Preventive effects of resveratrol against early-life impairments in the animal model of autism induced by valproic acid

Background

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by social interaction deficits and repetitive/stereotyped behaviors. Its prevalence is increasing, affecting one in 36 children in the United States. The valproic acid (VPA) induced animal model of ASD is a reliable method for investigating cellular, molecular, and behavioral aspects related to the disorder. Trans-Resveratrol (RSV), a polyphenol with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects studied in various diseases, has recently demonstrated the ability to prevent cellular, molecular, sensory, and social deficits in the VPA model. In this study, we examined the effects of prenatal exposure to VPA and the potential preventive effects of RSV on the offspring.

Method

We monitored gestational weight from embryonic day 6.5 until 18.5 and assessed the onset of developmental milestones and morphometric parameters in litters. The generalized estimating equations (GEE) were used to analyze longitudinal data.

Results

Exposure to VPA during rat pregnancy resulted in abnormal weight gain fold-changes on embryonic days 13.5 and 18.5, followed by fewer animals per litter. Additionally, we discovered a positive correlation between weight variation during E15.5-E18.5 and the number of rat pups in the VPA group.

Conclusion

VPA exposure led to slight length deficiencies and delays in the onset of developmental milestones. Interestingly, the prenatal RSV treatment not only prevented most of these delays but also led to the early onset of certain milestones and improved morphometric characteristics in the offspring. In summary, our findings suggest that RSV may have potential as a therapeutic intervention to protect against the negative effects of prenatal VPA exposure, highlighting its importance in future studies of prenatal neurodevelopmental disorders.

Aberrant IL-17 Levels in Rodent Models of Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a heterogeneous neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by stereotyped behaviours, specific interests, and impaired communication skills. Elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-17A (IL-17A or IL-17), have been implicated as part of immune alterations that may contribute to this outcome. In this context, rodent models have helped elucidate the role of T-cell activation and IL-17 secretion in the pathogenesis of ASD. Regarding the preclinical findings, the data available is contradictory in offspring but not in the pregnant dams, pointing to IL-17 as one of the main drivers of altered behaviour in some models ASD, whilst there are no alterations described in IL-17 levels in others. To address this gap in the literature, a systematic review of altered IL-17 levels in rodent models of ASD was conducted. In total, 28 studies that explored IL-17 levels were included and observed that this cytokine was generally increased among the different models of ASD. The data compiled in this review can help the choice of animal models to study the role of cytokines in the development of ASD, seeking a parallel with immune alterations observed in individuals with this condition.

Nanoformulated Bumetanide Ameliorates Social Deficiency in BTBR Mice Model of Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder with few medication options. Bumetanide, an FDA-approved diuretic, has been proposed as a viable candidate to treat core symptoms of ASD, however, neither the brain region related to its effect nor the cell-specific mechanism(s) is clear. The availability of nanoparticles provides a viable way to identify pharmacological mechanisms for use in ASD. Here, we found that treatment with bumetanide, in a systemic and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) region-specific way, attenuated social deficits in BTBR mice. Furthermore, using poly (ethylene glycol)-poly(l-lactide) (PEG-PLA) nanoparticles [NP(bumetanide)], we showed that the administration of NP(bumetanide) in a mPFC region-specific way also alleviated the social deficits of BTBR mice. Mechanistically, the behavioral effect of NP(bumetanide) was dependent on selective microglia-specific targeting in the mPFC. Pharmacological depletion of microglia significantly reduced the effect of nanoencapsulation and depletion of microglia alone did not improve the social deficits in BTBR mice. These findings suggest the potential therapeutic capabilities of nanotechnology for ASD, as well as the relevant link between bumetanide and immune cells.

Mood Disorders Induced by Maternal Overnutrition: The Role of the Gut-Brain Axis on the Development of Depression and Anxiety

Since the first evidence suggesting that maternal nutrition can impact the development of diseases in the offspring, much has been elucidated about its effects on the offspring’s nervous system. Animal studies demonstrated that maternal obesity can predispose the offspring to greater chances of metabolic and neurodevelopmental diseases. However, the mechanisms underlying these responses are not well established. In recent years, the role of the gut-brain axis in the development of anxiety and depression in people with obesity has emerged. Studies investigating changes in the maternal microbiota during pregnancy and also in the offspring demonstrate that conditions such as maternal obesity can modulate the microbiota, leading to long-term outcomes in the offspring. Considering that maternal obesity has also been linked to the development of psychiatric conditions (anxiety and depression), the gut-brain axis is a promising target to be further explored in these neuropsychiatric contexts. In the present study, we review the relationship between maternal obesity and anxious and depressive features, exploring the gut-brain axis as a potential mechanism underlying this relationship.

