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Golub A, Ordak M, Nasierowski T, Bujalska-Zadrozny M. Advanced Biomarkers of Hepatotoxicity in Psychiatry: A Narrative Review and Recommendations for New Psychoactive Substances. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24119413. [PMID: 37298365 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24119413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the factors that increase the effectiveness of the pharmacotherapy used in patients abusing various types of new psychoactive substances (NPSs) is the proper functioning of the liver. However, the articles published to date on NPS hepatotoxicity only address non-specific hepatic parameters. The aim of this manuscript was to review three advanced markers of hepatotoxicity in psychiatry, namely, osteopontin (OPN), high-mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB1) and glutathione dehydrogenase (GDH, GLDH), and, on this basis, to identify recommendations that should be included in future studies in patients abusing NPSs. This will make it possible to determine whether NPSs do indeed have a hepatotoxic effect or whether other factors, such as additional substances taken or hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, are responsible. NPS abusers are at particular risk of HCV infection, and for this reason, it is all the more important to determine what factors actually show a hepatotoxic effect in them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aniela Golub
- Department of Pharmacotherapy and Pharmaceutical Care, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1 Str., 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Michal Ordak
- Department of Pharmacotherapy and Pharmaceutical Care, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1 Str., 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Tadeusz Nasierowski
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Warsaw, Nowowiejska 27 Str., 00-665 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Magdalena Bujalska-Zadrozny
- Department of Pharmacotherapy and Pharmaceutical Care, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1 Str., 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
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Platelet glutamate dehydrogenase activity and efficacy of antipsychotic therapy in patients with schizophrenia. J Med Biochem 2020; 39:54-59. [PMID: 32549778 DOI: 10.2478/jomb-2019-0018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Accepted: 03/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Evaluation of possible relationship between platelet glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) activity and mental state of schizophrenia patients after antipsychotic pharmacotherapy. Methods Patients (n = 50) with chronic paranoid schizophrenia (F20.0) initially in acute psychotic state were examined before and after a treatment course with antipsychotics. When assessing the patients' states using PANSS, the "responder" category was attributed to those patients who had not less than 30% reduction in the score for the corresponding PANSS "subscale". The control group (n = 48) was ageand gender-matched with the patient group. Platelet glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) activity was measured in patients twice, before and after the treatment course, and once in controls. Results Significantly reduced GDH activity was found in patients compared with controls. The patient group was divided into two subgroups according to median GDH activity at baseline: above and below the median GDH, subgroup 1 and subgroup 2, respectively. GDH activity significantly increased from its level at baseline after antipsychotic treatment in subgroup 2. Distribution of non responders / responders to antipsychotic treatment (by PANSS scores) was significantly uneven among subgroups 1 and 2. In subgroup 1, GDH activity levels significantly correlated with PANSS scores after the treatment course. Conclusions Baseline platelet GDH activity might serve as a predictor of antipsychotic therapy efficacy in schizophrenia patients.
