Acute poisonings treated in hospitals in Oslo: A one-year prospective study (I): Pattern of poisoning

Pharmaceutical toxicity is a common pattern of inpatient acute poisonings in Birjand City, East of Iran

Information on the pattern of acute poisonings in hospitals of Birjand city, Iran, is limited. This study aimed to address this knowledge gap by examining the admissions in a major poisoning center in eastern Iran. This cross-sectional study included patients admitted to the Imam Reza Hospital in Birjand over 12 months. Medical records of the poisoned patients were reviewed, and the study variables were used for data analysis. During the study period, 534 cases of acute poisonings were evaluated. The patient's ages ranged from 12 to 84 years, with a high rate of poisonings between 15 and 35 years. The female predominance in poisoning cases was 52.1%. Most cases of poisonings occurred in spring, and the common route of exposure was oral (93.1%). The incidence of poisoning in married couples, uneducated patients, and residents of urban areas was 56.5%, 90.1%, and 74.6%, respectively. Patients with a previous medical history experienced addiction and psychiatric disorders. Intentional poisoning accounted for 23.4% of acute poisoning cases referred to the hospital in the current study. The main groups of toxicants were pharmaceutical products (48.1%), narcotics (25.8%), chemical products (10.1%), envenomation (7.1%), and alcohol (1.7%). The mean hospital stay was 2.5 ± 3.0 days, and the final treatment outcome was complete recovery, except for one patient intoxicated by warfarin and alprazolam. Our results indicate that the high toxicity cases were related to pharmaceutical product and opioids abuse, especially methadone (8.4%), alprazolam (7.9%), clonazepam (7.5%), and acetaminophen (9.9%) taken orally and more commonly happened at home. Due to the high rate of deliberate poisonings, especially among young adults and students, monitoring drug distribution and exceptional attention to mental health should be seriously considered by national health authorities to prevent suicide attempts.

Acute Poisoning Readmissions to an Emergency Department of a Tertiary Hospital: Evaluation through an Active Toxicovigilance Program

The aim of this study is to investigate hospital readmissions during 1 year after acute poisoning cases (APC), analyze the temporal behavior of early readmissions (ER) (in the month after the index episode) and predict possible ER. A descriptive analysis of the patients with APC assisted between 2011 and 2016 in the Emergency Department of Hospital La Paz is presented, and various methods of inferential statistics were applied and confirmed by Bayesian analysis in order to evaluate factors associated with total and early readmissions. Out of the 4693 cases of APC included, 968 (20.6%) presented, at least one readmission and 476 (10.1%) of them were ER. The mean age of APC with readmission was 41 years (12.7 SD), 78.9% had previous psychiatric pathology and 44.7% had a clinical history of alcohol addiction. Accidental poisoning has been a protective factor for readmission (OR 0.50; 0.26–0.96). Type of toxin (“drug of abuse” OR 8.88; 1.17–67.25), history of addiction (OR 1.93; 1.18–3.10) and psychiatric history (OR 3.30; 2.53–4.30) are risk factors for readmissions during the first year. Women showed three or more readmissions in a year. The results of the study allow for identification of the predictors for the different numbers of readmissions in the year after the index APC, as well as for ERs.

Self-poisoning as a cause of admission in a medical intensive care unit and a question of misuse of prescription medications

BACKGROUND

Self-poisoning accounts for between 3 and 17% of intensive care unit (ICU) admissions.

OBJECTIVES

To display the misused substances, intention, and outcome of patients admitted to the ICU due to self-poisoning.

METHODS

A retrospective review of ICU admissions using an electronic patient database was performed.

RESULTS

A total of 149 patients were admitted, accounting for 4.6% of ICU admissions. Self-poisoning with self-harm was more frequent than without self-harm intent (62.4% vs. 37.6%). 64.4% of ingested substances were misused prescribed drugs. Females used antipsychotics (X² = 15, p< 0.05) and benzodiazepines (X² =11.52, p< 0.05), and males ingested antipsychotics (X² = 12, p< 0.05) with a self-harm intent. Antipsychotics were always used with a self-harm intent. Illicit drugs (X² =9.14, p< 0.05) and ethanol (X² =7.34, p< 0.05) were mostly used without self-harm intent. 102 patients (68.5%) continued treatment in a psychiatric clinic, more often women (X² (1,N = 145)=7.94, p< 0.005). The readmission rate was low. Mortality was 2.6%.

CONCLUSION

Self-poisoning is an infrequent cause of ICU admission. Prescribed psychotropic medications, including benzodiazepines, antipsychotics, and antidepressants were the most frequently misused substances. Psychiatric consultation before the ICU discharge and subsequent psychiatric treatment might lower the repetition and readmission rate.

Evaluation of factors related to overdose in patients with impaired consciousness who are transported by emergency medical services: an age-specific research

Background

Drug overdose accounts for most of the admissions to the emergency department. Prescription drugs, most of which are psychotropic medications, are often misused for drug overdose. The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between overdose in patients transported with disorders of consciousness and psychotropic medications administered prior to transport, so as to enable quick differentiation of drug overdose patients from patients with disorders of consciousness.

Methods

We evaluated 222 patients transported to the Advanced Critical Care Center of Teikyo University Hospital due to disorders of consciousness. The patients were categorized into two groups: overdose group (n = 128) and control group with other disorders of consciousness (n = 94). Logistic regression models were used to assess the association between disorders of consciousness due to drug overdose and psychotropic drugs prescribed before emergency transportation based on sex and age.

Results

According to multivariate logistic regression analysis, only female sex (odds ratio [OR] 4.54, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.43–8.05, P < 0.0001) was associated with overall overdose. Results from the univariate logistic regression analysis showed that in the group of patients aged 40–50 years, female sex (OR 4.36, 95% CI; 1.54–12.4, P = 0.006) and the use of psychotropic drugs (OR 5.05, 95% CI; 1.75–14.6, P = 0.003), benzodiazepines (OR 4.64, 95% CI; 1.61–13.4, P < 0.05), antidepressants (OR 11.4, 95% CI; 2.35–55.8, P = 0.003), and anticonvulsants (OR 4.46, 95% CI; 1.11–17.9, P = 0.035) were associated with overdose. According to multivariate logistic regression analysis, female sex (OR 4.44, 95% CI; 1.37–14.3, P = 0.013) and antidepressants (OR 7.95, 95% CI; 1.21–52.1, P = 0.031) were associated with overdose patients aged 40–50 years.

Conclusions

As a reference in distinguishing overdose in women in their 40s and 50s who present with impaired consciousness, attention may need to be paid to the type of psychotropic drug used, especially antidepressants.

Impact of Lockdown due to COVID-19 on the Modalities of Intoxicated Patients Presenting to the Emergency Room

Introduction:

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic influences health care facilities world-wide. The flow rate, type, and severity of cases presented to emergency departments varied during the pandemic in comparison to the past years. However, this change has not been well-described among the cases of hospital admission due to toxic exposure.

