Four weeks of training with different aerobic workload distributions--effect on aerobic performance

Profiling the Aerobic Window of Horses in Response to Training by Means of a Modified Lactate Minimum Speed Test: Flatten the Curve

There is a great need for objective external training load prescription and performance capacity evaluation in equestrian disciplines. Therefore, reliable standardised exercise tests (SETs) are needed. Classic SETs require maximum intensities with associated risks to deduce training loads from pre-described cut-off values. The lactate minimum speed (LMS) test could be a valuable alternative. Our aim was to compare new performance parameters of a modified LMS-test with those of an incremental SET, to assess the effect of training on LMS-test parameters and curve-shape, and to identify the optimal mathematical approach for LMS-curve parameters. Six untrained standardbred mares (3–4 years) performed a SET and LMS-test at the start and end of the 8-week harness training. The SET-protocol contains 5 increments (4 km/h; 3 min/step). The LMS-test started with a 3-min trot at 36–40 km/h [until blood lactate (BL) > 5 mmol/L] followed by 8 incremental steps (2 km/h; 3 min/step). The maximum lactate steady state estimation (MLSS) entailed >10 km run at the LMS and 110% LMS. The GPS, heartrate (Polar^®), and blood lactate (BL) were monitored and plotted. Curve-parameters (R core team, 3.6.0) were (SET) VLa₁._5/2/4 and (LMS-test) area under the curve (AUC_>/<LMS), LMS and Aerobic Window (AW) via angular vs. threshold method. Statistics for comparison: a paired t-test was applied, except for LMS: paired Wilcoxon test; (p < 0.05). The Pearson correlation (r > 0.80), Bland-Altman method, and ordinary least products (OLP) regression analyses were determined for test-correlation and concordance. Training induced a significant increase in VLa₁._5/2/4. The width of the AW increased significantly while the AUC_</>LMS and LMS decreased post-training (flattening U-curve). The LMS BL steady-state is reached earlier and maintained longer after training. BL_max was significantly lower for LMS vs. SET. The 40° angular method is the optimal approach. The correlation between LMS and V_MLSS was significantly better compared to the SET. The VLa₄ is unreliable for equine aerobic capacity assessment. The LMS-test allows more reliable individual performance capacity assessment at lower speed and BL compared to SETs. The LMS-test protocol can be further adapted, especially post-training; however, inducing modest hyperlactatemia prior to the incremental LMS-stages and omitting inclusion of a per-test recovery contributes to its robustness. This LMS-test is a promising tool for the development of tailored training programmes based on the AW, respecting animal welfare.

Training-intensity Distribution on Middle- and Long-distance Runners: A Systematic Review

Training-intensity distribution (TID) is considered the key factor to optimize performance in endurance sports. This systematic review aimed to: I) characterize the TID typically used by middle-and long-distance runners; II) compare the effect of different types of TID on endurance performance and its physiological determinants; III) determine the extent to which different TID quantification methods can calculate same TID outcomes from a given training program. The keywords and search strategy identified 20 articles in the research databases. These articles demonstrated differences in the quantification of the different training-intensity zones among quantification methods (i. e. session-rating of perceived exertion, heart rate, blood lactate, race pace, and running speed). The studies that used greater volumes of low-intensity training such as those characterized by pyramidal and polarized TID approaches, reported greater improvements in endurance performance than those which used a threshold TID. Thus, it seems that the combination of high-volume at low-intensity (≥ 70% of overall training volume) and low-volume at threshold and high-intensity interval training (≤ 30%) is necessary to optimize endurance training adaptations in middle-and long-distance runners. Moreover, monitoring training via multiple mechanisms that systematically encompasses objective and subjective TID quantification methods can help coaches/researches to make better decisions.