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Tereshkina EB, Prokhorova TA, Boksha IS, Savushkina OK, Vorobyeva EA, Burbaeva GS. [Comparative study of glutamate dehydrogenase in the brain of patients with schizophrenia and mentally healthy people]. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova 2017; 117:101-107. [PMID: 29265094 DOI: 10.17116/jnevro2017117111101-107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
AIM To compare the glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) activity and amounts of GDHI, GDHII, and GDHIII immunoreactive forms in prefrontal, anterior and posterior cingulate cortex and cerebellar cortex of patients with schizophrenia and control subjects. MATERIAL AND METHODS GDH enzymatic activity was measured and levels of GDH immunoreactive forms were determined in extracts of autopsied samples of prefrontal, anterior and posterior cingulate cortex (areas 10, 24, and 23 by Brodmann), and cerebellar cortex of patients with schizophrenia (n=8) and controls (n=9). RESULTS AND CONCLUSION GDH enzymatic activity was significantly increased in the prefrontal cortex (area 10) (p<0.004), the posterior cingulate cortex (area 23) (p<0.05) and the cerebellar cortex (p<0.002) and was unchanged in the anterior cingulate cortex (area 24) in patients with schizophrenia compared to controls. The levels of immunoreactive GDH I, GDH II and GDH III were significantly higher in the prefrontal cortex of patients with schizophrenia than in controls (p<0.008, p<0.003, and p<0.0001, respectively). Levels of all three immunoreactive GDH forms were unchanged in the anterior cingulate cortex (area 24), but they were increased in the posterior cingulate cortex (area 23) (p<0.004, p<0.001 and p<0.02, respectively). The levels of immunoreactive GDH II and GDH III, but not GDH I, were significantly increased in the cerebellar cortex of patients with schizophrenia compared with the control group (p<0.02 and p<0.001, respectively). The alteration in the levels of GDH immunoreactive forms in the brain of patients with schizophrenia is one of the causes of impaired brain glutamate metabolism and an important aspect of schizophrenia pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - I S Boksha
- Mental Health Research Centre, Moscow, Russia
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Prokhorova Т, Boksha I, Savushkina O, Tereshkina E, Vorobyeva Е, Pomytkin A, Kaleda V, Burbaeva G. Glutamate dehydrogenase activity in platelets of patients with endogenous psychosis. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova 2016; 116:44-48. [DOI: 10.17116/jnevro20161163144-48] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Bernstein HG, Bannier J, Meyer-Lotz G, Steiner J, Keilhoff G, Dobrowolny H, Walter M, Bogerts B. Distribution of immunoreactive glutamine synthetase in the adult human and mouse brain. Qualitative and quantitative observations with special emphasis on extra-astroglial protein localization. J Chem Neuroanat 2014; 61-62:33-50. [PMID: 25058171 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2014.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2014] [Revised: 07/14/2014] [Accepted: 07/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Glutamine synthetase catalyzes the ATP-dependent condensation of ammonia and glutamate to form glutamine, thus playing a pivotal role in glutamate and glutamine homoeostasis. Despite a plethora of studies on this enzyme, knowledge about the regional and cellular distribution of this enzyme in human brain is still fragmentary. Therefore, we mapped fourteen post-mortem brains of psychically healthy individuals for the distribution of the glutamine synthetase immunoreactive protein. It was found that glutamine synthetase immunoreactivity is expressed in multiple gray and white matter astrocytes, but also in oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells and certain neurons. Since a possible extra-astrocytic expression of glutamine synthetase is highly controversial, we paid special attention to its appearance in oligodendrocytes and neurons. By double immunolabeling of mouse brain slices and cultured mouse brain cells for glutamine synthetase and cell-type-specific markers we provide evidence that besides astrocytes subpopulations of oligodendrocytes, microglial cells and neurons express glutamine synthetase. Moreover, we show that glutamine synthetase-immunopositive neurons are not randomly distributed throughout human and mouse brain, but represent a subpopulation of nitrergic (i.e. neuronal nitric oxide synthase expressing) neurons. Possible functional implications of an extra-astrocytic localization of glutamine synthetase are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans-Gert Bernstein
- Department of Psychiatry, Otto-von-Guericke University, Faculty of Medicine, Magdeburg, Germany.
