five different polyamides 12-based powders at three different print orientations were investigated. It was found that the inclusion of additives decreases the tensile strength and increases the surface roughness of printed components—however, the toughness increases. The results can assist designers in selecting an appropriate material that will produce a finished part with the required properties for a given application.
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31
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Kulinowski P, Malczewski P, Łaszcz M, Baran E, Milanowski B, Kuprianowicz M, Dorożyński P. Development of Composite, Reinforced, Highly Drug-Loaded Pharmaceutical Printlets Manufactured by Selective Laser Sintering-In Search of Relevant Excipients for Pharmaceutical 3D Printing. Materials (Basel) 2022; 15:ma15062142. [PMID: 35329594 PMCID: PMC8950795 DOI: 10.3390/ma15062142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2022] [Revised: 03/06/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
3D printing by selective laser sintering (SLS) of high-dose drug delivery systems using pure brittle crystalline active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) is possible but impractical. Currently used pharmaceutical grade excipients, including polymers, are primarily designed for powder compression, ensuring good mechanical properties. Using these excipients for SLS usually leads to poor mechanical properties of printed tablets (printlets). Composite printlets consisting of sintered carbon-stained polyamide (PA12) and metronidazole (Met) were manufactured by SLS to overcome the issue. The printlets were characterized using DSC and IR spectroscopy together with an assessment of mechanical properties. Functional properties of the printlets, i.e., drug release in USP3 and USP4 apparatus together with flotation assessment, were evaluated. The printlets contained 80 to 90% of Met (therapeutic dose ca. 600 mg), had hardness above 40 N (comparable with compressed tablets) and were of good quality with internal porous structure, which assured flotation. The thermal stability of the composite material and the identity of its constituents were confirmed. Elastic PA12 mesh maintained the shape and structure of the printlets during drug dissolution and flotation. Laser speed and the addition of an osmotic agent in low content influenced drug release virtually not changing composition of the printlet; time to release 80% of Met varied from 0.5 to 5 h. Composite printlets consisting of elastic insoluble PA12 mesh filled with high content of crystalline Met were manufactured by 3D SLS printing. Dissolution modification by the addition of an osmotic agent was demonstrated. The study shows the need to define the requirements for excipients dedicated to 3D printing and to search for appropriate materials for this purpose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piotr Kulinowski
- Institute of Technology, Pedagogical University of Cracow, Podchorążych 2, 30-084 Cracow, Poland; (P.K.); (P.M.); (E.B.)
| | - Piotr Malczewski
- Institute of Technology, Pedagogical University of Cracow, Podchorążych 2, 30-084 Cracow, Poland; (P.K.); (P.M.); (E.B.)
| | - Marta Łaszcz
- Department of Falsified Medicines and Medical Devices, National Medicines Institute, Chełmska 30/34, 00-725 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Ewelina Baran
- Institute of Technology, Pedagogical University of Cracow, Podchorążych 2, 30-084 Cracow, Poland; (P.K.); (P.M.); (E.B.)
| | - Bartłomiej Milanowski
- Chair and Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, ul. Grunwaldzka 6, 60-780 Poznan, Poland;
- GENERICA Pharmaceutical Lab, Regionalne Centrum Zdrowia Sp. z o.o., Na Kępie 3, 64-360 Zbąszyń, Poland;
| | - Mateusz Kuprianowicz
- GENERICA Pharmaceutical Lab, Regionalne Centrum Zdrowia Sp. z o.o., Na Kępie 3, 64-360 Zbąszyń, Poland;
| | - Przemysław Dorożyński
- Department of Drug Technology and Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
- Department of Spectroscopic Methods, National Medicines Institute, Chełmska 30/34, 00-725 Warsaw, Poland
- Correspondence:
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32
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Koh HK, Moo JGS, Sing SL, Yeong WY. Use of Fumed Silica Nanostructured Additives in Selective Laser Melting and Fabrication of Steel Matrix Nanocomposites. Materials (Basel) 2022; 15:1869. [PMID: 35269100 DOI: 10.3390/ma15051869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Revised: 02/19/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The advancement of additive manufacturing (AM) for metal matrix nanocomposites (MMNCs) is gaining enormous attention due to their potential improvement of physical and mechanical performance. When using nanostructured additives as reinforcements in 3D printed metal composites and with the aid of selective laser melting (SLM), the mechanical properties of the composites can be tailored. The nanostructured additive AEROSIL® fumed silica is both cost-effective and beneficial in the production of MMNCs using SLM. In this study, both hydrophobic and hydrophilic fumed silicas were shown to successfully achieve homogenous blends with commercial 316L stainless steel powder. The powder blends, which exhibited better flow, were then used to fabricate samples using SLM. The samples’ microstructure demonstrated that smaller grains were present in the composites, resulting in improvements in mechanical properties by grain refinement compared to those of 316L stainless steel samples.