Study Objective:

Recognition of the pattern of toxic exposure among the cases refereed to Tanta Poison Control Center (TPCC; Tanta, Egypt) during the past five years, and furthermore, exploration of the impact of lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic on the pattern of presented cases.

Methods:

The current study is a five-year retrospective, comparative cross-sectional study carried out among acutely intoxicated patients admitted to TPCC during the spring months (March through May) of 2016-2020. A total of 1,916 patients with complete medical records were recruited. The type and manner of toxic exposure, demographic, clinical data, and outcomes were analyzed.

Results:

The current study noted that there were delays in time from toxic exposure to emergency services during the lockdown period. This was reflected in significant lower recovery rates (884.8/1,000 population; z = −3.0) and higher death rates (49.4/1,000 population; z = 2.1) despite the marked decrease in the total number of hospital admissions in comparison to the past four years. The lockdown period showed significantly higher phosphides (z = 3.5; χ² = 34.295; P <.001) and antipsychotics exposure (z = 3.6; χ² = 21.494; P <.001) than the previous years. However, predominance of female exposure and intentional self-poisoning was maintained over the past five years, including the lockdown.

Conclusion:

COVID-19-associated lockdown greatly reformed the usual intoxication pattern of the cases admitted to emergency room. Also, it played a role in delaying time of hospital arrival, which was reflected as lower recovery rates and higher death rates.

Incidence of intoxication events and patient outcomes in Taiwan: A nationwide population-based observational study

BACKGROUND

Intoxicated patients were frequently managed in the emergency departments (ED) with few studies at national level. The study aimed to reveal the incidence, outcomes of intoxications and trend in Taiwan.

METHODS

Adults admitted to an ED due to an intoxication event between 2006 and 2013 were identified using the Taiwan National Health Insurance Research Database. The rate of intoxication and severe intoxication events, mortality rate, hospital length of stay (LOS), and daily medical costs of these patients were analyzed. Changes over time were analyzed using Joinpoint models. Multivariable generalized regressions with GEE were used to assess the effect of sex, age, and presence of prior psychiatric illness.

RESULTS

A total of 20,371 ED admissions due to intoxication events were identified during the study period, and the incidence decreased with annual percentage change of 4.7% from 2006 to 2013. The mortality rate, hospital LOS, and daily medical costs were not decreased over time. Males and geriatric patients had more severe intoxication events, greater mortality rates, and greater daily medical costs. Patients with psychiatric illnesses had higher mortality rates and a longer hospital LOS, but lower daily medical expenses.

CONCLUSION

From 2006 to 2013, there was a decline in the incidence of ED admission for intoxication events in Taiwan. Males, geriatric patients, and those with psychiatric illnesses had greater risks for severe intoxication and mortality.

Pharmaceuticals poisoning: Reported by the National Poison Centre in Malaysia between 2010 and 2015

Background and Purpose:

The wide availability of medications has led to an increased exposure of humans to the possibility of poisoning. An unavoidable effect due to the availability of these medications has also led to a rising increment in the number of poisoning cases. All drugs, especially when administered in large doses or overextended periods, can initiate a toxic condition. Therefore, the objective of this study was to examine nationwide, the patterns attributed to poisoning, and to describe the sociodemographic, and geographic distribution of poisoning, by identifying the category of substances implicated in these cases.

Data Sources and Methods:

A retrospective study based on telephone calls reported on poisoning caused by pharmaceutical products undertaken by the National Poisoning Centre (NPC) in Penang (Malaysia) was used as the basis of this study covering the period between 2010 and 2015. The study included the mode and type of poisoning, exposure routes as well as the incidence locations.

Results:

A total of 10,998 cases were examined, finding that females represented 5,899 cases (53.6%) being intoxicated more frequently compared to the number of males, 3,839 (34.9%). The age group of poisoning cases ranged between 20 and 29 years representing 2,579 (23.4%) of reported cases. The common mode of poisoning was attributed to suicide 5,203 (47.3%) from among the 10,998 cases and the highest poisoning agents reported were from the psychiatric group of pharmaceutical products of 2,287 (21%).

Conclusion and Implications:

These findings indicate a rising trend of suicidal poisoning attempts between 2013 and 2015, which emphasizes the need for more stringent and effective enforcement protocols to limit the rising incidence of poisoning. As such, analyzing the trends in poisoning in a particular zone periodically could help health policy-makers to develop management policies and prevention strategies.

Assessment of knowledge and practice of nurses on initial management of acute poisoning in Dessie referral hospital Amhara region, Ethiopia, 2018

Introduction

Poisoning is a major health problem worldwide, and it causes significant morbidity and mortality. It is estimated that 350,000 people died worldwide from unintentional poisoning. The purpose of this study is to assess nurses’ knowledge and practice on the initial management of acute poisoning among nurses in Dessie referral hospital, Amhara region, Ethiopia.

Methods

Hospital based cross sectional study was conducted from January 2018 to June 2018. Simple Random sampling technique was used to select the samples. Data was collected by using self-administered structured questioners. Data were cleansed, checked for completeness and entered into SPSS version 20 for analyses. Statistical measures of Central tendency, T-test and ANOVA were used in determining the association between independent and dependent variables.

Results

Based on the given 13 items to assess the general knowledge of nurses on poisoning, the score ranges from 2 to 9 with the range of 7 with the mean score of 7.48(SD-0. 0.839) for the entire respondents that was 57.5% for the given items that was less than 75% which was unsatisfactory level of knowledge. The mean score of general knowledge on poisoning was high among nurses who had training on initial management of poisoning than those nurses who had not the training.

Conclusion and recommendation

All Dessie referral nurses that participated in this study had unsatisfactory general knowledge on poisoning, knowledge on initial management of acute poisoning and self-reported practice. The major implication of these study findings on the health system is the importance of ensuring support to nurses’ health care services for early detection and management of poisoning.

Characteristics and costs in adults with acute poisoning admitted to the emergency department of a university hospital in Belgium

Objective

The aims of this study were to assess the characteristics of all acute poisoning admissions among adult emergency department (ED) patients, to identify factors associated with admission and to calculate direct medical cost.

Methods

Data of 2017 (1^st January to 31^st December) were collected and analyzed retrospectively using patients’ medical records and hospital invoices. Factors associated with type of hospitalization were identified using appropriate statistics.

