1
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Watzlawik JO, Hou X, Richardson T, Lewicki SL, Siuda J, Wszolek ZK, Cook CN, Petrucelli L, DeTure M, Dickson DW, Antico O, Muqit MMK, Fishman JB, Pirani K, Kumaran R, Polinski NK, Fiesel FC, Springer W. Development and characterization of phospho-ubiquitin antibodies to monitor PINK1-PRKN signaling in cells and tissue. Autophagy 2024; 20:2076-2091. [PMID: 38802071 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2024.2356490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Revised: 05/07/2024] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024] Open
Abstract
The selective removal of dysfunctional mitochondria, a process termed mitophagy, is critical for cellular health and impairments have been linked to aging, Parkinson disease, and other neurodegenerative conditions. A central mitophagy pathway is orchestrated by the ubiquitin (Ub) kinase PINK1 together with the E3 Ub ligase PRKN/Parkin. The decoration of damaged mitochondrial domains with phosphorylated Ub (p-S65-Ub) mediates their elimination though the autophagy system. As such p-S65-Ub has emerged as a highly specific and quantitative marker of mitochondrial damage with significant disease relevance. Existing p-S65-Ub antibodies have been successfully employed as research tools in a range of applications including western blot, immunocytochemistry, immunohistochemistry, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. However, physiological levels of p-S65-Ub in the absence of exogenous stress are very low, therefore difficult to detect and require reliable and ultrasensitive methods. Here we generated and characterized a collection of novel recombinant, rabbit monoclonal p-S65-Ub antibodies with high specificity and affinity in certain applications that allow the field to better understand the molecular mechanisms and disease relevance of PINK1-PRKN signaling. These antibodies may also serve as novel diagnostic or prognostic tools to monitor mitochondrial damage in various clinical and pathological specimens.Abbreviations: AD: Alzheimer disease; CCCP: carbonyl cyanide 3-chlorophenylhydrazone; ELISA: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; HEK293E cell: human embryonic kidney E cell; ICC: immunocytochemistry; IHC: immunohistochemistry: KO: knockout; LoB: limit of blank; LoD: limit of detection; LoQ: limit of quantification; MEF: mouse embryonic fibroblast; MSD: Meso Scale Discovery; n.s.: non-significant; nonTg: non-transgenic; PBMC: peripheral blood mononuclear cell; PD: Parkinson disease; p-S65-PRKN: phosphorylated PRKN at serine 65; p-S65-Ub: phosphorylated Ub at serine 65; Ub: ubiquitin; WT: wild-type.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Xu Hou
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | | | | | - Joanna Siuda
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medical Sciences in Katowice, Medical University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland
| | | | - Casey N Cook
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
- Neuroscience PhD Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Leonard Petrucelli
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
- Neuroscience PhD Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Michael DeTure
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Dennis W Dickson
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
- Neuroscience PhD Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Odetta Antico
- MRC Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Miratul M K Muqit
- MRC Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | | | | | | | - Nicole K Polinski
- The Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson's Research, New York, NY, USA
| | - Fabienne C Fiesel
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
- Neuroscience PhD Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Wolfdieter Springer
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
- Neuroscience PhD Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Jacksonville, FL, USA
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Takayama KI, Suzuki T, Sato K, Saito Y, Inoue S. Cooperative nuclear action of RNA-binding proteins PSF and G3BP2 to sustain neuronal cell viability is decreased in aging and dementia. Aging Cell 2024:e14316. [PMID: 39155453 DOI: 10.1111/acel.14316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2024] [Revised: 07/24/2024] [Accepted: 08/06/2024] [Indexed: 08/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Dysfunctional RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) have been implicated in several geriatric diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, little is known about the nuclear molecular actions and cooperative functions mediated by RBPs that affect gene regulation in sporadic AD or aging. In the present study, we investigated aging- and AD-associated changes in the expression of PSF and G3BP2, which are representative RBPs associated with sex hormone activity. We determined that both PSF and G3BP2 levels were decreased in aged brains compared to young brains of mice. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) analysis of human neuronal cells has shown that PSF is responsible for neuron-specific functions and sustains cell viability. In addition, we showed that PSF interacted with G3BP2 in the nucleus and stress granules (SGs) at the protein level. Moreover, PSF-mediated gene regulation at the RNA level correlated with G3BP2. Interestingly, PSF and G3BP2 target genes are associated with AD development. Mechanistically, quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) analysis demonstrated that the interaction of RBPs with the pre-mRNA of target genes enhanced post-transcriptional mRNA stability, suggesting a possible role for these RBPs in preserving neuronal cell viability. Notably, in the brains of patients with sporadic AD, decreased expression of PSF and G3BP2 in neurons was observed compared to non-AD patients. Overall, our findings suggest that the cooperative action of PSF and G3BP2 in the nucleus is important for preventing aging and AD development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ken-Ichi Takayama
- Department of Systems Aging Science and Medicine, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute for Geriatrics and Gerontology, Itabashi, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takashi Suzuki