| | - Jana Bannier
- Department of Psychiatry, Otto-von-Guericke University, Faculty of Medicine, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Gabriela Meyer-Lotz
- Department of Psychiatry, Otto-von-Guericke University, Faculty of Medicine, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Johann Steiner
- Department of Psychiatry, Otto-von-Guericke University, Faculty of Medicine, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Gerburg Keilhoff
- Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Faculty of Medicine, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Henrik Dobrowolny
- Department of Psychiatry, Otto-von-Guericke University, Faculty of Medicine, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Martin Walter
- Department of Psychiatry, Otto-von-Guericke University, Faculty of Medicine, Magdeburg, Germany; Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Bernhard Bogerts
- Department of Psychiatry, Otto-von-Guericke University, Faculty of Medicine, Magdeburg, Germany
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Davis J, Moylan S, Harvey BH, Maes M, Berk M. Neuroprogression in schizophrenia: Pathways underpinning clinical staging and therapeutic corollaries. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2014; 48:512-29. [PMID: 24803587 DOI: 10.1177/0004867414533012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Whilst dopaminergic dysfunction remains a necessary component involved in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia, our current pharmacological armoury of dopamine antagonists does little to control the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. This suggests other pathological processes must be implicated. This paper aims to elaborate on such theories. METHODS Data for this review were sourced from the electronic database PUBMED, and was not limited by language or date of publication. RESULTS It has been suggested that multiple 'hits' may be required to unveil the clinical syndrome in susceptible individuals. Such hits potentially first occur in utero, leading to neuronal disruption, epigenetic changes and the establishment of an abnormal inflammatory response. The development of schizophrenia may therefore potentially be viewed as a neuroprogressive response to these early stressors, driven on by changes in tryptophan catabolite (TRYCAT) metabolism, reactive oxygen species handling and N-methyl d-aspartate (NMDA) circuitry. Given the potential for such progression over time, it is prudent to explore the new treatment strategies which may be implemented before such changes become established. CONCLUSIONS Outside of the dopaminergic model, the potential pathogenesis of schizophrenia has yet to be fully elucidated, but common themes include neuropil shrinkage, the development of abnormal neuronal circuitry, and a chronic inflammatory state which further disrupts neuronal function. Whilst some early non-dopaminergic treatments show promise, none have yet to be fully studied in appropriately structured randomized controlled trials and they remain little more than potential attractive targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin Davis
- IMPACT Strategic Research Centre, Deakin University, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia
| | - Steven Moylan
- IMPACT Strategic Research Centre, Deakin University, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia
| | - Brian H Harvey
- Division of Pharmacology, and Center of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, North West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Michael Maes
- IMPACT Strategic Research Centre, Deakin University, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia Department of Psychiatry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Michael Berk
- IMPACT Strategic Research Centre, Deakin University, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia Orygen Youth Health Research Centre, Parkville, Australia Centre of Youth Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia Florey Institute for Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia University of Melbourne, Department of Psychiatry, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville, Australia
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Asor E, Ben-Shachar D. Platelets: A possible glance into brain biological processes in schizophrenia. World J Psychiatry 2012; 2:124-33. [PMID: 24175178 PMCID: PMC3782191 DOI: 10.5498/wjp.v2.i6.124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2011] [Revised: 07/02/2012] [Accepted: 07/23/2012] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder, characterized by behavioral, emotional and cognitive disturbances, which commonly follows a chronic course. Diagnostic accuracy, management plans, treatment evaluation and prognosis are dependent on relatively subjective assessments. Despite extensive research and improvement in imaging technology, as well as modern genetic and molecular methodologies, the biological basis of this disease is still unclear. Therefore, there is a need for objective and valid biological markers. Platelets have often been used as a model in neurobiological research. The accessibility of platelets and their similarities with neurons turns them into an attractive candidate to search for biological markers for diagnosis and for unraveling pathophysiological processes