Results

A total of 1,214 hospital admissions were included, accounting for 3.6% of all ED admissions. Men (62.2%) and the age group 21–40 years (43.0%) accounted for the largest proportion. Substances most commonly involved were ethanol (52.9%), benzodiazepines (9.7%), cocaine (4.9%), cannabis (4.6%), antidepressants (4.6%) and psychostimulants (4.6%). A total of 4,561 treatment acts were recorded, most commonly monitoring of vital signs (63.6%) and medication and/or intravenous drip administration (62.9%). Patients were discharged home after having received care in the emergency department (ED-amb) in 54.5% of admissions, were admitted to the emergency-department-24-hours-observation unit (ED-24h) or were hospitalized (Hosp) in 24.6% and 20.9% of admissions, respectively. Factors found to be associated with hospitalization type were age, hour of admission, victim location, degree of severity, use of antidotes, involvement of antidepressants, antipsychotics, psychostimulants, benzodiazepines and ethanol. Total cost was €1,512,346 with an average of €1,287 per admission.

Conclusion

Poisonings entail a considerable percentage of patients admitted to an ED and financial burden. In particular, ethanol poisonings account for the largest proportion of all ED admissions. Comparison of our figures with other data is hampered by the heterogeneity in inclusion criteria. Availability of a uniform template would facilitate comparison and allow better monitoring policies for prevention and cost reduction.

Epidemiologic profile of deaths due to drug and chemical poisoning in patients referred to Baharloo Hospital of Tehran, 2011 to 2014

BACKGROUND

In developing countries with high mortality rates, poisoning is one of the most common causes of admission to emergency rooms. To minimize future deaths related to poisoning, the epidemiological profile of deceased individuals is essential.

METHODS

The medical records of all dead patients due to poisoning during 2011-2014 in Baharloo Hospital, Tehran, were evaluated. Exclusion criteria include: incomplete records, unknown causes of death, and persons less than 6 years of age. Data analysis was done by means of SPSS at the significance level of P < 0.05.

RESULTS

The study included 184 males and 65 females. The mean age range was 37.65 ± 16.78 years. The highest mortality rate was seen in the age range of 21-30 years (30.5%). The most common cause of poisoning was aluminum phosphide (101 cases). The average time of hospitalization was 3.61 days. Most deaths occurred during the first 10 days of admission with intentional poisoning being the most common type (81.5%).

CONCLUSION

The outcome of this study indicates that the main cause of death among young people is intentional poisoning with AIP. This study proves that a greater focus when diagnosing mental health patients, as well as an increase in restrictions when accessing lethal drugs and toxins, is crucial.

Injuries prior and subsequent to index poisoning with medication among adolescents: a national study based on Norwegian patient registry

BACKGROUND

Adolescents treated for self-poisoning with medication have a high prevalence of mental health problems and constitute a high-risk population for self-harm repetition. However, little is known about whether this population is also prone to injuries of other forms.

METHODS

Data were extracted from the Norwegian Patient Registry to include all incidents of treated injuries in adolescents aged 10-19 years who were treated for self-poisoning with medication during 2008-2011. This longitudinal approach allowed for the inclusion of injuries of various forms both before and after the index poisoning with medication. Gender differences and associations of injuries with recorded deliberate self-harm or psychiatric comorbidity at index poisoning were analysed. Forms of injury and psychiatric illnesses were coded according to the ICD-10 system.

RESULTS

1497 adolescents treated for self-poisoning with medication were identified from the source database, including 1144 (76.4%) girls and 353 (23.6%) boys. For these 1497 adolescents a total of 2545 injury incidents were recorded in addition to the index poisoning incidents, consisting of 778 injury incidents taking place before the index poisoning and 1767 incidents taking place subsequently. Altogether 830 subjects (55.4%) had an injury treated either before or after the index poisoning. Injuries to the hand and wrist as well as injuries to the head, neck and throat were predominant in males. Females were more likely to repeat poisoning with medication, particularly those with psychiatric disorders.

CONCLUSION

Adolescents treated for poisoning with medication represent a high-risk population prone to both prior and subsequent injuries of other forms, and should be assessed for suicidal intent and psychiatric illness.

Intoxication with GHB/GBL: characteristics and trends from ambulance-attended overdoses

BACKGROUND

Overdoses from so-called "club drugs" (GHB/GBL) have become a more frequent cause of overdoses attended by ambulance services. Given its availability, affordability, and lack of awareness of risks, there is a common misconception among users that the drug is relatively safe.

METHODS

This study reviewed ambulance records in Bergen, Norway between 2009 and 2015 for cases of acute poisonings, particularly from suspected GHB/GBL intoxication.

RESULTS

In total, 1112 cases of GHB and GBL poisoning were identified. GHB was suspected for 995 (89%) of the patients. Men made up the majority of the cases (n = 752, 67.6%) with a median age of 27 years old. Temporal trends for GHB/GBL overdoses displayed a late-night, weekend pattern. The most frequent initial symptoms reported were unconsciousness, or reduced consciousness. Most of the patients required further treatment and transport. During the period from 2009 to 2015, there was a nearly 50% decrease in GHB/GBL overdoses from 2013 to 2014.

DISCUSSION

The characteristics of GHB/GBL overdose victims shed light on this patient group. The decrease in incidence over the years may be partly due to a legal ban on GBL in Norway, declared in 2010. It may also be due to an increase in the use of MDMA/ecstasy.

CONCLUSION

The review of ambulance records on the prehospital treatment of overdoses can be beneficial in monitoring, preparing, and prevention efforts aimed to benefit this vulnerable group.

Pesticide poisoning in Chitwan, Nepal: a descriptive epidemiological study

Background

Globally, there is a growing concern over pesticides use, which has been linked to self-harm and suicide. However, there is paucity of research on the epidemiology of pesticides poisoning in Nepal. This study is aimed at assessing epidemiological features of pesticides poisoning among hospital-admitted cases in selected hospitals of Chitwan District of Nepal.

Methods

A hospital-based quantitative study was carried out in four major hospitals of Chitwan District. Information on all pesticides poisoning cases between April 1 and December 31, 2015, was recorded by using a Pesticides Exposure Record (PER) form.

Results

A total of 439 acute pesticides poisoning cases from 12 districts including Chitwan and adjoining districts attended the hospitals during the 9-month-long study period. A majority of the poisoned subjects deliberately used pesticides (89.5%) for attempted suicide. The total incidence rate was 62.67/100000 population per year. Higher annual incidence rates were found among young adults (111.66/100000 population), women (77.53/100000 population) and individuals from Dalit ethnic groups (98.22/100000 population). Pesticides responsible for poisoning were mostly insecticides (58.0%) and rodenticides (20.8%). The most used chemicals were organophosphates (37.3%) and pyrethroids (36.7%). Of the total cases, 98.6% were hospitalized, with intensive care required for 41.3%. The case fatality rate among admitted cases was 3.8%.

Conclusions

This study has indicated that young adults, females and socially disadvantaged ethnic groups are at a higher risk of pesticides poisoning. Pesticides are mostly misused intentionally as an easy means for committing suicide. It is recommended that the supply of pesticides be properly regulated to prevent easy accessibility and misuse. A population-based study is warranted to reveal the actual problem of pesticides exposure and intoxication in the community.