- Department of Anatomic Pathology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
- Department of Pathology, Tohoku University Hospital, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Kaoru Sato
- Department of Systems Aging Science and Medicine, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute for Geriatrics and Gerontology, Itabashi, Tokyo, Japan
- Integrated Research Initiative for Living Well with Dementia, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute for Geriatrics and Gerontology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yuko Saito
- Department of Neuropathology (the Brain Bank for Aging Research), Tokyo Metropolitan Institute for Geriatrics and Gerontology, Itabashi, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Satoshi Inoue
- Department of Systems Aging Science and Medicine, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute for Geriatrics and Gerontology, Itabashi, Tokyo, Japan
- Division of Systems Medicine and Gene Therapy, Saitama Medical University, Saitama, Japan
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Naddaf E, Nguyen TKO, Watzlawik JO, Gao H, Hou X, Fiesel FC, Mandrekar J, Kokesh E, Harmsen WS, Lanza IR, Springer W, Trushina E. NLRP3 inflammasome activation and altered mitophagy are key pathways in inclusion body myositis. MEDRXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR HEALTH SCIENCES 2024:2024.06.15.24308845. [PMID: 38947067 PMCID: PMC11213039 DOI: 10.1101/2024.06.15.24308845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/02/2024]
Abstract
Background Inclusion body myositis (IBM) is the most prevalent muscle disease in adults for which no current treatment exists. The pathogenesis of IBM remains poorly defined. Inflammation and mitochondrial dysfunction are the most common histopathological findings. In this study, we aimed to explore the interplay between inflammation and mitochondrial dysfunction in IBM patients, highlighting sex differences. Methods We included 38 IBM patients and 22 age- and sex-matched controls without myopathy. Bulk RNA sequencing, Meso Scale Discovery ELISA, western blotting, histochemistry and immunohistochemistry were performed on frozen muscle samples from the study participants. Results We demonstrated activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in IBM muscle samples, with the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway being the most upregulated. On muscle histopathology, there is increased NRLP3 immunoreactivity in both inflammatory cells and muscle fibers. Mitophagy is critical for removing damaged mitochondria and preventing the formation of a vicious cycle of mitochondrial dysfunction-NLRP3 activation. In the IBM muscle samples, we showed altered mitophagy, most significantly in males, with elevated levels of p-S65-Ubiquitin, a mitophagy marker. Furthermore, p-S65-Ubiquitin aggregates accumulated in muscle fibers that were mostly type 2 and devoid of cytochrome-c-oxidase reactivity. Type 2 muscle fibers are known to be more prone to mitochondrial dysfunction. NLRP3 RNA levels correlated with p-S65-Ubiquitin levels in both sexes but with loss of in muscle strength only in males. Finally, we identified sex-specific molecular pathways in IBM, with females having activation of pathways that could offset some of the pathomechanisms of IBM. Conclusions NLRP3 inflammasome is activated in IBM, along with altered mitophagy particularly in males, which is of potential therapeutic significance. These findings suggest sex-specific mechanisms in IBM that warrant further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elie Naddaf
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | | | | | - Huanyao Gao
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Xu Hou
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Fabienne C. Fiesel
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
- Neuroscience PhD Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Jay Mandrekar
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
- Department of Quantitative Health Sciences, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Eileen Kokesh
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - William S. Harmsen
- Department of Quantitative Health Sciences, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Ian R. Lanza
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Wolfdieter Springer
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
- Neuroscience PhD Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Eugenia Trushina
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
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Baninameh Z, Watzlawik JO, Hou X, Richardson T, Kurchaba NW, Yan T, Di Florio DN, Fairweather D, Kang L, Nguyen JH, Kanekiyo T, Dickson DW, Noda S, Sato S, Hattori N, Goldberg MS, Ganley IG, Stauch KL, Fiesel FC, Springer W. Alterations of PINK1-PRKN signaling in mice during normal aging. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.29.591753. [PMID: 38746191 PMCID: PMC11092476 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.29.591753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
The ubiquitin kinase-ligase pair PINK1-PRKN identifies and selectively marks damaged mitochondria for elimination via the autophagy-lysosome system (mitophagy). While this cytoprotective pathway has been extensively studied in vitro upon acute and complete depolarization of mitochondria, the significance of PINK1-PRKN mitophagy in vivo is less well established. Here we used a novel approach to study PINK1-PRKN signaling in different energetically demanding tissues of mice during normal aging. We demonstrate a generally increased expression of both genes and enhanced enzymatic activity with aging across tissue types. Collectively our data suggest a distinct regulation of PINK1-PRKN signaling under basal conditions with the most pronounced activation and flux of the pathway in mouse heart compared to brain or skeletal muscle. Our biochemical analyses complement existing mitophagy reporter readouts and provide an important baseline assessment in vivo, setting the stage for further investigations of the PINK1-PRKN pathway during stress and in relevant disease conditions.