The role of T-cells in neurobehavioural development: Insights from the immunodeficient nude mice

Mice homozygous for the nude mutation (Foxn1^nu) are hairless and exhibit congenital dysgenesis of the thymic epithelium, resulting in a primary immunodeficiency of mature T-cells, and have been used for decades in research with tumour grafts. Early studies have already demonstrated social behaviour impairments and central nervous system (CNS) alterations in these animals, but did not address the complex interplay between CNS, immune system and behavioural alterations. Here we investigate the impact of T-cell immunodeficiency on behaviours relevant to the study of neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric disorders. Moreover, we aimed to characterise in a multidisciplinary manner the alterations related to those findings, through evaluation of the excitatory/inhibitory synaptic proteins, cytokines expression and biological spectrum signature of different biomolecules in nude mice CNS. We demonstrate that BALB/c nude mice display sociability impairments, a complex pattern of repetitive behaviours and higher sensitivity to thermal nociception. These animals also have a reduced IFN-γ gene expression in the prefrontal cortex and an absence of T-cells in meningeal tissue, both known modulators of social behaviour. Furthermore, excitatory synaptic protein PSD-95 immunoreactivity was also reduced in the prefrontal cortex, suggesting an intricate involvement of social behaviour related mechanisms. Lastly, employing biospectroscopy analysis, we have demonstrated that BALB/c nude mice have a different CNS spectrochemical signature compared to their heterozygous littermates. Altogether, our results show a comprehensive behavioural analysis of BALB/c nude mice and potential neuroimmunological influences involved with the observed alterations.

'A picture is worth a thousand words': The use of microscopy for imaging neuroinflammation

Since the first studies of the nervous system by the Nobel laureates Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramon y Cajal using simple dyes and conventional light microscopes, microscopy has come a long way to the most recent techniques that make it possible to perform images in live cells and animals in health and disease. Many pathological conditions of the central nervous system have already been linked to inflammatory responses. In this scenario, several available markers and techniques can help imaging and unveil the neuroinflammatory process. Moreover, microscopy imaging techniques have become even more necessary to validate the large quantity of data generated in the era of 'omics'. This review aims to highlight how to assess neuroinflammation by using microscopy as a tool to provide specific details about the cell's architecture during neuroinflammatory conditions. First, we describe specific markers that have been used in light microscopy studies and that are widely applied to unravel and describe neuroinflammatory mechanisms in distinct conditions. Then, we discuss some important methodologies that facilitate the imaging of these markers, such as immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence techniques. Emphasis will be given to studies using two-photon microscopy, an approach that revolutionized the real-time assessment of neuroinflammatory processes. Finally, some studies integrating omics with microscopy will be presented. The fusion of these techniques is developing, but the high amount of data generated from these applications will certainly improve comprehension of the molecular mechanisms involved in neuroinflammation.

Resveratrol prevents long-term structural hippocampal alterations and modulates interneuron organization in an animal model of ASD

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impairments in both communication and social interaction, besides repetitive or stereotyped behavior. Although the etiology is unknown, environmental factors such as valproic acid (VPA) increase the risk of ASD onset. Resveratrol (RSV), a neuroprotective molecule, has been shown to counteract the effects of intrauterine exposure to VPA. We aimed to evaluate histological parameters related to hippocampal morphology and to the distribution of parvalbumin- (PV), calbindin- (CB), and somatostatin-positive (SOM) interneurons sub-populations, in addition to evaluate the total/phosphorylation levels of PTEN, AKT, GSK3β and total CK2 in the animal model of autism induced by VPA, as well as addressing the potential protective effect of RSV. On postnatal day 120, histological analysis showed a loss in total neurons in the dentate gyrus (DG) and decreased CB+ neurons in DG and CA1 in VPA animals, both prevented by RSV. In addition, PV+ neurons were diminished in CA1, CA2, and CA3, and SOM+ were interestingly increased in DG (prevented by RSV) and decreased in CA1 and CA2. A hippocampal lesion similar to sclerosis was also observed in the samples from the VPA group. Besides that, VPA reduced AKT and PTEN immunocontent, and VPA increased CK2 immunocontent. Thus, this work demonstrated long-term effects of prenatal exposure to ASD in different sub-populations of interneurons, structural damage of hippocampus, and also alteration in proteins associated with pivotal cell signaling pathways, highlighting the role of RSV as a tool for understanding the pathophysiology of ASD.