relevant to the etiology of brain disorders, including schizophrenia. The present review addresses the main changes in platelet physiology observed in schizophrenia and its response to antipsychotic medication. We summarize numerous studies demonstrating impaired metabolism, uptake and receptor kinetics of schizophrenia-relevant neurotransmitters, abnormalities in membrane derived phospholipids and polyunsaturated fatty acids, as well as dysfunctions in the mitochondria. These changes fit with the various hypotheses raised for the etiology of schizophrenia, including the dopamine-glutamate hypothesis, the autoimmune hypothesis, the polyunsaturated fatty acid hypothesis and the impaired energy metabolism hypothesis. Despite extensive research in platelets, no conclusive reliable biomarker has been identified yet. This review suggests that the clinical heterogeneity and the biological complexity of schizophrenia lead to the inevitable conclusion that biomarkers will be identified only for subgroups characterized according to the different diagnostic criteria. Moreover, any biomarker would have to be an array of interrelated factors or even a set of several such arrays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eyal Asor
- Eyal Asor, Dorit Ben-Shachar, Laboratory of Psychobiology, Department of Psychiatry, Rambam Medical Center and B. Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Rappaport Family Institute for Research in the Medical Sciences, Technion, PO Box 9649, Haifa 31096, Israel
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Mukaetova-Ladinska EB, Abdel-All Z, Dodds S, Andrade J, Alves da Silva J, Kalaria RN, O'Brien JT. Platelet immunoglobulin and amyloid precursor protein as potential peripheral biomarkers for Alzheimer's disease: findings from a pilot study. Age Ageing 2012; 41:408-12. [PMID: 22258116 DOI: 10.1093/ageing/afr171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND the diagnosis of dementia, in particular Alzheimer's disease (AD), is enhanced with the use of molecular biomarkers. Since cerebrospinal fluid analysis and molecular neuroimaging are not routinely used in many countries, blood biomarker molecules may be more readily applicable in a routine clinical setting. METHODS twenty-five subjects with a clinical diagnosis of AD and 26 control participants were assessed for cognitive and behavioural functioning. Platelet measures of amyloid protein precursor (APP), tau protein, clusterin, α-synuclein and immunoglobulin (Ig) were measured. Linear regression analysis for platelet proteins and cognitive and behavioural status were determined, and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves created to assess the discriminating power of each biochemical parameter between AD and control groups. RESULTS both AD and control subjects had similar platelet levels of measures platelet proteins, with the exception of slightly elevated Ig levels in AD subjects (P = 0.052). The latter were not related to increasing age, or extent of cognitive impairment. APP-N measures were negatively correlated with cognitive scores. CONCLUSION these preliminary findings suggest that platelet measures of the traditional biomarkers for AD are feasible in the periphery. The measures of platelet APP-N and Ig, in particular, merit further study in a larger cohort of AD and control subjects.
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Burbaeva GS, Boksha IS, Turishcheva MS, Savushkina OK, Beniashvili AG, Rupchev GE, Morozova MA. Platelet cytochrome c-oxidase activity in patients with acute schizophrenia in the course of their treatment with risperidone. Health (London) 2011. [DOI: 10.4236/health.2011.31003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Quincozes-Santos A, Bobermin LD, Tonial RPL, Bambini-Junior V, Riesgo R, Gottfried C. Effects of atypical (risperidone) and typical (haloperidol) antipsychotic agents on astroglial functions. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2010; 260:475-81. [PMID: 20041330 DOI: 10.1007/s00406-009-0095-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2009] [Accepted: 12/09/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Although classical and atypical antipsychotics may have different neurotoxic effects, their underlying mechanisms remain to be elucidated, especially regarding neuroglial function. In the present study, we compared the atypical antipsychotic risperidone (0.01-10 μM) with the typical antipsychotic haloperidol (0.01-10 μM) regarding different aspects such as glutamate uptake, glutamine synthetase (GS) activity, glutathione (GSH) content, and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in C6 astroglial cells. Risperidone significantly increased glutamate uptake (up to 27%), GS activity (14%), and GSH content (up to 17%). In contrast, haloperidol was not able to change any of these glial functions. However, at concentration of 10 μM, haloperidol increased (12%) ROS production. Our data contribute to the clarification of different hypothesis concerning the putative neural responses after stimulus with different antipsychotics, and may establish important insights about how brain rewiring could be enhanced.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Quincozes-Santos
- Neuroglial Plasticity Laboratory, Postgraduate Programme of Biochemistry, Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2600 Anexo-Bairro Santa Cecilia, Porto Alegre, RS, 90035-003, Brazil