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Rasool S, Shomali T, Truong L, Croteau N, Veyron S, Bustillos BA, Springer W, Fiesel FC, Trempe JF. Identification and structural characterization of small molecule inhibitors of PINK1. Sci Rep 2024; 14:7739. [PMID: 38565869 PMCID: PMC10987619 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-58285-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Mutations in PINK1 and Parkin cause early-onset Parkinson's Disease (PD). PINK1 is a kinase which functions as a mitochondrial damage sensor and initiates mitochondrial quality control by accumulating on the damaged organelle. There, it phosphorylates ubiquitin, which in turn recruits and activates Parkin, an E3 ubiquitin ligase. Ubiquitylation of mitochondrial proteins leads to the autophagic degradation of the damaged organelle. Pharmacological modulation of PINK1 constitutes an appealing avenue to study its physiological function and develop therapeutics. In this study, we used a thermal shift assay with insect PINK1 to identify small molecules that inhibit ATP hydrolysis and ubiquitin phosphorylation. PRT062607, an SYK inhibitor, is the most potent inhibitor in our screen and inhibits both insect and human PINK1, with an IC50 in the 0.5-3 µM range in HeLa cells and dopaminergic neurons. The crystal structures of insect PINK1 bound to PRT062607 or CYC116 reveal how the compounds interact with the ATP-binding pocket. PRT062607 notably engages with the catalytic aspartate and causes a destabilization of insert-2 at the autophosphorylation dimer interface. While PRT062607 is not selective for PINK1, it provides a scaffold for the development of more selective and potent inhibitors of PINK1 that could be used as chemical probes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shafqat Rasool
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, Centre de Recherche en Biologie Structurale, and Structural Genomics Consortium, McGill University, 3655 Prom Sir William Osler, Montréal, QC, H3G 1Y6, Canada
| | - Tara Shomali
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, Centre de Recherche en Biologie Structurale, and Structural Genomics Consortium, McGill University, 3655 Prom Sir William Osler, Montréal, QC, H3G 1Y6, Canada
| | - Luc Truong
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, Centre de Recherche en Biologie Structurale, and Structural Genomics Consortium, McGill University, 3655 Prom Sir William Osler, Montréal, QC, H3G 1Y6, Canada
| | - Nathalie Croteau
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, Centre de Recherche en Biologie Structurale, and Structural Genomics Consortium, McGill University, 3655 Prom Sir William Osler, Montréal, QC, H3G 1Y6, Canada
| | - Simon Veyron
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, Centre de Recherche en Biologie Structurale, and Structural Genomics Consortium, McGill University, 3655 Prom Sir William Osler, Montréal, QC, H3G 1Y6, Canada
| | | | - Wolfdieter Springer
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
- Neuroscience PhD Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Fabienne C Fiesel
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
- Neuroscience PhD Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Jean-François Trempe
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, Centre de Recherche en Biologie Structurale, and Structural Genomics Consortium, McGill University, 3655 Prom Sir William Osler, Montréal, QC, H3G 1Y6, Canada.