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33
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Asfia A, Deepak B, Novak JI, Rolfe B, Kron T. Multi-jet fusion for additive manufacturing of radiotherapy immobilization devices: Effects of color, thickness, and orientation on surface dose and tensile strength. J Appl Clin Med Phys 2022; 23:e13548. [PMID: 35212139 PMCID: PMC8992947 DOI: 10.1002/acm2.13548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Immobilization devices are used to obtain reproducible patient setup during radiotherapy treatment, improving accuracy, and reducing damage to surrounding healthy tissue. Additive manufacturing is emerging as a viable method for manufacturing and personalizing such devices. The goal of this study was to investigate the dosimetric and mechanical properties of a recent additive technology called multi‐jet fusion (MJF) for radiotherapy applications, including the ability for this process to produce full color parts. Skin dose testing included 50 samples with dimensions 100 mm × 100 mm with five different thicknesses (1 mm, 2 mm, 3 mm, 4 mm, and 5 mm) and grouped into colored (cyan, magenta, yellow, and black (CMYK) additives) and non‐colored (white) samples. Results using a 6 MV beam found that surface dose readings were predominantly independent of the colored additives. However, for an 18 MV beam, the additives affected the surface dose, with black recording significantly lower surface dose readings compare to other colors. The accompanying tensile testing of 175 samples designed to ASTM D638 type I standards found that the black agent resulted in the lowest ultimate tensile strength (UTS) for each thickness of 1–5 mm. It was also found that the print orientation had influence on the skin dose and mechanical properties of the samples. When all data were combined and analyzed using a multiple‐criteria decision‐making technique, magenta was found to offer the best balance between high UTS and low surface dose across different thicknesses and orientations, making it an optimal choice for immobilization devices. This is the first study to consider the use of color MJF for radiotherapy immobilization devices, and suggests that color additives can affect both dosimetry and mechanical performance. This is important as industrial additive technologies like MJF become increasingly adopted in the health and medical sectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amirhossein Asfia
- School of Engineering, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Built Environment, Deakin University, Victoria, Australia.,ARC Industrial Transformation Training Centre in Additive Bio-manufacturing, Queensland University of Technology, Queensland, Australia
| | - Basaula Deepak
- Department of Physical Science, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Victoria, Australia
| | - James Ivan Novak
- School of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Architecture and Information Technology, The University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia.,Herston Biofabrication Institute, Metro North Hospital and Health Service, Level 12, Block 7, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Herston, Queensland, Australia
| | - Bernard Rolfe
- School of Engineering, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Built Environment, Deakin University, Victoria, Australia
| | - Tomas Kron
- ARC Industrial Transformation Training Centre in Additive Bio-manufacturing, Queensland University of Technology, Queensland, Australia.,Department of Physical Science, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Victoria, Australia
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34
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Schlicht S, Jaksch A, Drummer D. Inline Quality Control through Optical Deep Learning-Based Porosity Determination for Powder Bed Fusion of Polymers. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14050885. [PMID: 35267706 PMCID: PMC8912702 DOI: 10.3390/polym14050885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Powder bed fusion of thermoplastic polymers is a powder based additive manufacturing process that allows for manufacturing individualized components with high geometric freedom. Despite achieving higher mechanical properties compared to other additive manufacturing processes, statistical variations in part properties and the occurrence of defects cannot be avoided systematically. In this paper, a novel method for the inline assessment of part porosity is proposed in order to detect and to compensate for inherent limitations in the reproducibility of manufactured parts. The proposed approach is based on monitoring the parameter-specific decay of the optical melt pool radiance during the melting process, influenced by a time dependency of optical scattering within the melt pool. The underlying methodology compromises the regression of the time-dependent optical melt pool properties, assessed in visible light using conventional camera technology, and the resulting part properties by means of artificial neural networks. By applying deep residual neural networks for correlating time-resolved optical process properties and the corresponding part porosity, an inline assessment of the spatially resolved part porosity can be achieved. The authors demonstrate the suitability of the proposed approach for the inline porosity assessment of varying part geometries, processing parameters, and material aging states, using Polyamide 12. Consequently, the approach represents a methodological foundation for novel monitoring solutions, the enhanced understanding of parameter-material interactions and the inline-development of novel material systems in powder bed fusion of polymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Schlicht
- Institute of Polymer Technology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Am Weichselgarten 10, 91058 Erlangen, Germany;
- Correspondence:
| | - Andreas Jaksch
- Collaborative Research Center 814, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Am Weichselgarten 10, 91058 Erlangen, Germany;