Associations of Adverse Clinical Course and Ingested Substances among Patients with Deliberate Drug Poisoning: A Cohort Study from an Intensive Care Unit in Japan

Objectives

Some patients with deliberate drug poisoning subsequently have an adverse clinical course. The present study aimed to examine whether the type of drugs ingested and psychiatric diagnoses were related to an adverse clinical course.

Methods

We conducted a cohort study of patients with deliberate drug poisoning admitted to the intensive care unit of a university hospital located in Tokyo, Japan, between September 2006 and June 2013. Intensive care unit (ICU) stay of ≥4 days was used as a primary outcome measure, while the incidence of aspiration pneumonitis was used as a secondary outcome measure. Ingested substances and psychiatric diagnoses were used as explanatory variables.

Results

Of the 676 patients with deliberate drug poisoning, 88% had a history of psychiatric treatment and 82% had ingested psychotropic drugs. Chlorpromazine-promethazine-phenobarbital combination drug (Vegetamin^®) ranked fifth among the most frequently ingested substances in cases of deliberate drug poisoning and had the highest incidence of prolonged ICU stay (20%) and aspiration pneumonitis (29%). The top three major classes consisted of benzodiazepines (79%), new-generation antidepressants (25%), and barbiturates/non-barbiturates (23%). Barbiturate overdose was independently associated with increased odds of both prolonged ICU stay (8% vs. 17%; odds ratio [OR], 2.97; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.60–5.55) and aspiration pneumonitis (8% vs. 24%; OR, 3.83; 95% CI, 2.18–6.79) relative to those associated with overdose of only other sedative-hypnotics (i.e., benzodiazepines).

Conclusion

These results suggest that judicious prescribing of barbiturates by psychiatrists could reduce the risk of an adverse clinical course when a patient attempts an overdose.

Outpatient treatment of acute poisoning by substances of abuse: a prospective observational cohort study

Background

Procedures for the clinical assessment of acute poisoning by substances of abuse should identify patients in need of hospital admission and avoid hazardous discharges, while keeping the observation time short. We assess the safety of a systematic procedure developed at the Oslo Accident and Emergency Outpatient Clinic (OAEOC).

Methods

All patients 12 years and older treated for acute poisoning by substances of abuse at the OAEOC were included consecutively from October 2011 to September 2012. Data were collected on pre-set registration forms. Information on re-presentations to health services nation-wide during the first week following discharge was retrieved from the Norwegian Patient Register and from local electronic medical records. Information on fatalities was obtained from the Norwegian Cause of Death Registry.

Results

There were 2343 cases of acute poisoning by substances of abuse. The main toxic agent was ethanol in 1291 (55 %) cases, opioids in 539 (23 %), benzodiazepines in 194 (8 %), central stimulants in 132 (6 %), and gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) in 105 (4 %). Median observation time was four hours. The patient was hospitalised in 391 (17 %) cases. Two patients died during the first week following discharge, both from a new opioid poisoning. Among 1952 discharges, 375 (19 %) patients re-presented at the OAEOC or a hospital within a week; 13 (0.7 %) with a diagnosis missed at the index episode, 169 (9 %) with a new poisoning, 31 (2 %) for follow-up of concomitant conditions diagnosed at index, and 162 (8 %) for unrelated events. Among the patients with missed diagnoses, five needed further treatment for the same poisoning episode, two were admitted with psychosis, one had hemorrhagic gastritis, another had fractures in need of surgery and four had minor injuries.

Conclusion

The procedure in use at the OAEOC can be considered safe and could be implemented elsewhere. The high re-presentation rate calls for better follow-up.

Exposure to psychotropic medications prior to overdose: a case-control study

RATIONALE

Little is known about psychotropic medication prescriptions prior to drug overdose.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to examine the possible associations between the risk of overdose and exposures to various psychotropic medications.

METHODS

We conducted a matched case-control study of 3 groups of patients aged 12-74 years, using a large-scale health insurance claims database in Japan (population 1.2 million). A total of 351 cases with drug poisoning were compared with two control groups without overdose: 1755 patients with any treatment (general controls) and those with depression (high-risk controls). Current, past, and nonusers were patients most recently exposed to psychotropic medications ≤ 90 days, 91-180 days, and ≥ 180 days before the index date.

RESULTS

Current sedative-hypnotic use was associated with an increased odds of overdose relative to general control nonusers (odds ratio [OR], 21.5; 95 % confidence interval [CI], 9.7-47.8) and high-risk control nonusers (OR, 2.6; 95 % CI, 1.9-3.5). In the comparison of cases and high-risk controls, the ORs for overdose were higher among excessive dosage users than among usual dosage users (OR, 4.3; 95 % CI, 3.0-6.1), among barbiturate users than among benzodiazepine/Z-drug only users (OR, 4.5; 95 % CI, 2.3-8.7), and among multiple provider episodes than among single provider episodes (OR, 4.4; 95 % CI, 1.7-11.0). Psychiatrists prescribed more than 77 % of potentially questionable prescriptions.

CONCLUSIONS

These results highlight the need for psychiatrists to monitor prescribed medications and balance the benefits and risks of pharmacological treatments.

Self-poisoning with medications in adolescents: a national register study of hospital admissions and readmissions

OBJECTIVE

To examine characteristics of hospital admissions and risk factors associated with rehospitalization for self-poisoning with medications in adolescents aged 10-19 years.

METHOD

This study used data from the Norwegian Patient Register from 2008 to 2011. The main outcome was hospital readmission within the observation period. A complementary log-log regression model was used to assess the effect of characteristics at index hospital admission on readmission.

RESULTS

Of 1497 patients, 76.4% were females and 89.8% were aged 15-19 years. At their first hospital admission, about one third received a secondary psychiatric diagnosis. Females (47.5%) were registered with an E-code for intentional self-harm more often than males (33.7%), and females were more often than males discharged to further treatment (27.8% vs. 21.5%). As many as 18.4% were rehospitalized for self-poisoning by medications. Significant predictors for hospital readmission were female sex [hazard ratio (HR) = 2.4, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.7-3.6], discharge to further treatment (HR = 2.3, 95% CI 1.8-2.9) and psychiatric secondary diagnoses (HR = 1.5, 95% CI 1.2-1.9).

CONCLUSION

This national study demonstrated significant sex differences in adolescents treated in hospital for self-poisoning with medications. Psychiatric secondary diagnoses had a strong predictive effect on readmission, which indicates the importance of psychiatric/psychosocial assessment of adolescents who are admitted to hospital for self-poisoning with medications.