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Zendehrouh S, Bakouie F, Gharibzadeh S. Modeling schizophrenic-like neuronal patterns using nonlinear delayed differential equations. Comput Biol Med 2009; 39:1058-62. [PMID: 19783245 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2009.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2008] [Revised: 08/15/2009] [Accepted: 08/25/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We examined the simultaneous effect of altered dopamine and glutamate level on pyramidal cells using a mathematical model. The simulation results suggest that increased dopamine brings about irregular and aperiodic activity, interpreted as schizophrenic state. Hypoglutamatergic conditions have the same effect on the membrane potential of pyramidal cells. Increased glutamate level was able to neutralize the effects of the hyperdopamine state and normal periodic bursting behavior appeared. We suggest that glutamate receptor activation may have therapeutic results in schizophrenic patients. Surely, this hypothesis must be evaluated in the light of experimental studies on animal models or clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sareh Zendehrouh
- Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology , Tehran 15875 4413, Iran
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Steffek AE, McCullumsmith RE, Haroutunian V, Meador-Woodruff JH. Cortical expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein and glutamine synthetase is decreased in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2008; 103:71-82. [PMID: 18562176 PMCID: PMC3774017 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2008.04.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2007] [Revised: 04/24/2008] [Accepted: 04/29/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Altered expression of structural and functional molecules expressed by astrocytes may play a role in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. We investigated the hypothesis that the astrocytic enzyme glutamine synthetase, involved in maintaining the glutamate-glutamine cycle, and the cytoskeletal molecule glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) are abnormally expressed in schizophrenia. We used Western blot analysis to measure levels of glutamine synthetase and GFAP in several brain regions of subjects with schizophrenia and a comparison group. We found that glutamine synthetase protein expression was significantly decreased in the superior temporal gyrus, and both glutamine synthetase and GFAP were significantly reduced in the anterior cingulate cortex in schizophrenia. Neither molecule demonstrated altered expression in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, primary visual cortex, or hippocampus. Chronic treatment with haloperidol did not alter the expression of these molecules in the rat brain, suggesting that our findings are not due to a medication effect. These data support an astrocytic component to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and suggest that astrocytic molecules involved in enzymatic activity and cytoskeletal integrity may have a role in disease-related abnormalities in this illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy E. Steffek
- Molecular & Behavioral Neuroscience Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
| | - Robert E. McCullumsmith
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL
| | | | - James H. Meador-Woodruff
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL
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Burbaeva GS, Boksha IS, Tereshkina EB, Savushkina OK, Starodubtseva LI, Turishcheva MS, Mukaetova-Ladinska E. Systemic neurochemical alterations in schizophrenic brain: glutamate metabolism in focus. Neurochem Res 2007; 32:1434-44. [PMID: 17440811 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-007-9328-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2006] [Accepted: 03/07/2007] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
We have used a systemic approach to establish a relationship between enzyme measures of glial glutamate and energy metabolism (glutamine synthetase and glutamine synthetase-like protein, glutamate dehydrogenase isoenzymes, brain isoform creatine phosphokinase) and two major glial proteins (glial fibrillary acidic protein and myelin basic protein) in autopsied brain samples taken from patients with schizophrenia (SCH) and mentally healthy subjects (23 and 22 cases, respectively). These biochemical parameters were measured in tissue extracts in three brain areas (prefrontal cortex, caudate nucleus, and cerebellum). Significant differences in the level of at least one of the glutamate metabolizing enzymes were observed between two studied groups in all studied brain areas. Different patterns of correlative links between the biochemical parameters were found in healthy and schizophrenic brains. These findings give a new perspective to our understanding of the impaired regulation of enzyme levels in the brain in SCH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gulnur Sh Burbaeva
- Laboratory of Neurochemistry, Mental Health Research Center, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, 2-2 Zagorodnoje shosse, 117152 Moscow, Russia.
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