| | - Dietmar Drummer
- Institute of Polymer Technology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Am Weichselgarten 10, 91058 Erlangen, Germany;
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35
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Kudrna L, Ma QP, Hajnys J, Mesicek J, Halama R, Fojtik F, Hornacek L. Restoration and Possible Upgrade of a Historical Motorcycle Part Using Powder Bed Fusion. Materials (Basel) 2022; 15:ma15041460. [PMID: 35207999 PMCID: PMC8879024 DOI: 10.3390/ma15041460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Revised: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Reverse engineering is the process of creating a digital version of an existing part without any knowledge in advance about the design intent. Due to 3D printing, the reconstructed part can be rapidly fabricated for prototyping or even for practical usage. To showcase this combination, this study presents a workflow on how to restore a motorcycle braking pedal from material SS316L with the Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) technology. Firstly, the CAD model of the original braking pedal was created. Before the actual PBF printing, the braking pedal printing process was simulated to identify the possible imperfections. The printed braking pedal was then subjected to quality control in terms of the shape distortion from its CAD counterpart and strength assessments, conducted both numerically and physically. As a result, the exterior shape of the braking pedal was restored. Additionally, by means of material assessments and physical tests, it was able to prove that the restored pedal was fully functional. Finally, an approach was proposed to optimize the braking pedal with a lattice structure to utilize the advantages the PBF technology offers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Kudrna
- Department of Machine and Industrial Design, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic;
| | - Quoc-Phu Ma
- Department of Machining, Assembly and Engineering Metrology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic; (J.H.); (J.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +420-607-326-979
| | - Jiri Hajnys
- Department of Machining, Assembly and Engineering Metrology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic; (J.H.); (J.M.)
| | - Jakub Mesicek
- Department of Machining, Assembly and Engineering Metrology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic; (J.H.); (J.M.)
| | - Radim Halama
- Department of Applied Mechanics, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic; (R.H.); (F.F.)
| | - Frantisek Fojtik
- Department of Applied Mechanics, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic; (R.H.); (F.F.)
| | - Lukas Hornacek
- HORIBA Czech Olomouc Factory, Zeleznicni 512/7, 772 00 Olomouc, Czech Republic;
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36
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Young Z, Qu M, Coday MM, Guo Q, Hojjatzadeh SMH, Escano LI, Fezzaa K, Chen L. Effects of Particle Size Distribution with Efficient Packing on Powder Flowability and Selective Laser Melting Process. Materials (Basel) 2022; 15:ma15030705. [PMID: 35160651 PMCID: PMC8836489 DOI: 10.3390/ma15030705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Revised: 11/19/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
The powder bed-based additive manufacturing (AM) process contains uncertainties in the powder spreading process and powder bed quality, leading to problems in repeatability and quality of the additively manufactured parts. This work focuses on identifying the uncertainty induced by particle size distribution (PSD) on powder flowability and the laser melting process, using Ti6Al4V as a model material. The flowability test results show that the effect of PSDs on flowability is not linear, rather the PSDs near dense packing ratios cause significant reductions in flowability (indicated by the increase in the avalanche angle and break energy of the powders measured by a revolution powder analyzer). The effects of PSDs on the selective laser melting (SLM) process are identified by using in-situ high-speed X-ray imaging to observe the melt pool dynamics during the melting process. The results show that the powder beds made of powders with dense packing ratios exhibit larger build height during laser melting. The effects of PSD with efficient packing on powder flowability and selective laser melting process revealed in this work are important for understanding process uncertainties induced by feedstock powders and for designing mitigation approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary Young
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO 65409, USA; (Z.Y.); (M.M.C.)
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (M.Q.); (Q.G.); (S.M.H.H.); (L.I.E.)
| | - Minglei Qu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (M.Q.); (Q.G.); (S.M.H.H.); (L.I.E.)
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Meelap Michael Coday
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO 65409, USA; (Z.Y.); (M.M.C.)
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (M.Q.); (Q.G.); (S.M.H.H.); (L.I.E.)
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Qilin Guo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (M.Q.); (Q.G.); (S.M.H.H.); (L.I.E.)
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Seyed Mohammad H. Hojjatzadeh
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO 65409, USA; (Z.Y.); (M.M.C.)
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (M.Q.); (Q.G.); (S.M.H.H.); (L.I.E.)
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Luis I. Escano
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (M.Q.); (Q.G.); (S.M.H.H.); (L.I.E.)
| | - Kamel Fezzaa
- Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, X-ray Science Division, Lemont, IL 60439, USA;
| | - Lianyi Chen
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO 65409, USA; (Z.Y.); (M.M.C.)
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (M.Q.); (Q.G.); (S.M.H.H.); (L.I.E.)