Training, Anthropometric, and Physiological Characteristics in Men Recreational Marathon Runners: The Role of Sport Experience

The aim of the present study was to examine the physiological and training characteristics in marathon runners with different sport experiences (defined as the number of finishes in marathon races). The anthropometry and physiological characteristics of men recreational endurance runners with three or less finishes in marathon races (novice group, NOV; n = 69, age 43.5 ± 8.0 years) and four or more finishes (experienced group, EXP; n = 66, 45.2 ± 9.4 years) were compared. EXP had faster personal best marathon time (3:44 ± 0:36 vs. 4:20 ± 0:44 h:min, p < 0.001, respectively); lower flexibility (15.9 ± 9.3 vs. 19.3 ± 15.9 cm, p = 0.022), abdominal (20.6 ± 7.9 vs. 23.8 ± 9.0 mm, p = 0.030) and iliac crest skinfold thickness (16.7 ± 6.7 vs. 19.9 ± 7.9 mm, p = 0.013), and body fat assessed by bioimpedance analysis (13.0 ± 4.4 vs. 14.6 ± 4.7%, p = 0.047); more weekly training days (4.6 ± 1.4 vs. 4.1 ± 1.0 days, p = 0.038); and longer weekly running distance (58.8 ± 24.0 vs. 47.2 ± 16.1 km, p = 0.001) than NOV. The findings indicated that long-term marathon training might induce adaptations in endurance performance, body composition, and flexibility.

Predictors of Athlete's Performance in Ultra-Endurance Mountain Races

Background: In previous studies, ultra-endurance performance has been associated with training and psychological variables. However, performance under extreme conditions is understudied, mainly due to difficulties in making field measures. Aim: The aim of this study was to analyze the role of training, hydration, nutrition, oral health status, and stress-related psychological factors in athletes’ performance in ultra-endurance mountain events. Methods: We analyzed the variables of race time and training, hydration state, nutrition, oral health status, and stress-related psychological factors in 448 ultra-endurance mountain race finishers divided into three groups according to race length (less than 45 km, 45–90 km, and greater than 90 km), using a questionnaire. Results: Higher performance in ultra-endurance mountain races was associated with better oral health status and higher accumulative altitude covered per week as well as higher positive accumulative change of altitude per week during training. In longer distance races, experience, a larger volume of training, and better hydration/nutrition prior to the competition were associated with better performance. Conclusions: Ultra-endurance mountain athletes competing in longer races (>90 km) have more experience and follow harder training schedules compared with athletes competing in shorter distances. In longer races, a larger fluid intake before the competition was the single best predictor of performance. For races between 45 and 90 km, training intensity and volume were key predictors of performance, and for races below 45 km, oral health status was a key predictor of performance. Psychological factors previously reported as ultra-endurance mountain race performance predictors were inconsistent or failed to predict the performance of athletes in the present research.

Psychophysiological respond in a swimming ultra-endurance event

BACKGROUND

Ultra-endurance events under critical environmental conditions represent unique stress, resulting in acute marked adaptations to the cardiovascular, respiratory, metabolic and neuromuscular systems of the organism. In line with this, no studies in swimming events were found thus far.

METHODS

This research aimed to analyze the psychophysiological response of swimmers in an ultra-endurance swimming event. Changes in the rate of perceived exertion, blood lactate concentration, 1000m swimming time and cortical arousal were measured in 19 male volunteer swimmers (28.0±5.6 years; 175.0±7.9 cm; 70.1±7.8 kg) in 3 moments during a 24h swimming event.

RESULTS

We found a significant increase in lactate concentration after series 1, decreasing the values in series 2 and series 3. Cortical arousal decreased significantly in series 3 respect the basal sample. Rate of perceived exertion significantly increased in the swimming ultra-endurance event and 1000m swimming time was maintained during the series analyzed.

CONCLUSIONS

An ultra-endurance swimming event produced an increase in blood lactate concentration and rated of perceived exertion and a decrease in cortical arousal, not affecting average swimming velocity along the event.