Fatal poisonings in Finland during the years 2004-2009

Fatal alcohol and drug poisonings in Finland during the years 2004-2009 were studied. Cases were divided into those that occurred outside the hospitals (the majority of cases) and those that occurred within the hospitals (the minority of cases). Differences and similarities between the two groups were analysed. The postmortem toxicological investigation of all sudden and unexpected deaths in Finland is centralised at the Department of Forensic Medicine, University of Helsinki. We examined each fatal poisoning separately and verified the cause and place of death as well as the age and sex of the deceased. Fatal poisonings, including suicides, have remained unchanged for many years from the same high level, that is, about 1200 cases annually (22/100,000 inhabitants). The number of patients dying in hospitals due to poisoning has also remained stable (55-70 patients/year). However, the toxic agents involved in such poisonings have changed and deaths due to opioids are now being more numerous. The number of fatal unintentional drug poisonings rose significantly from 191 to 341 (3-6/100,000 inhabitants, p < 0.001) during the study years, and the difference between poisonings caused by drugs or alcohol also changed significantly (p < 0.001). Diminishing substantially, the number of all fatal poisonings will be challenging because of the high percentage of suicides. However, a reduction in unintentional drug overdoses, which are presently on the rise, should be possible.

Deliberate drug poisoning with slight symptoms on admission: are there predictive factors for intensive care unit referral? A three-year retrospective study

Deliberate drug poisoning leads to 1% of emergency department (ED) admissions. Even if most patients do not exhibit any significant complication, 5% need to be referred to an intensive care unit (ICU). Emergency physicians should distinguish between low- and high-acuity poisoned patients at an early stage to avoid excess morbidity. Our aim was to identify ICU transfer factors in deliberately self-poisoned patients without life-threatening symptoms on admission. We performed a 3-year retrospective observational study in a university hospital. Patients over 18 years of age with a diagnosis of deliberate drug poisoning were included. Clinical and toxicological data were analysed with univariate tests between groups (ED stay versus ICU transfer). Factors associated with ICU admission were then included in a logistic regression analysis. Two thousand five hundred and sixty-five patients were included. 63.2% were women, and median age was 40 (28-49). 142 patients (5.5%) were transferred to ICU. Cardiac drugs [adjusted OR (aOR) = 19.81; 95% confidence interval (95% CI): 7.93-49.50], neuroleptics (aOR = 2.78; 95% CI: 1.55-4.97) and meprobamate (aOR = 2.71; 95% CI: 1.27-5.81) ingestions were significantly linked to ICU admission. A presumed toxic dose ingestion (aOR = 2.27; 95% CI: 1.28-4.02), number of ingested tablets (aOR = 1.01; 95% CI: 1.01-1.02 for each tablet) and delay between ingestion and ED arrival <2 hr (aOR = 2.85; 95%CI: 1.62-5.03) were also factors for ICU referral. The Glasgow Coma Scale was the only clinical feature associated with ICU admission (aOR = 1.57; 95% CI: 1.44-1.70 for each point loss). These results suggest that emergency physicians should pay particular attention to toxicological data on ED admission to distinguish between low- and high-acuity self-poisoned patients.

Five-year mortality after acute poisoning treated in ambulances, an emergency outpatient clinic and hospitals in Oslo

Background

The long-term mortality after prehospital treatment for acute poisoning has not been studied previously. Thus, we aimed to estimate the five-year mortality and examine the causes of death and predictors of death for all acutely poisoned patients treated in ambulances, the emergency outpatient clinic, and hospitals in Oslo during 2003–2004.

Methods

A prospective cohort study included all adults (≥16 years; n=2045, median age=35 years, male=58%) who were discharged after treatment for acute poisoning in ambulances, the emergency outpatient clinic, and the four hospitals in Oslo during one year. The patients were observed until the end of 2008. Standardized mortality rates (SMRs) were calculated and multivariate Cox regression analysis was applied.

Results

The study comprised 2045 patients; 686 treated in ambulances, 646 treated in the outpatient clinic, and 713 treated in hospitals. After five years, 285 (14%) patients had died (four within one week). The SMRs after ambulance, outpatient, and hospital treatment were 12 (CI 9–14), 10 (CI 8–12), and 6 (CI 5–7), respectively. The overall SMR was 9 (CI 8–10), while the SMR after opioid poisoning was 27 (CI 21–32). The most frequent cause of death was accidents (38%). In the regression analysis, opioids as the main toxic agents (HR 2.3, CI 1.6–3.0), older age (HR 1.6, CI 1.5–1.7), and male sex (HR 1.4, CI 1.1–1.9) predicted death, whereas the treatment level did not predict death.

Conclusions

The patients had high mortality compared with the general population. Those treated in hospital had the lowest mortality. Opioids were the major predictor of death.

Characteristics, procedural differences, and costs of inpatients with drug poisoning in acute care hospitals in Japan

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to describe the clinical and procedural characteristics of drug poisoning, to examine procedural differences between drug poisoning repeaters and non-repeaters, and to estimate the costs of drug poisoning.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study of a nationally representative sample of 6585 inpatients with drug poisoning was conducted, using the administrative database of the Diagnosis Procedure Combination/Per-Diem Payment System in 2008.

RESULTS

Although only 3% of patients required surgery and 65% were discharged from the hospitals within 3 days, greater than 30% were admitted to tertiary emergency care (i.e., high-level emergency care) centers that provide care to severely ill and trauma patients who require intensive care. Only 30% of patients received psychiatric consultation during hospitalization. In addition, repeaters were less likely to be admitted to hospitals by ambulance (67% vs. 76%) and more likely to be discharged within 3 days (77% vs. 65%) than non-repeaters. The annual economic burden of drug poisoning in Japan was $66 million (¥7.7 billion), with the population aged 20-39 years accounting for 50% of these costs.

CONCLUSION

This study highlights the need for optimally allocating resources and improving prevention strategies.

A one-year observational study of all hospitalized and fatal acute poisonings in Oslo: epidemiology, intention and follow-up

Background

Up to date information on poisoning trends is important. This study reports the epidemiology of all hospitalized acute poisonings in Oslo, including mortality, follow-up referrals, and whether the introduction of over-the-counter sales of paracetamol outside pharmacies had an impact on the frequency of poisonings.

Methods

All acute poisonings of adults (≥16 years) treated at the five hospitals in Oslo from April 2008 to April 2009 were included consecutively in an observational cross-sectional multicentre study. A standardized form was completed by the treating physician, which covered the study aims. All deaths by poisoning in and outside hospitals were registered at the Institute of Forensic Medicine.

Results

There were 1065 hospital admissions of 912 individuals; 460 (50%) were male, and the median age was 36 years. The annual incidence was 2.0 per 1000. The most frequent toxic agents were ethanol (18%), benzodiazepines (15%), paracetamol (11%), and opioids (11%). Physicians classified 46% as possible or definite suicide attempts, 37% as accidental overdoses with substances of abuse (AOSA), and 16% as other accidents. Twenty-four per cent were discharged without any follow-up and the no follow-up odds were highest for AOSA. There were 117 deaths (eight in hospital), of which 75% were males, and the median age was 41 years. Thus, the annual mortality rate was 25 per 100 000 and the in-hospital mortality was 0.8%. Opioids were the most frequent cause of death.