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
- Correspondence:
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Vakifahmetoglu C, Hasdemir B, Biasetto L. Spreadability of Metal Powders for Laser- Powder Bed Fusion via Simple Image Processing Steps. Materials (Basel) 2021; 15:205. [PMID: 35009353 PMCID: PMC8746019 DOI: 10.3390/ma15010205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Revised: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
This paper investigates the spreadability of the spherical CoCrWMo powder for laser- powder bed fusion (PBF-LB) by using image processing algorithms coded in MATLAB. Besides, it also aims to examine the spreadability dependence with the other characteristics such as powder size distribution, apparent density, angle of repose. Powder blends in four different particle size distributions are prepared, characterized, and spreadability tests are performed with the PBF-LB. The results demonstrate that an increase in fine particle ratio by volume (below 10 µm) enhances the agglomeration and decreases the flowability, causing poor spreadability. These irregularities on the spread layers are quantified with simple illumination invariant analysis. A clear relation between powder spreadability and 3D printed structures properties in terms of residual porosity could not be defined since structural defects in 3D printed parts also depends on other processing parameters such as spatter formation or powder size over layer height ratio.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cekdar Vakifahmetoglu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Izmir Institute of Technology, Urla, Izmir 35430, Turkey;
| | - Beyza Hasdemir
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Izmir Institute of Technology, Urla, Izmir 35430, Turkey;
- Sentes-BIR, R&D Center, Izmir 35730, Turkey
| | - Lisa Biasetto
- Department of Management and Engineering, University of Padova, Stradella San Nicola 3, 36100 Vicenza, Italy;
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Arnold C, Breuning C, Körner C. Electron-Optical In Situ Imaging for the Assessment of Accuracy in Electron Beam Powder Bed Fusion. Materials (Basel) 2021; 14:7240. [PMID: 34885395 PMCID: PMC8658617 DOI: 10.3390/ma14237240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Revised: 11/19/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
The current study evaluates the capabilities of electron-optical (ELO) in situ imaging with respect to monitoring and prediction of manufacturing precision in electron beam powder bed fusion. Post-process X-ray computed tomography of two different as-built parts is used to quantitatively evaluate the accuracy and limitations of ELO imaging. Additionally, a thermodynamic simulation is performed to improve the understanding of ELO data and to assess the feasibility of predicting dimensional accuracy numerically. It is demonstrated that ELO imaging captures the molten layers accurately (deviations <100 μm) and indicates the creation of surface roughness. However, some geometrical features of the as-built parts exhibit local inaccuracies associated with thermal stress-induced deformation (deviations up to 500 μm) which cannot be captured by ELO imaging. It is shown that the comparison between in situ and post-process data enables a quantification of these effects which might provide the possibility for developing effective countermeasures in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Arnold
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Chair of Materials Science and Engineering for Metals, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Martensstr. 5, 91058 Erlangen, Germany; (C.B.); (C.K.)
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Lanzl L, Drummer D. Process Behavior of Short Glass Fiber Filled Systems during Powder Bed Fusion and Its Effect on Part Dimensions. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13183144. [PMID: 34578045 PMCID: PMC8472856 DOI: 10.3390/polym13183144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Revised: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
In powder bed fusion of polymers, filled systems can provide a wide range of part properties, which is still a deficit in additive manufacturing, as the material variety is limited. Glass fiber filled polymers provide a higher strength and stiffness in parts; nevertheless, the process behavior differs from neat polymer systems. In this study, the optical properties and their effect on the part dimensions are analyzed. A higher glass fiber content leads to an increased absorption of laser energy, while the specific heat capacity decreases. This results in larger part dimensions due to higher energy input into the powder bed. The aim of the study is to gain process understanding in terms of ongoing mechanisms during processing filled systems on the one hand and to derive strategies for filled polymer systems in powder bed fusion on the other hand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia Lanzl
- Institute of Polymer Technology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Am Weichselgarten 9, D-91058 Erlangen, Germany;
- Collaborative Research Center 814—Additive Manufacturing, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU), Am Weichselgarten 9, D-91058 Erlangen, Germany
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-9131-8529759
| | - Dietmar Drummer
- Institute of Polymer Technology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Am Weichselgarten 9, D-91058 Erlangen, Germany;
- Collaborative Research Center 814—Additive Manufacturing, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU), Am Weichselgarten 9, D-91058 Erlangen, Germany
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40
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Runström Eden G, Tinnerberg H, Rosell L, Möller R, Almstrand AC, Bredberg A. Exploring Methods for Surveillance of Occupational Exposure from Additive Manufacturing in Four Different Industrial Facilities. Ann Work Expo Health 2021; 66:163-177. [PMID: 34486024 PMCID: PMC8855698 DOI: 10.1093/annweh/wxab070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Revised: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