Hematological and Running Performance Modification of Trained Athletes after Reverse vs. Block Training Periodization

The aim of the present study was to analyze the effect of block (BP) and a reverse training periodization (RP) in the hematological and running performance of amateur trained athletes. Modifications in hematological, aerobic, and anaerobic running performance and countermovement jump before and after twelve weeks of BP vs. RP training programs were analyzed in 16 trained athletes (eight males: 40.0 ± 6.2 years; 179.2 ± 12.8 cm; 73.8 ± 12.2 kg; and eight females: 34.2 ± 4.1 years; 163.4 ± 9.6 cm; 57.0 ± 11.0 kg). A significant decrease in heart rate (HR) at ventilatory threshold (VT1) (p = 0.031; ES = 1.40) was observed in RP without changes in BP. In addition, RP increased significantly VO₂max (p = 0.004; ES = 0.47), speed at VO₂max (p = 0.001; ES = 1.07), HR at VT2 (p < 0.001; ES = 1.32) and VT1 (p = 0.046; ES = 0.57), while BP improved VO₂max (p = 0.004; ES = 0.51), speed at VO₂max (p = 0.016; ES = 0.92), and HR at VT2 (p = 0.023; ES = 0.78). In addition, only RP increased anaerobic performance in a running-based anaerobic sprint test (RAST) (mean sprint: p = 0.009; ES = 0.40, best sprint: p = 0.019; ES = 0.30 and total time: p = 0.009; ES = 0.40). Moreover, both types of training periodization proposed in this study maintained hematological values and efficiently improved jump performance (p = 0.044; ES = 0.6) in RP and p = 0.001; ES = 0.75 in BP). Therefore, twelve weeks of either RP or BP is an effective strategy to increase jump and aerobic running performance maintaining hematological values, but only RP increases anaerobic running performance.

Psychophysiological Stress Response in an Underwater Evacuation Training

Background: This research aimed to analyze the psychophysiological stress response of air crews in an underwater evacuation training. Materials and Methods: We analyzed in 36 participants (39.06 ± 9.01 years) modifications in the rating of perceived exertion (RPE), subjective stress perception (SSP), heart rate (HR), blood oxygen saturation (BOS), cortical arousal (critical flicker fusion threshold, CFFT), heart rate variability (HRV), spirometry, isometric hand strength (IHS), and short-term memory (ST-M) before and after an underwater evacuation training. Results: The maneuver produced a significant (p ≤ 0.05) increase in the SSP, RPE, Mean HR and maximum HR (Max HR), and a decrease in minimum HR (Min HR) and HRV. Conclusion: An underwater evacuation training produced an increase in the sympathetic nervous system modulation, elevating the psychophysiological stress response of the air crews, not negatively affecting their cortical arousal.

Acute and Chronic Responses of Aerobic Exercise With Blood Flow Restriction: A Systematic Review

This study systematically reviewed the available scientific evidence pertaining to the acute and chronic changes promoted by aerobic exercise (AE) combined with blood flow restriction (BFR) on neuromuscular, metabolic and hemodynamic variables. PubMed, Web of Science^TM and Scopus databases were searched for the period from January 2000 to June 2019 and the analysis involved a critical content review. A total of 313 articles were identified, of which 271 were excluded and 35 satisfied the inclusion criteria. Twelve studies evaluated the acute effects and eight studies evaluated the chronic metabolic effects of AE + BFR. For the neuromuscular variables, three studies analyzed the acute effects of AE + BFR and nine studies analyzed the chronic effects. Only 15 studies were identified that evaluated the hemodynamic acute effects of AE + BFR. The analysis provided evidence that AE combined with BFR promotes positive acute and chronic changes in neuromuscular and metabolic variables, a greater elevation in hemodynamic variables than exercise alone, and a higher energy demand during and after exercise. Since these alterations were all well-tolerated, this method can be considered to be safe and feasible for populations of athletes, healthy young, obese, and elderly individuals.