Transcription factors in neurodevelopmental and associated psychiatric disorders: A potential convergence for genetic and environmental risk factors

Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) are a heterogeneous and highly prevalent group of psychiatric conditions marked by impairments in the nervous system. Their onset occurs during gestation, and the alterations are observed throughout the postnatal life. Although many genetic and environmental risk factors have been described in this context, the interactions between them challenge the understanding of the pathways associated with NDDs. Transcription factors (TFs)-a group of over 1,600 proteins that can interact with DNA, regulating gene expression through modulation of RNA synthesis-represent a point of convergence for different risk factors. In addition, TFs organize critical processes like angiogenesis, blood-brain barrier formation, myelination, neuronal migration, immune activation, and many others in a time and location-dependent way. In this review, we summarize important TF alterations in NDD and associated disorders, along with specific impairments observed in animal models, and, finally, establish hypotheses to explain how these proteins may be critical mediators in the context of genome-environment interactions.

Resveratrol prevents brain edema, blood-brain barrier permeability, and altered aquaporin profile in autism animal model

Autism spectrum disorder can present a plethora of clinical conditions associated with the disorder, such as greater brain volume in the first years of life in a significant percentage of patients. We aimed to evaluate the brain water content, the blood-brain barrier permeability, and the expression of aquaporin 1 and 4, and GFAP in a valproic acid-animal model, assessing the effect of resveratrol. On postnatal day 30, Wistar rats of the valproic acid group showed greater permeability of the blood-brain barrier to the Evans blue dye and a higher proportion of brain water volume, prevented both by resveratrol. Prenatal exposition to valproic acid diminished aquaporin 1 in the choroid plexus, in the primary somatosensory area, in the amygdala region, and in the medial prefrontal cortex, reduced aquaporin 4 in medial prefrontal cortex and increased aquaporin 4 levels in primary somatosensory area (with resveratrol prevention). Valproic acid exposition also increased the number of astrocytes and GFAP fluorescence in both primary somatosensory area and medial prefrontal cortex. In medial prefrontal cortex, resveratrol prevented the increased fluorescence. Finally, there was an effect of resveratrol per se on the number of astrocytes and GFAP fluorescence in the amygdala region and in the hippocampus. Thus, this work demonstrates significant changes in blood-brain barrier permeability, edema formation, distribution of aquaporin 1 and 4, in addition to astrocytes profile in the animal model of autism, as well as the use of resveratrol as a tool to investigate the mechanisms involved in the pathophysiology of autism spectrum disorder.

Inflammatory, synaptic, motor, and behavioral alterations induced by gestational sepsis on the offspring at different stages of life

BACKGROUND

The term sepsis is used to designate a systemic condition of infection and inflammation associated with hemodynamic changes that result in organic dysfunction. Gestational sepsis can impair the development of the central nervous system and may promote permanent behavior alterations in the offspring. The aim of our work was to evaluate the effects of maternal sepsis on inflammatory cytokine levels and synaptic proteins in the hippocampus, neocortex, frontal cortex, and cerebellum of neonatal, young, and adult mice. Additionally, we analyzed the motor development, behavioral features, and cognitive impairments in neonatal, young and adult offspring.

METHODS

Pregnant mice at the 14th embryonic day (E14) were intratracheally instilled with saline 0.9% solution (control group) or Klebsiella spp. (3 × 108 CFU) (sepsis group) and started on meropenem after 5 h. The offspring was sacrificed at postnatal day (P) 2, P8, P30, and P60 and samples of liver, lung, and brain were collected for TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 measurements by ELISA. Synaptophysin, PSD95, and β-tubulin levels were analyzed by Western blot. Motor tests were performed at all analyzed ages and behavioral assessments were performed in offspring at P30 and P60.