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6
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Islam NN, Weber CA, Coban M, Cocker LT, Fiesel FC, Springer W, Caulfield TR. In Silico Investigation of Parkin-Activating Mutations Using Simulations and Network Modeling. Biomolecules 2024; 14:365. [PMID: 38540783 PMCID: PMC10968616 DOI: 10.3390/biom14030365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2024] [Revised: 03/14/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Complete loss-of-function mutations in the PRKN gene are a major cause of early-onset Parkinson's disease (PD). PRKN encodes the Parkin protein, an E3 ubiquitin ligase that works in conjunction with the ubiquitin kinase PINK1 in a distinct quality control pathway to tag damaged mitochondria for autophagic clearance, i.e., mitophagy. According to previous structural investigations, Parkin protein is typically kept in an inactive conformation via several intramolecular, auto-inhibitory interactions. Here, we performed molecular dynamics simulations (MDS) to provide insights into conformational changes occurring during the de-repression of Parkin and the gain of catalytic activity. We analyzed four different Parkin-activating mutations that are predicted to disrupt certain aspects of its auto-inhibition. All four variants showed greater conformational motions compared to wild-type protein, as well as differences in distances between domain interfaces and solvent-accessible surface area, which are thought to play critical roles as Parkin gains catalytic activity. Our findings reveal that the studied variants exert a notable influence on Parkin activation as they alter the opening of its closed inactive structure, a finding that is supported by recent structure- and cell-based studies. These findings not only helped further characterize the hyperactive variants but overall improved our understanding of Parkin's catalytic activity and nominated targets within Parkin's structure for potential therapeutic designs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naeyma N. Islam
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA; (N.N.I.); (C.A.W.); (M.C.); (F.C.F.)
| | - Caleb A. Weber
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA; (N.N.I.); (C.A.W.); (M.C.); (F.C.F.)
| | - Matt Coban
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA; (N.N.I.); (C.A.W.); (M.C.); (F.C.F.)
| | - Liam T. Cocker
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA; (N.N.I.); (C.A.W.); (M.C.); (F.C.F.)
| | - Fabienne C. Fiesel
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA; (N.N.I.); (C.A.W.); (M.C.); (F.C.F.)
- Neuroscience PhD Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Wolfdieter Springer
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA; (N.N.I.); (C.A.W.); (M.C.); (F.C.F.)
- Neuroscience PhD Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Thomas R. Caulfield
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA; (N.N.I.); (C.A.W.); (M.C.); (F.C.F.)
- Department of Neurosurgery, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
- Department of Cancer Biology, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
- Department of Computational Biology, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
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7
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Watzlawik JO, Hou X, Richardson T, Lewicki SL, Siuda J, Wszolek ZK, Cook CN, Petrucelli L, DeTure M, Dickson DW, Antico O, Muqit MMK, Fishman JB, Pirani K, Kumaran R, Polinski NK, Fiesel FC, Springer W. Development and characterization of phospho-ubiquitin antibodies to monitor PINK1-PRKN signaling in cells and tissue. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.01.15.575715. [PMID: 38293125 PMCID: PMC10827112 DOI: 10.1101/2024.01.15.575715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2024]
Abstract
The selective removal of dysfunctional mitochondria, a process termed mitophagy, is critical for cellular health and impairments have been linked to aging, Parkinson disease, and other neurodegenerative conditions. A central mitophagy pathway is orchestrated by the ubiquitin (Ub) kinase PINK1 together with the E3 Ub ligase PRKN/Parkin. The decoration of damaged mitochondrial domains with phosphorylated Ub (p-S65-Ub) mediates their elimination though the autophagy system. As such p-S65-Ub has emerged as a highly specific and quantitative marker of mitochondrial damage with significant disease relevance. Existing p-S65-Ub antibodies have been successfully employed as research tools in a range of applications including western blot, immunocytochemistry, immunohistochemistry, and ELISA. However, physiological levels of p-S65-Ub in the absence of exogenous stress are very low, therefore difficult to detect and require reliable and ultrasensitive methods. Here we generated and characterized a collection of novel recombinant, rabbit monoclonal p-S65-Ub antibodies with high specificity and affinity in certain applications that allow the field to better understand the molecular mechanisms and disease relevance of PINK1-PRKN signaling. These antibodies may also serve as novel diagnostic or prognostic tools to monitor mitochondrial damage in various clinical and pathological specimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens O. Watzlawik
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Xu Hou
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | | | - Szymon L. Lewicki
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Joanna Siuda
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medical Sciences in Katowice, Medical University of Silesia, Katowice 40-055, Poland
| | | | - Casey N. Cook
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
- Neuroscience PhD Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Leonard Petrucelli
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
- Neuroscience PhD Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Michael DeTure
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Dennis W. Dickson
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
- Neuroscience PhD Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Odetta Antico
- MRC Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - Miratul M. K. Muqit
- MRC Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | | | - Karima Pirani
- ImmunoPrecise Antibodies Ltd., Victoria, BC V8Z 7X8, Canada
| | | | - Nicole K. Polinski
- The Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research, New York, NY 10163, USA
| | - Fabienne C. Fiesel
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
- Neuroscience PhD Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Wolfdieter Springer
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
- Neuroscience PhD Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
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