Aerobic exercise with blood flow restriction affects mood state in a similar fashion to high intensity interval exercise

We investigated the acute effects of aerobic exercise with blood flow restriction (BFR) on mood state in American football athletes. Twenty-two male American football athletes were randomly assigned to three experimental conditions: 1) aerobic exercise (AE: 40% VO_2max), 2) aerobic exercise with BRF (AE + BFR: 40% VO_{2 max}), and 3) high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE: 80% and 40% VO_2max during exercise and the active intervals, respectively). Mood state and total mood disturbance (TMD) were assessed before, immediately post, and 1 h post-exerciser. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were measured 30 min post-exercise. AE + BFR and HIIE significantly (p < 0.05) increased fatigue and tension compared to baseline immediately post-exercise, whereas vigor significantly (p < 0.05) decreased at the same time point for both conditions. TMD increased significantly (p < 0.05) for AE + BFR and HIIE immediately post-exercise and it remained elevated up to 1 h post-exercise for AE + BFR. AE did not significantly (p > 0.05) affect mood state or TMD and it was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than AE + BFR and HIIE. AE + BFR and HIIE also elicited significantly (p < 0.05) greater RPE levels than AE 30 min post-exercise. Therefore, AE + BFR induces acute impairments in mood state and RPE levels in a similar fashion to HIIE.

Effectiveness of Reverse vs. Traditional Linear Training Periodization in Triathlon

The present research aimed to analyze the modification in performance, body composition, and autonomic modulation of reverse and traditional linear training periodization in amateur triathletes. We analyzed running and swimming performance, strength manifestation, body composition, and autonomic modulation before and after a traditional linear training periodization (four weeks of volume-based training plus four weeks of intensity-based training plus two-week tapering), a reverse linear training periodization (four weeks of intensity-based training plus four weeks of volume-based training plus two-week tapering), and a free training control physical active group (10-week free training) in 32 amateur athletes. Independently of the periodization model, the combination of two four-week mesocycles followed by a two-week taper is an efficiency strategy to avoid overreaching, obtaining an increase in parasympathetic modulation. Moreover, both types of training periodization proposed in this study do not modified body composition of amateur triathletes. Also, compared with traditional periodization, reverse periodization efficiently improves horizontal jump performance. Finally, reverse and traditional periodization were an effective strategy to improve running biomechanical, performance, and physiological variables, as well as efficient periodization strategies to improve swimming technical ability, aerobic, and anaerobic swimming performance.

Amateur endurance triathletes' performance is improved independently of volume or intensity based training

The aim of the present research was to compare the effects in swimming and running performance, horizontal jump test, autonomic modulation, and body composition of four training weeks with emphasis on volume versus intensity in moderate trained triathletes. Thirty-two amateur triathletes (20 males and 12 females) were randomly divided in three different groups that performed 6 training session per week: Intensity (INT): training focused on performs intensity training Volume (VOL): training focused on performs volume training; and Control (CON): physical active group with no periodized training. Body composition, heart rate variability, horizontal jump test, swimming and 2000 m running test were tested before and after the training period. There were no significant differences between INT and VOL in running test. Furthermore, both INT and VOL training groups improved 50 m (p: 0.046 and 0.042 respectively) and 400 m (p: 0.044 and 0.041 respectively) swimming performance. Moreover, there were no significant differences among groups in any moment in HRV variables. No significant difference was observed for horizontal jump test and body composition between the INT and VOL group at any time. According to the results of the present study, four weeks of training with either high intensity or volume results to similar adaptations in endurance, horizontal jump test and body composition parameters in amateur triathletes.