RESULTS

Gestational sepsis induces a systemic pro-inflammatory response in neonates at P2 and P8 characterized by an increase in cytokine levels. Maternal sepsis induced systemic downregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, while in the hippocampus, neocortex, frontal cortex, and cerebellum an inflammatory response was detected. These changes in the brain immunity were accompanied by a reduction of synaptophysin and PSD95 levels in the hippocampus, neocortex, frontal cortex, and cerebellum, in all ages. Behavioral tests demonstrated motor impairment in neonates, and depressive-like behavior, fear-conditioned memory, and learning impairments in animals at P30 and P60, while spatial memory abilities were affected only at P60, indicating that gestational sepsis not only induces an inflammatory response in neonatal mouse brains, but also affects neurodevelopment, and leads to a plethora of behavioral alterations and cognitive impairments in the offspring.

CONCLUSION

These data suggest that maternal sepsis may be causatively related to the development of depression, learning, and memory impairments in the litter.

Effects of single-dose antipurinergic therapy on behavioral and molecular alterations in the valproic acid-induced animal model of autism

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by deficits in communication and social interaction, restricted interests, and stereotyped behavior. Environmental factors, such as prenatal exposure to valproic acid (VPA), may contribute to the increased risk of ASD. Since disturbed functioning of the purinergic signaling system has been associated with the onset of ASD and used as a potential therapeutic target for ASD in both clinical and preclinical studies, we analyzed the effects of suramin, a non-selective purinergic antagonist, on behavioral, molecular and immunological in an animal model of autism induced by prenatal exposure to VPA. Treatment with suramin (20 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) restored sociability in the three-chamber apparatus and decreased anxiety measured by elevated plus maze apparatus, but had no impact on decreased reciprocal social interactions or higher nociceptive threshold in VPA rats. Suramin treatment did not affect VPA-induced upregulation of P2X4 and P2Y2 receptor expression in the hippocampus, and P2X4 receptor expression in the medial prefrontal cortex, but normalized an increased level of interleukin 6 (IL-6). Our results suggest an important role of purinergic signaling modulation in behavioral, molecular, and immunological aberrations described in VPA model, and indicate that the purinergic signaling system might be a potential target for pharmacotherapy in preclinical studies of ASD.

Data on social transmission of food preference in a model of autism induced by valproic acid and translational analysis of circulating microRNA

This article contains data of Social Transmission of Food Preference in an animal model of autism and the evaluation of a set of microRNA analyzed in autistic patients and animal model of autism. The analyses of the absolute consumption of two flavored food by male rats prenatally exposed to valproic acid (VPA) and treated with resveratrol (RSV), showed that VPA animals show a trend to eat less of the flavored food presented by a demonstrator rat. We also identified 13 microRNA with similar levels among rodents' experimental groups, as well as 11 microRNA with no alterations between autistic and control subjects. Further evaluation of mechanisms of VPA and RSV actions on behavioral and molecular alterations can shed light in important biomarkers and etiological triggers of autistic spectrum disorders.

Neuroimmune Alterations in Autism: A Translational Analysis Focusing on the Animal Model of Autism Induced by Prenatal Exposure to Valproic Acid

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a highly prevalent developmental disorder characterized by deficits in communication and social interaction and in stereotyped or repetitive behaviors. Besides the classical behavioral dyad, several comorbidities are frequently present in patients with ASD, such as anxiety, epilepsy, sleep disturbances, and gastrointestinal tract dysfunction. Although the etiology of ASD remains unclear, there is supporting evidence for the involvement of both genetic and environmental factors. Valproic acid (VPA) is an anticonvulsant and mood stabilizer that, when used during the gestational period, increases the risk of ASD in the offspring. The animal model of autism induced by prenatal exposure to VPA demonstrates important structural and behavioral features that can be observed in individuals with autism; it is thus an excellent tool for testing new drug targets and developing novel behavioral and drug therapies. In addition, immunological alterations during pregnancy could affect the developing embryo because immune molecules can pass through the placental barrier. In fact, exposure to pathogens during the pregnancy is a known risk factor for ASD, and maternal immune activation can lead to autistic-like features in animals. Interestingly, neuroimmune alterations are common in both autistic individuals and in animal models of ASD. We summarize here the important alterations in inflammatory markers, such as cytokines and chemokines, in patients with ASD and in the VPA animal model.