Conclusions

The incidence of hospitalized acute poisonings in Oslo was similar to that in 2003 and there was an equal sex distribution. Compared with a study performed in Oslo in 2003, there has been an increase in poisonings with a suicidal intention. The in-hospital mortality was low and nine out of ten deaths occurred outside hospitals. Opioids were the leading cause of death, so preventive measures should be encouraged among substance abusers. The number of poisonings caused by paracetamol remained unchanged after the introduction of over-the-counter sales outside pharmacies and there were no deaths, so over-the-counter sales may be considered safe.

Changing epidemiologic patterns of deliberate self poisoning in a rural district of Sri Lanka

Background

Acute poisoning is a major public health issue in many parts of the world. The epidemiology and the mortality rate is higher in low and middle income countries, including Sri Lanka. The aim of this study was to provide details about the epidemiology of acute poisoning in a rural Sri Lankan district and to identify the changing patterns and epidemiology of poisoning.

Methods

A prospective study was conducted from September 2008 to January 2010 in all hospitals with inpatient facilities in Anuradhapura district of North Central Province of Sri Lanka. Acute poisoning data was extracted from patient charts. Selected data were compared to the data collected from a 2005 study in 28 hospitals.

Results

There were 3813 poisoned patients admitted to the hospitals in the Anuradhapura district over 17 months. The annual population incidence was 447 poisoning cases per 100,000 population. The total number of male and female patients was approximately similar, but the age distribution differed by gender. There was a very high incidence of poisoning in females aged 15–19, with an estimated cumulative incidence of 6% over these five years. Although, pesticides are still the most common type of poison, medicinal drug poisonings are now 21% of the total and have increased 1.6 fold since 2005.

Conclusions

Acute poisoning remains a major public health problem in rural Sri Lanka and pesticide poisoning remains the most important poison. However, cases of medicinal drug poisoning have recently dramatically increased. Youth in these rural communities remain very vulnerable to acute poisoning and the problem is so common that school-based primary prevention programs may be worthwhile.

Lalith Senarathna, Shaluka F Jayamanna, Patrick J Kelly, Nick A Buckley,michael J Dibley, Andrew H Dawson. These authors contributed equally to this work.

A one-year observational study of all hospitalized acute poisonings in Oslo: complications, treatment and sequelae

Objectives

Changes in poisoning trends may affect both complications and outcomes in patients with acute poisoning. This study reports the treatments given and the frequency of complications, also related to treatment, mortality and sequelae related to various toxic agents.

Methods

All acute poisonings in adults (≥16 years) admitted to the five hospitals in Oslo were included consecutively during one year (2008 to 2009) in an observational cross-sectional multicenter study. A standardized form was completed by the treating physician, which covered the study aims.

Results

There were 1065 admissions in 912 patients. The median length of hospital stay was one day, and 49% were observed in an intensive care unit (ICU). Active treatment was given to 83%, and consisted of supportive therapy (70%), antidote(s) (38%), activated charcoal (16%) and gastric lavage (9%). The most commonly used antidotes were flumazenil (19%), naloxone (17%) and N-acetylcysteine (11%). The rate of treatment-related complications was 2.4% (21/884). Neither flumazenil, naloxone, nor the combination, was associated with convulsions or other complications. Among those receiving N-acetylcysteine, 5% (6/120) developed allergic reactions, one of which mandated discontinuation of treatment. Nineteen percent presented in a coma. Complications developed in 30%, compared with 18% in a 2003 study, mainly respiratory depression (12%), prolonged QTc interval (6%) and hypotension (5%). Eight patients died (0.8%) and five (0.5%) survived with permanent sequelae, mainly anoxic brain damage.

Discussion

Few patients stayed more than two days. The use of the ICU was liberal, considering that only one out of five presented in a coma. Antidotes were frequently given diagnostically. Although N-acetylcysteine induced allergic reactions, most were mild and treatment discontinuation was only necessary once. The frequency of complications had almost doubled in five years, although the poisoning pattern was largely unchanged. However, few patients developed permanent sequelae.

Treatment received, satisfaction with health care services, and psychiatric symptoms 3 months after hospitalization for self-poisoning

BACKGROUND

Patients who self-poison have high repetition and high mortality rates. Therefore, appropriate follow-up is important. The aims of the present work were to study treatment received, satisfaction with health care services, and psychiatric symptoms after hospitalization for self-poisoning.

METHODS

A cohort of patients who self-poisoned (n = 867) over a period of 1 year received a questionnaire 3 months after discharge. The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS), and Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE) were used. The participation rate was 28% (n = 242); mean age, 41 years; 66% females.

RESULTS

Although only 14% of patients were registered without follow-up referrals at discharge, 41% reported no such measures. Overall, satisfaction with treatment was fairly good, although 29% of patients waited more than 3 weeks for their first appointment. A total of 22% reported repeated self-poisoning and 17% cutting. The mean BDI and BHS scores were 23.3 and 10.1, respectively (both moderate to severe). The GSE score was 25.2. BDI score was 25.6 among patients with suicide attempts, 24.9 for appeals, and 20.1 for substance-use-related poisonings.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite plans for follow-up, many patients reported that they did not receive any. The reported frequency of psychiatric symptoms and self-harm behavior indicate that a more active follow-up is needed.

Poisonings in the Nordic countries in 2007: a 5-year epidemiological follow-up

AIM

To map mortality and morbidity of poisonings in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden in 2007 and undertake a comparison with a corresponding study in 2002.

METHODS

Morbidity was as for 2002 defined as acute poisoning (ICD-10 codes, main and subsidiary diagnoses) treated in hospitals. The figures were extracted from the National Patient/Hospital Registers. Deaths recorded as acute poisoning (using corresponding ICD-10 codes) were collected from the National Cause of Death Registers.

RESULTS

Annual mortality of acute poisonings per 100,000 inhabitants (rate) for 2007 was 22.4 in Finland, an important increase from 16.7 per 100,000 in 2002. The increase was mainly due to a change in coding of alcohol, but also represented a slight increase in fatal alcohol intoxications per se. The poisoning death rate in the other Nordic countries varied between 8-13 and was at the same level as for 2002. The morbidity rates for 2007 between 158-285 per 100,000 inhabitants represented a slight increase compared to 2002 figures.

CONCLUSION

The increase in poisoning death rate for alcohol, and thus total rate in Finland in 2007 compared to 2002, has further increased the gap to the other Nordic countries. Poisoning morbidity rates in the Nordic countries are of the same level, but the variability shown indicates that more harmonization and collaboration is needed to increase the data quality.