3D printing, a type of additive manufacturing (AM), is a rapidly expanding field. Some adverse health effects have been associated with exposure to printing emissions, which makes occupational exposure studies important. There is a lack of exposure studies, particularly from printing methods other than material extrusion (ME). The presented study aimed to evaluate measurement methods for exposure assessment in AM environments and to measure exposure and emissions from four different printing methods [powder bed fusion (PBF), material extrusion (ME), material jetting (MJ), and vat photopolymerization] in industry. Structured exposure diaries and volatile organic compound (VOC) sensors were used over a 5-day working week. Personal and stationary VOC samples and real-time particle measurements were taken for 1 day per facility. Personal inhalable and respirable dust samples were taken during PBF and MJ AM. The use of structured exposure diaries in combination with measurement data revealed that comparatively little time is spent on actual printing and the main exposure comes from post-processing tasks. VOC and particle instruments that log for a longer period are a useful tool as they facilitate the identification of work tasks with high emissions, highlight the importance of ventilation and give a more gathered view of variations in exposure. No alarming levels of VOCs or dust were detected during print nor post-processing in these facilities as adequate preventive measures were installed. As there are a few studies reporting negative health effects, it is still important to keep the exposure as low as reasonable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gunilla Runström Eden
- University of Gothenburg, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Håkan Tinnerberg
- University of Gothenburg, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Lars Rosell
- RISE, Research Institutes of Sweden, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Rickie Möller
- University of Gothenburg, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Ann-Charlotte Almstrand
- University of Gothenburg, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Anna Bredberg
- RISE, Research Institutes of Sweden, Gothenburg, Sweden
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Polozov I, Starikov K, Popovich A, Sufiiarov V. Mitigating Inhomogeneity and Tailoring the Microstructure of Selective Laser Melted Titanium Orthorhombic Alloy by Heat Treatment, Hot Isostatic Pressing, and Multiple Laser Exposures. Materials (Basel) 2021; 14:ma14174946. [PMID: 34501035 PMCID: PMC8434476 DOI: 10.3390/ma14174946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Titanium orthorhombic alloys based on intermetallic Ti2AlNb-phase are attractive materials for lightweight high-temperature applications. However, conventional manufacturing of Ti2AlNb-based alloys is costly and labor-consuming. Additive Manufacturing is an attractive way of producing parts from Ti2AlNb-based alloys. High-temperature substrate preheating during Selective Laser Melting is required to obtain crack-free intermetallic alloys. Due to the nature of substrate preheating, the temperature profile along the build height might be uneven leading to inhomogeneous microstructure and defects. The microstructural homogeneity of the alloy along the build direction was evaluated. The feasibility of mitigating the microstructural inhomogeneity was investigated by fabricating Ti2AlNb-alloy samples with graded microstructure and subjecting them to annealing. Hot isostatic pressing allowed us to achieve a homogeneous microstructure, eliminate residual micro defects, and improve mechanical properties with tensile strength reaching 1027 MPa and 860 MPa at room temperature and 650 °C, correspondingly. Annealing of the microstructurally graded alloy at 1050 °C allowed us to obtain a homogeneous B2 + O microstructure with a uniform microhardness distribution. The results of the study showed that the microstructural inhomogeneity of the titanium orthorhombic alloy obtained by SLM can be mitigated by annealing or hot isostatic pressing. Additionally, it was shown that by applying multiple-laser exposure for processing each layer it is possible to locally tailor the phase volume and morphology and achieve microstructure and properties similar to the Ti2AlNb-alloy obtained at higher preheating temperatures.
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Chiba A, Daino Y, Aoyagi K, Yamanaka K. Smoke Suppression in Electron Beam Melting of Inconel 718 Alloy Powder Based on Insulator-Metal Transition of Surface Oxide Film by Mechanical Stimulation. Materials (Basel) 2021; 14:4662. [PMID: 34443184 DOI: 10.3390/ma14164662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Revised: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
In powder bed fusion–electron beam melting, the alloy powder can scatter under electron beam irradiation. When this phenomenon—known as smoking—occurs, it makes the PBF-EBM process almost impossible. Therefore, avoiding smoking in EBM is an important research issue. In this study, we aimed to clarify the effects of powder bed preheating and mechanical stimulation on the suppression of smoking in the powder bed fusion–electron beam melting process. Direct current electrical resistivity and alternating current impedance spectroscopy measurements were conducted on Inconel 718 alloy powder at room temperature and elevated temperatures before and after mechanical stimulation (ball milling for 10–60 min) to investigate changes in the electrical properties of the surface oxide film, alongside X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy to identify the surface chemical composition. Smoking tests confirmed that preheating and ball milling both suppressed smoking. Furthermore, smoking did not occur after ball milling, even when the powder bed was not preheated. This is because the oxide film undergoes a dielectric–metallic transition due to the lattice strain introduced by ball milling. Our results are expected to benefit the development of the powder bed fusion–electron beam melting processes from the perspective of materials technology and optimization of the process conditions and powder properties to suppress smoking.