Reduced CD4 T Lymphocytes in Lymph Nodes of the Mouse Model of Autism Induced by Valproic Acid

Considering the potential role of lymphocytes in the pathophysiology of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), we aimed to evaluate possible alterations of T cell pools in the lymphoid organs of an animal model of autism induced by valproic acid (VPA). Pregnant Swiss mice received a single intraperitoneal injection of 600 mg/kg of VPA (VPA group) or saline (control group) on day 11 of gestation. Male offspring were euthanized on postnatal day 60 for removal of thy-muses, spleens, and a pool of inguinal, axillary and brachial lymph nodes. Cellularity was evaluated, and flow cytometry analysis was performed on cell suspensions incubated with the mouse antibodies anti-CD3-FITC, anti-CD4-PE, and anti-CD8-PE-Cy7. We observed that the prenatal exposure to VPA induced a reduction in the numbers of CD3+CD4+ T cells in their lymph nodes when compared to the control animals. This was specific since it was not seen in the thymus or spleen. The consistent decrease in the number of CD4+ T cells in subcutaneous lymph nodes of mice from the animal model of autism may be related to the allergic symptoms frequently observed in ASD. Further research is necessary to characterize the immunological patterns in ASD and the connection with the pathophysiology of this disorder.

BDNF/TrkB Signaling as a Potential Novel Target in Pediatric Brain Tumors: Anticancer Activity of Selective TrkB Inhibition in Medulloblastoma Cells

Medulloblastoma (MB) is the most common malignant pediatric brain tumor. Deregulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)/tropomyosin-related kinase B (TrkB) signaling has been associated with increased proliferative capabilities, invasiveness, and chemoresistance in several types of cancer. However, the relevance of this pathway in MB remains unknown. Here, we show that the selective TrkB inhibitor N-[2-[[(hexahydro-2-oxo-1H-azepin-3-yl)amino]carbonyl]phenyl]-benzo[b]thiophene-2-carboxamide (ANA-12) markedly reduced the viability and survival of human cell lines representative of different MB molecular subgroups. These findings provide the first evidence supporting further investigation of TrkB inhibition as a potential novel strategy for MB treatment.

The Impact of Neuroimmune Alterations in Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) involves a complex interplay of both genetic and environmental risk factors, with immune alterations and synaptic connection deficiency in early life. In the past decade, studies of ASD have substantially increased, in both humans and animal models. Immunological imbalance (including autoimmunity) has been proposed as a major etiological component in ASD, taking into account increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines observed in postmortem brain from patients, as well as autoantibody production. Also, epidemiological studies have established a correlation of ASD with family history of autoimmune diseases; associations with major histocompatibility complex haplotypes and abnormal levels of immunological markers in the blood. Moreover, the use of animal models to study ASD is providing increasing information on the relationship between the immune system and the pathophysiology of ASD. Herein, we will discuss the accumulating literature for ASD, giving special attention to the relevant aspects of factors that may be related to the neuroimmune interface in the development of ASD, including changes in neuroplasticity.

Effects of an H3R antagonist on the animal model of autism induced by prenatal exposure to valproic acid

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a group of neurodevelopmental disorders primarily characterized by impaired social interaction and communication, and by restricted repetitive behaviors and interests. Ligands of histamine receptor 3 (H3R) are considered potential therapeutic agents for the treatment of different brain disorders and cognitive impairments. Considering this, the aim of the present study is to evaluate the actions of ciproxifan (CPX), an H3R antagonist, on the animal model of autism induced by prenatal exposure to valproic acid (VPA). Swiss mice were prenatally exposed to VPA on embryonic day 11 and assessed for social behavior, nociceptive threshold and repetitive behavior at 50 days of life. The treatment with CPX (3 mg/kg) or saline was administered 30 minutes before each behavioral test. The VPA group presented lower sociability index compared to VPA animals that were treated with CPX. Compared to the Control group, VPA animals presented a significantly higher nociceptive threshold, and treatment with CPX was not able to modify this parameter. In the marble burying test, the number of marbles buried by VPA animals was consistent with markedly repetitive behavior. VPA animals that received CPX buried a reduced amount of marbles. In summary, we report that an acute dose of CPX is able to attenuate sociability deficits and stereotypies present in the VPA model of autism. Our findings have the potential to help the investigations of both the molecular underpinnings of ASD and of possible treatments to ameliorate the ASD symptomatology, although more research is still necessary to corroborate and expand this initial data.