Outpatient treatment of acute poisonings in Oslo: poisoning pattern, factors associated with hospitalization, and mortality

BACKGROUND

Most patients with acute poisoning are treated as outpatients worldwide. In Oslo, these patients are treated in a physician-led outpatient clinic with limited diagnostic and treatment resources, which reduces both the costs and emergency department overcrowding. We describe the poisoning patterns, treatment, mortality, factors associated with hospitalization and follow-up at this Emergency Medical Agency (EMA, "Oslo Legevakt"), and we evaluate the safety of this current practice.

METHODS

All acute poisonings in adults (> or = 16 years) treated at the EMA during one year (April 2008 to April 2009) were included consecutively in an observational study design. The treating physicians completed a standardized form comprising information needed to address the study's aims. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to identify the factors associated with hospitalization.

RESULTS

There were 2348 contacts for 1856 individuals; 1157 (62%) were male, and the median age was 34 years. The most frequent main toxic agents were ethanol (43%), opioids (22%) and CO or fire smoke (10%). The physicians classified 73% as accidental overdoses with substances of abuse taken for recreational purposes, 15% as other accidents (self-inflicted or other) and 11% as suicide attempts. Most (91%) patients were treated with observation only. The median observation time until discharge was 3.8 hours. No patient developed sequelae or died at the EMA. Seventeen per cent were hospitalized. Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid, respiratory depression, paracetamol, reduced consciousness and suicidal intention were factors associated with hospitalization. Forty-eight per cent were discharged without referral to follow-up. The one-month mortality was 0.6%. Of the nine deaths, five were by new accidental overdose with substances of abuse.

CONCLUSIONS

More than twice as many patients were treated at the EMA compared with all hospitals in Oslo. Despite more than a doubling of the annual number of poisoned patients treated at the EMA since 2003, there was no mortality or sequelae, indicating that the current practice is safe. Thus, most low- to intermediate-acuity poisonings can be treated safely without the need to access hospital resources. Although the short-term mortality was low, more follow-up of patients with substance abuse should be encouraged.

Determination of γ-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB), pregabalin, 1,4-butane-diol (1,4BD) and γ-butyrolactone (GBL) in whole blood and urine samples by UPLC-MSMS

The demand of high throughput methods for the determination of gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) and its precursors gamma-butyrolactone (GBL) and 1,4-butane-diol (1,4BD) as well as for pregabalin is increasing. Here we present two analytical methods using ultra-high pressure liquid chromatography (UPLC) and tandem mass spectrometric (MS/MS) detection for the determination of GHB, beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB), pregabalin, 1,4BD and GBL in whole blood and urine. Using the 96-well formate, the whole blood method is a simple high-throughput method suitable for screening of large sample amounts. With an easy sample preparation for urine including only dilution and filtration of the sample, the method is suitable for fast screening of urine samples. Both methods showed acceptable linearity, acceptable limits of detection, and limits of quantification. The within-day and between-day precisions of all analytes were lower than 10% RSD. The analytes were extracted from matrices with recoveries near 100%, and no major matrix effects were observed. Both methods have been used as routine screening analyses of whole blood and urine samples since January 2010.

[Abuse of γ-hydroxybutyrate]

BACKGROUND

Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) is naturally present in the human body, but may also be used as an intoxicating drug. Information from several sources has suggested its increased availability and use in Norway. There have also been reports of an increasing use of the chemical precursor gamma-butyrolactone (GBL).There is currently a need for knowledge on symptoms, addictiveness and overdoses, as well as targeted preventive measures.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The article is based on a discretionary selection of articles resulting from a literature search in PubMed, as well as reports from Norwegian and European authorities and research institutions.

RESULTS

An intake of small amounts of GHB produces an intoxicating effect, whereas higher doses can result in poisoning. Deaths have been reported. The effect may be variable, due to a steep dose-response curve and interaction with alcohol and other intoxicants. Treatment of poisoning is symptomatic and supportive. Treatment of abstinence is also supportive, while delirium may be treated as delirium tremens.

INTERPRETATION

Preventive measures should be tailored specifically to potential user-groups.

The Impact of Gamma Hydroxybutyrate (GHB) Legal Restrictions on Patterns of Use: Results from an International Survey

AIMS: To conduct an Internet-based survey of GHB use, identifying differences by respondent residence. METHODS: We recruited GHB-knowledgeable persons via "social networking Internet sites." Individuals (n=314) or groups (n=66) were approached based on GHB-use testimonials. DATA COLLECTED: location, use, reason for cessation (if applicable). FINDINGS: We recruited 155 GHB users. U.S. respondents (53 of 70; 76%) compared to non-U.S. respondents (38 of 85; 45%) were older and more highly educated (p<0.05) but manifest a 3-fold greater adjusted odds of GHB cessation (Odds Ratio [OR] 3.1; 95% CI 1.4-6.9; p < 0.05). Of the 80 respondents stating reason for cessation, 36 (45%) cited legal risk, price, or access; 44 (55%) cited health or related concerns. U.S. compared to non-U.S. respondents more frequently invoked legal and related concerns (OR 2.5; 95% CI 0.99-6.3; p=0.05). In a nested analysis, narrowly stated legal (n=4/5 U.S.) versus health (n=6/18 U.S.) reasons differed by location (p=0.048, one-tailed). CONCLUSIONS: In the U.S., where GHB has stricter legal penalties, GHB cessation is more likely, with legal and related reasons more commonly invoked for cessation. These findings support a link between declining U.S. GHB abuse and more stringent restrictions; although other un-assessed factors may also explain this association. The Impact of Gamma Hydroxybutyrate (GHB) Legal Restrictions on Patterns of Use: Results from an International Survey.

Suicidal intention, psychosocial factors and referral to further treatment: a one-year cross-sectional study of self-poisoning

BACKGROUND

Patients treated for self-poisoning have an increased risk of death, both by natural and unnatural causes. The follow-up of these patients is therefore of great importance. The aim of this study was to explore the differences in psychosocial factors and referrals to follow-up among self-poisoning patients according to their evaluated intention.

METHODS

A cross-sectional multicenter study of all 908 admissions to hospital because of self-poisoning in Oslo during one year was completed. Fifty-four percent were females, and the median age was 36 years. The patients were grouped according to evaluated intention: suicide attempts (moderate to high suicide intent), appeals (low suicide intent) and substance-use related poisonings. Multinomial regression analyses compared patients based on their evaluated intention; suicide attempts were used as the reference.