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Deisenroth DC, Mekhontsev S, Lane B, Hanssen L, Zhirnov I, Khromchenko V, Grantham S, Cardenas-Garcia D, Donmez A. Measurement Uncertainty of Surface Temperature Distributions for Laser Powder Bed Fusion Processes. J Res Natl Inst Stand Technol 2021; 126:126013. [PMID: 38469441 PMCID: PMC10112122 DOI: 10.6028/jres.126.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
This paper describes advances in measuring the characteristic spatial distribution of surface temperature and emissivity during laser-metal interaction under conditions relevant for laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) additive manufacturing processes. Detailed descriptions of the measurement process, results, and approaches to determining uncertainties are provided. Measurement uncertainties have complex dependencies on multiple process parameters, so the methodology is demonstrated on one set of process parameters and one material. Well-established literature values for high-purity nickel solidification temperature and emissivity at the solidification temperature were used to evaluate the predicted uncertainty of the measurements. The standard temperature measurement uncertainty is found to be approximately 0.9% of the absolute temperature (16 AC), and the standard relative emissivity measurement uncertainty is found to be approximately 8% at the solidification point of high-purity nickel, both of which are satisfactory. This paper also outlines several potential sources of test uncertainties, which may require additional experimental evaluation. The largest of these are the metal vapor and ejecta that are produced as process by-products, which can potentially affect the imaging quality, reflectometry results, and thermal signature of the process, while also affecting the process of laser power delivery. Furthermore, the current paper focuses strictly on the uncertainties of the emissivity and temperature measurement approach and therefore does not detail a variety of uncertainties associated with experimental controls that must be evaluated for future generation of reference data.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sergey Mekhontsev
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899,
USA
| | - Brandon Lane
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899,
USA
| | - Leonard Hanssen
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899,
USA
| | - Ivan Zhirnov
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899,
USA
- Karlstad University, 651 88 Karlstad,
Sweden
| | | | - Steven Grantham
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899,
USA
| | - Daniel Cardenas-Garcia
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899,
USA
- Centro Nacional de Metrología, Carretera a Los Cués, Municipio El Marqués, Querétaro C.P. 76246,
México
| | - Alkan Donmez
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899,
USA
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Duarte VR, Rodrigues TA, Machado MA, Pragana JP, Pombinha P, Coutinho L, Silva CM, Miranda RM, Goodwin C, Huber DE, Oliveira JP, Santos TG. Benchmarking of Nondestructive Testing for Additive Manufacturing. 3D Print Addit Manuf 2021; 8:263-270. [PMID: 36654833 PMCID: PMC9828612 DOI: 10.1089/3dp.2020.0204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Defect detection in additive manufacturing (AM) is of paramount importance to improve the reliability of products. Nondestructive testing is not yet widely used for defect detection. The main challenges are a lack of standards and methods, the types and location of defects, and the complex geometry of many parts. During selective laser melting (SLM), several types of defects can occur such as porosity, cracking, and lack of fusion. In this study, several nondestructive tests were conducted in a highly complex shaped part in AISI 316L stainless steel with real defects manufactured by SLM. Two additional artificial defects (one horizontal and one flat bottom hole) were produced and the defect detectability was evaluated. The techniques used were as follows: dye penetrant, infrared thermography, immersion ultrasonic, eddy current, and X-ray microcomputed tomography to assess different types of defects in the as-built part. We conclude that no single technique can detect every type of defect, although multiple techniques provide complementary and redundant information to critically evaluate the integrity of the parts. This approach is fundamental for improving the reliability of defect detection, which will help expand the potential for using AM to produce parts for critical structural applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valdemar R. Duarte
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, UNIDEMI, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
- Address correspondence to: Valdemar R. Duarte, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, UNIDEMI, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica 2829-516, Portugal
| | - Tiago A. Rodrigues
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, UNIDEMI, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Miguel A. Machado
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, UNIDEMI, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
| | - João P.M. Pragana
- IDMEC, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Pedro Pombinha
- IDMEC, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Luísa Coutinho
- IDMEC, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Carlos M.A. Silva
- IDMEC, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Rosa M. Miranda
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, UNIDEMI, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Carley Goodwin
- Center for Electron Microscopy and Analysis, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Daniel E. Huber
- Center for Electron Microscopy and Analysis, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Joao P. Oliveira
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, UNIDEMI, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Telmo G. Santos