Comment on "Oxytocin-mediated GABA inhibition during delivery attenuates autism pathogenesis in rodent offspring"

Tyzio et al. (Reports, 7 February 2014, p. 675) reported that bumetanide restored the impaired oxytocin-mediated γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) excitatory-inhibitory shift during delivery in animal models of autism, ameliorating some autistic-like characteristics in the offspring. However, standard practices in the study of these models, such as the use of sex-dimorphic or males-only analyses and implementation of tests measuring social behavior, are lacking to definitely associate their findings to autism.

Animal model of autism induced by prenatal exposure to valproate: altered glutamate metabolism in the hippocampus

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are characterized by deficits in social interaction, language and communication impairments and repetitive and stereotyped behaviors, with involvement of several areas of the central nervous system (CNS), including hippocampus. Although neurons have been the target of most studies reported in the literature, recently, considerable attention has been centered upon the functionality and plasticity of glial cells, particularly astrocytes. These cells participate in normal brain development and also in neuropathological processes. The present work investigated hippocampi from 15 (P15) and 120 (P120) days old male rats prenatally exposed to valproic acid (VPA) as an animal model of autism. Herein, we analyzed astrocytic parameters such as glutamate transporters and glutamate uptake, glutamine synthetase (GS) activity and glutathione (GSH) content. In the VPA group glutamate uptake was unchanged at P15 and increased 160% at P120; the protein expression of GLAST did not change neither in P15 nor in P120, while GLT1 decreased 40% at P15 and increased 92% at P120; GS activity increased 43% at P15 and decreased 28% at P120; GSH content was unaltered at P15 and had a 27% increase at P120. These data highlight that the astrocytic clearance and destination of glutamate in the synaptic cleft might be altered in autism, pointing out important aspects to be considered from both pathophysiologic and pharmacological approaches in ASD.

Caloric restriction improves basal redox parameters in hippocampus and cerebral cortex of Wistar rats

Caloric restriction (CR) has been shown to either decrease or prevent the progression of several age-related pathologies. In previous work, we demonstrated that CR modulates astrocyte functions, suggesting that CR may exert neuroglial modulation. Here, we investigated the effects of CR on hippocampal (Hc) and cortical (Cx) oxidative stress parameters of male Wistar rats. Our results showed that CR-fed rats had 17% less body weight gain after 12 weeks of treatment. CR improved locomotion performance, increased glutathione levels and decreased glutathione peroxidase activity and the production of reactive oxygen species. However, no changes were observed in lipid peroxidation, nitric oxide content and catalase activity. Single cell gel electrophoresis assay (comet assay) revealed a reduction in the extent of basal DNA damage upon CR. Our data suggest that dietary CR could induce both hippocampal and cortical modulation resulting in metabolic changes and as a consequence, significant improvement of cellular defense-associated parameters.

Effects of atypical (risperidone) and typical (haloperidol) antipsychotic agents on astroglial functions

Although classical and atypical antipsychotics may have different neurotoxic effects, their underlying mechanisms remain to be elucidated, especially regarding neuroglial function. In the present study, we compared the atypical antipsychotic risperidone (0.01-10 μM) with the typical antipsychotic haloperidol (0.01-10 μM) regarding different aspects such as glutamate uptake, glutamine synthetase (GS) activity, glutathione (GSH) content, and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in C6 astroglial cells. Risperidone significantly increased glutamate uptake (up to 27%), GS activity (14%), and GSH content (up to 17%). In contrast, haloperidol was not able to change any of these glial functions. However, at concentration of 10 μM, haloperidol increased (12%) ROS production. Our data contribute to the clarification of different hypothesis concerning the putative neural responses after stimulus with different antipsychotics, and may establish important insights about how brain rewiring could be enhanced.