RESULTS

Of all self-poisoning incidents, 37% were suicide attempts, 26% were appeals and 38% were related to substance use. Fifty-five percent of the patients reported previous suicide attempts, 58% reported previous or current psychiatric treatment and 32% reported daily substance use. Overall, patients treated for self-poisoning showed a lack of social integration. Only 33% were employed, 34% were married or cohabiting and 53% were living alone. Those in the suicide attempt and appeal groups had more previous suicide attempts and reported more psychiatric treatment than those with poisoning related to substance use. One third of all patients with substance use-related poisoning reported previous suicide attempts, and one third of suicide attempt patients reported daily substance use. Gender distribution was the only statistically significant difference between the appeal patients and suicide attempt patients. Almost one in every five patients was discharged without any plans for follow-up: 36% of patients with substance use-related poisoning and 5% of suicide attempt patients. Thirty-eight percent of all suicide attempt patients were admitted to a psychiatric ward. Only 10% of patients with substance use-related poisoning were referred to substance abuse treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

All patients had several risk factors for suicidal behavior. There were only minor differences between suicide attempt patients and appeal patients. If the self-poisoning was evaluated as related to substance use, the patient was often discharged without plans for follow-up.

Fatal poisonings in Oslo: a one-year observational study

Background

Acute poisonings are common and are treated at different levels of the health care system. Since most fatal poisonings occur outside hospital, these must be included when studying characteristics of such deaths. The pattern of toxic agents differs between fatal and non-fatal poisonings. By including all poisoning episodes, cause-fatality rates can be calculated.

Methods

Fatal and non-fatal acute poisonings in subjects aged ≥16 years in Oslo (428 198 inhabitants) were included consecutively in an observational multi-centre study including the ambulance services, the Oslo Emergency Ward (outpatient clinic), and hospitals, as well as medico-legal autopsies from 1st April 2003 to 31st March 2004. Characteristics of fatal poisonings were examined, and a comparison of toxic agents was made between fatal and non-fatal acute poisoning.

Results

In Oslo, during the one-year period studied, 103 subjects aged ≥16 years died of acute poisoning. The annual mortality rate was 24 per 100 000. The male-female ratio was 2:1, and the mean age was 44 years (range 19-86 years). In 92 cases (89%), death occurred outside hospital. The main toxic agents were opiates or opioids (65% of cases), followed by ethanol (9%), tricyclic anti-depressants (TCAs) (4%), benzodiazepines (4%), and zopiclone (4%). Seventy-one (69%) were evaluated as accidental deaths and 32 (31%) as suicides. In 70% of all cases, and in 34% of suicides, the deceased was classified as drug or alcohol dependent. When compared with the 2981 non-fatal acute poisonings registered during the study period, the case fatality rate was 3% (95% C.I., 0.03-0.04). Methanol, TCAs, and antihistamines had the highest case fatality rates; 33% (95% C.I., 0.008-0.91), 14% (95% C.I., 0.04-0.33), and 10% (95% C.I., 0.02-0.27), respectively.

Conclusions

Three per cent of all acute poisonings were fatal, and nine out of ten deaths by acute poisonings occurred outside hospital. Two-thirds were evaluated as accidental deaths. Although case fatality rates were highest for methanol, TCAs, and antihistamines, most deaths were caused by opiates or opioids.

[Patients with self-poisoning in a medical department]

BACKGROUND

Patients harm themselves for different reasons; some attempt suicide, others are more ambivalent and their actions can be regarded as acts of appeal. This presentation focuses on self-poisoning with special emphasis on prevalence, treatment and prognosis.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The paper is based on 30 years clinical experience and research on patients with self-poisoning.

RESULTS

The incidence of self-poisonings treated in Norwegian hospitals is between 100 and 200 per 100 000 person-years. About 1 % die in association with hospitalization, usually due to complications before arrival. Mortality is highly increased 20 years after discharge from hospital. Thorough assessment of somatic, psychiatric and social health problems is necessary. Suicide risk has to be assessed systematically and documented. Follow-up should preferably be organized within one week after a suicide attempt if the patient is not transferred to a psychiatric department. Patients that are admitted to hospital with non-suicidal poisonings also have significant health problems that call for more systematic follow-up.

INTERPRETATION

Clinical follow-up and research activities do not reflect the seriousness of the health problems associated with self-poisoning.

Repetition of acute poisoning in Oslo: 1-year prospective study

BACKGROUND

The repetition of acute poisoning occurs frequently. The intention may change between episodes and many poisonings are treated outside the hospital setting. Few studies have taken this into account.

AIMS

To quantify the repetition frequency regardless of the level of health care or the intention behind the poisoning, and to identify possible risk factors for repetition.

METHOD

A prospective multicentre study of all acute poisonings in Oslo treated in hospital, at an out-patient clinic or by the ambulance service. Repetition was estimated using Kaplan-Meier calculations, and predictive factors were identified using Cox regression analysis.

RESULTS

The estimated 1-year repetition rate was 30% (95% CI 24-35). Independent predictors of repetition were middle age (30-49 years), poisoning with opiates or sedatives, unemployment or living on social welfare, a previous suicide attempt, and a history of psychiatric treatment. Intention was not a significant predictor.

CONCLUSIONS

Repetition of acute poisoning is high, irrespective of the level of healthcare and the intention behind the poisoning.

Pre-hospital treatment of acute poisonings in Oslo

Background

Poisoned patients are often treated in and discharged from pre-hospital health care settings. Studies of poisonings should therefore not only include hospitalized patients. Aims: To describe the acutely poisoned patients treated by ambulance personnel and in an outpatient clinic; compare patients transferred to a higher treatment level with those discharged without transfer; and study the one-week mortality after pre-hospital discharge.

Methods

A one-year multi-centre study with prospective inclusion of all acutely poisoned patients ≥ 16 years of age treated in ambulances, an outpatient clinic, and hospitals in Oslo.

Results

A total of 3757 health service contacts from 2997 poisoning episodes were recorded: 1860 were treated in ambulances, of which 15 died and 750 (40%) were discharged without transfer; 956 were treated in outpatient clinic, of which 801 (84%) were discharged without transfer; and 941 episodes were treated in hospitals. Patients discharged alive after ambulance treatment were mainly poisoned by opiates (70%), were frequently comatose (35%), had respiratory depression (37%), and many received naloxone (49%). The majority of the patients discharged from the outpatient clinic were poisoned by ethanol (55%), fewer were comatose (10%), and they rarely had respiratory depression (4%). Among the hospitalized, pharmaceutical poisonings were most common (58%), 23% were comatose, and 7% had respiratory depression. Male patients comprised 69% of the pre-hospital discharges, but only 46% of the hospitalized patients. Except for one patient, who died of a new heroin overdose two days following discharge from an ambulance, there were no deaths during the first week after the poisonings in the 90% of the pre-hospital discharged patients with known identity.

Conclusion

More than half of the poisoned patients treated in pre-hospital treatment settings were discharged without transfer to higher levels. These poisonings were more often caused by drug and alcohol abuse than in those who were hospitalized, and more than two-thirds were males. Almost half of those discharged from ambulances received an antidote. The pre-hospital treatment of these poisonings appears safe regarding short-term mortality.