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, UNIDEMI, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
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Abstract
Additive manufacturing's attributes include print customization, low per-unit cost for small- to mid-batch production, seamless interfacing with mainstream medical 3D imaging techniques, and feasibility to create free-form objects in materials that are biocompatible and biodegradable. Consequently, additive manufacturing is apposite for a wide range of biomedical applications including custom biocompatible implants that mimic the mechanical response of bone, biodegradable scaffolds with engineered degradation rate, medical surgical tools, and biomedical instrumentation. This review surveys the materials, 3D printing methods and technologies, and biomedical applications of metal 3D printing, providing a historical perspective while focusing on the state of the art. It then identifies a number of exciting directions of future growth: (a) the improvement of mainstream additive manufacturing methods and associated feedstock; (b) the exploration of mature, less utilized metal 3D printing techniques; (c) the optimization of additively manufactured load-bearing structures via artificial intelligence; and (d) the creation of monolithic, multimaterial, finely featured, multifunctional implants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yosef Kornbluth
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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46
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Tey WS, Cai C, Zhou K. A Comprehensive Investigation on 3D Printing of Polyamide 11 and Thermoplastic Polyurethane via Multi Jet Fusion. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13132139. [PMID: 34209747 PMCID: PMC8271651 DOI: 10.3390/polym13132139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Revised: 06/19/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Multi Jet Fusion (MJF) is a recently developed polymeric powder bed fusion (PBF) additive manufacturing technique that has received considerable attention in the industrial and scientific community due to its ability to fabricate functional and complex polymeric parts efficiently. In this work, a systematic characterization of the physicochemical properties of MJF-certified polyamide 11 (PA11) and thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) powder was conducted. The mechanical performance and print quality of the specimens printed using both powders were then evaluated. Both PA11 and TPU powders showed irregular morphology with sharp features and had broad particle size distribution, but such features did not impair their printability significantly. According to the DSC scans, the PA11 specimen exhibited two endothermic peaks, while the TPU specimen exhibited a broad endothermic peak (116–150 °C). The PA11 specimens possessed the highest tensile strength in the Z orientation, as opposed to the TPU specimens which possessed the lowest tensile strength along the same orientation. The flexural properties of the PA11 and TPU specimens displayed a similar anisotropy where the flexural strength was highest in the Z orientation and lowest in the X orientation. The porosity values of both the PA11 and the TPU specimens were observed to be the lowest in the Z orientation and highest in the X orientation, which was the opposite of the trend observed for the flexural strength of the specimens. The PA11 specimen possessed a low coefficient of friction (COF) of 0.13 and wear rate of 8.68 × 10−5 mm3/Nm as compared to the TPU specimen, which had a COF of 0.55 and wear rate of 0.012 mm3/Nm. The PA11 specimens generally had lower roughness values on their surfaces (Ra < 25 μm), while the TPU specimens had much rougher surfaces (Ra > 40 μm). This investigation aims to uncover and explain phenomena that are unique to the MJF process of PA11 and TPU while also serving as a benchmark against similar polymeric parts printed using other PBF processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Shian Tey
- HP-NTU Digital Manufacturing Corporate Lab, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore; (W.S.T.); (C.C.)
| | - Chao Cai
- HP-NTU Digital Manufacturing Corporate Lab, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore; (W.S.T.); (C.C.)
- State Key Laboratory of Materials Processing and Die & Mould Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Kun Zhou
- HP-NTU Digital Manufacturing Corporate Lab, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore; (W.S.T.); (C.C.)
- Singapore Centre for 3D Printing, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore
- Correspondence:
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Gries S, Meyer G, Wonisch A, Jakobi R, Mittelstedt C. Towards Enhancing the Potential of Injection Molding Tools through Optimized Close-Contour Cooling and Additive Manufacturing. Materials (Basel) 2021; 14:3434. [PMID: 34205804 DOI: 10.3390/ma14123434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Revised: 06/10/2021] [Accepted: 06/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This work deals with the parametric optimization of the position and form of a conformal cooling used in the injection molding industry. Based on a literature survey, an optimization routine concerning the parameter optimization of cooling system designs was developed and implemented with the help of the software package Moldflow. The main objective of the optimization is to reduce the cooling time; the second is to obtain an optimized homogeneous temperature distribution over the complete tool surface. To enable a comparison of the new close-contour solution with a classical manufacturing process, an optimized cooling system simulation, based on a conventional manufacturing solution, was established. It can be shown that the optimized close-contour cooling design offers significant advantages that cannot be exploited using classical manufacturing. Finally, the additive manufacturing of a prototype in the framework of powder bed fusion is documented as a proof of concept.
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Weaver JM, Linn JR, Miles MP. Interface Joint Strength between SS316L Wrought Substrate and Powder Bed Fusion Built Parts. Materials (Basel) 2021; 14:3041. [PMID: 34204964 PMCID: PMC8199865 DOI: 10.3390/ma14113041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Metal powder bed fusion (PBF) additive manufacturing (AM) builds metal parts layer by layer upon a substrate material. The strength of this interface between the substrate and the printed material is important to characterize, especially in applications where the substrate is retained and included in the finished part. Ensuring that this interface between the original and the printed material has adequate material properties enables the use of this PBF AM process to repair existing structures and create new parts using both AM and conventional manufacturing. This paper studies the tensile and torsional shear strengths of wrought and PBF-built SS316L specimens and compares them to specimens that are composed of half wrought material and half PBF material. These specimens were created by building new material via PBF onto existing wrought SS316L blocks, then cutting the specimens to include both materials. The specimens are also examined using optical microscopy and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). The PBF specimens consistently exhibited higher strength and lower ductility than the wrought specimens. The hybrid PBF/wrought specimens performed similarly to the wrought material. In none of the specimens did any failure appear to occur at or near the interface between the wrought substrate and the PBF material. In addition, most of the deformation in the PBF/wrought specimens appeared to be limited to the wrought portion of the specimens. These results are consistent with optical microscopy and EBSD showing smaller grain size in the PBF material, which correlates to increased strength in SS316L due to the Hall-Petch relationship. With the strength at the interface meeting or exceeding the strength of the original wrought material, this process shows great promise as a method for adding additional features or repairing existing structures using metal PBF AM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason M. Weaver
- Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA; (J.R.L.); (M.P.M.)
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Tarafder P, Rock C, Horn T. Quasi-Static Tensile Properties of Unalloyed Copper Produced by Electron Beam Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing. Materials (Basel) 2021; 14:ma14112932. [PMID: 34072337 PMCID: PMC8199424 DOI: 10.3390/ma14112932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Mechanical properties of powder bed fusion processed unalloyed copper are reported majorly in the as-fabricated condition, and the effect of post-processes, common to additive manufacturing, is not well documented. In this study, mechanical properties of unalloyed copper processed by electron beam powder bed fusion are characterized via room temperature quasi-static uniaxial tensile test and Vickers microhardness. Tensile samples were extracted both perpendicular and parallel to the build direction and assigned to three different conditions: as-fabricated, hot isostatic pressing (HIP), and vacuum annealing. In the as-fabricated condition, the highest UTS and lowest elongation were obtained in the samples oriented perpendicular to the build direction. These were observed to have clear trends between sample orientation caused primarily by the interdependencies between the epitaxial columnar grain morphology and dislocation movement during the tensile test. Texture was insignificant in the as-fabricated condition, and its effect on the mechanical properties was outweighed by the orientation anisotropy. The fractographs revealed a ductile mode of failure with varying dimple sizes where more shallow and finely spaced dimples were observed in the samples oriented perpendicular to the build direction. EDS maps reveal that grain boundary oxides coalesce and grow in HIP and vacuum-annealed specimens which are seen inside the ductile dimples and contribute to their increased ductility. Overall, for the post-process parameters chosen in this study, HIP was observed to slightly increase the sample’s density while vacuum annealing reduced the oxygen content in the specimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prithwish Tarafder
- Center for Additive Manufacturing and Logistics, Fitts-Woolard Hall, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA; (P.T.); (C.R.)
| | - Christopher Rock
- Center for Additive Manufacturing and Logistics, Fitts-Woolard Hall, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA; (P.T.); (C.R.)
| | - Timothy Horn
- Center for Additive Manufacturing and Logistics, Fitts-Woolard Hall, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA; (P.T.); (C.R.)
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Engineering Building III, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA
- Correspondence:
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Polozov I, Popovich A. Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of NiTi-Based Eutectic Shape Memory Alloy Produced via Selective Laser Melting In-Situ Alloying by Nb. Materials (Basel) 2021; 14:ma14102696. [PMID: 34065582 PMCID: PMC8161003 DOI: 10.3390/ma14102696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 05/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This paper presents the results of selective laser melting (SLM) process of a nitinol-based NiTiNb shape memory alloy. The eutectic alloy Ni45Ti45Nb10 with a shape memory effect was obtained by SLM in-situ alloying using a powder mixture of NiTi and Nb powder particles. Samples with a high relative density (>99%) were obtained using optimized process parameters. Microstructure, phase composition, tensile properties, as well as martensitic phase transformations temperatures of the produced alloy were investigated in as-fabricated and heat-treated conditions. The NiTiNb alloy fabricated using the SLM in-situ alloying featured the microstructure consisting of the NiTi matrix, fine NiTi+β-Nb eutectics, as well as residual unmelted Nb particles. The mechanical tests showed that the obtained alloy has a yield strength up to 436 MPa and the tensile strength up to 706 MPa. At the same time, in-situ alloying with Nb allowed increasing the hysteresis of martensitic transformation as compared to the alloy without Nb addition from 22 to 50 °C with an increase in Af temperature from -5 to 22 °C.
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