The Effect of Periodization and Training Intensity Distribution on Middle- and Long-Distance Running Performance: A Systematic Review

This review aimed to examine the current evidence for 3 primary training intensity distribution types: (1) pyramidal training, (2) polarized training, and (3) threshold training. Where possible, the training intensity zones relative to the goal race pace, rather than physiological or subjective variables, were calculated. Three electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science) were searched in May 2017 for original research articles. After analysis of 493 resultant original articles, studies were included if they met the following criteria: (1) Their participants were middle- or long-distance runners; (2) they analyzed training intensity distribution in the form of observational reports, case studies, or interventions; (3) they were published in peer-reviewed journals; and (4) they analyzed training programs with a duration of 4 wk or longer. Sixteen studies met the inclusion criteria, which included 6 observational reports, 3 case studies, 6 interventions, and 1 review. According to the results of this analysis, pyramidal and polarized training are more effective than threshold training, although the latest is used by some of the best marathon runners in the world. Despite this apparent contradictory finding, this review presents evidence for the organization of training into zones based on a percentage of goal race pace, which allows for different periodization types to be compatible. This approach requires further development to assess whether specific percentages above and below race pace are key to inducing optimal changes.

Psychophysiological response to acute-high-stress combat situations in professional soldiers

The study of psychophysiological responses of soldiers in combat situations remains a challenge, especially in melee combat-a close proximity unarmed fight-defined by high unpredictability. Gaining knowledge about psychophysiological changes in high-stress situations is required to optimise training. This study aimed to analyse modifications in autonomic modulation, cortical arousal, heart rate, muscle strength, blood lactate concentration, and rating of perceived exertion of veteran soldiers in a melee combat simulation. Twenty veteran soldiers were analysed before and after a melee combat simulation in accordance with realistic situations that occur in actual operations areas. The simulation consisted of actions performed by a binomial unit in a security and protection mission in an operations area. The melee combat caused an increase in sympathetic modulation, blood lactate concentration, heart rate, muscle strength, a decreased tendency in cortical arousal, and a lower rating of perceived exertion than the organic response measured. An intense fight-flight response was observed in soldiers by the limbic system activation, causing a misinterpretation of perceived exertion. Finally, implications for the design of simulation environments for tactics training in high-stress professions are discussed.

The Use of Autonomic Modulation Device to Control Training Performance after High-Intensity Interval Training Program

The aim of the present research was to analyze the autonomic response in a group of trained swimmers before and after conducting a 4-week period of high-intensity interval training (HIT). Heart rate variability was analyzed in 14 swimmers (16.2 ± 2.6 years, 169.1 ± 10.2 cm and 61.3 ± 9.9 kg) in basal condition and during a HIT session before and after completing a training period. The HIT session that was evaluated consisted of: 16 × 25 m maximum speed, resting 30 s between sets. Participants combined aerobic training with tethered swimming and HIT sessions three times per week in a period of 4 weeks. Results showed a significantly decrease (p < 0.05) of the standard deviation of the NN intervals (SDNN), the standard deviation of differences between adjacent NN intervals (SDSD), the number of successive difference of intervals which differ by more than 50 ms (NN50), after the training period. Results showed a higher parasympathetic activation besides improvements in autonomic adaptation after HIT training period.

Psychophysiological, Body Composition, Biomechanical and Autonomic Modulation Analysis Procedures in an Ultraendurance Mountain Race

The current research aimed to analyze psychophysiological, body composition, biomechanical and autonomic modifications in an ultraendurance mountain race. We analyzed 11 finisher voluntary athletes that participated in a 51.2 km ultraendurance mountain race. We measured before and after the mountain ultraendurance event the following parameters: Rate of perceived exertion, body composition, cortical arousal, blood pressure, body temperature, forced vital capacity, blood oxygen saturation, isometric hand strength and heart rate variability parameters. The results of temperature, rate of perceived exertion, heart rate and the percentage of body water at the end of the race increased significantly. However, the variables of body weight, body fat, muscle, body mass index, abdominal fat, blood oxygen saturation, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, cortical arousal and hands and legs strength significantly decreased after the race. The square root of the average of the sum of the differences squared between normal adjacent R-R intervals, percentage of differences between normal adjacent R-R intervals, high-frequency, sensitivity of the short-term variability, and long-term variability decreased significantly after the race. By contrary low-frequency increased significantly at the end of the race. An ultraendurance mountain event produced a large anticipatory anxiety response, an increase in sympathetic modulation, body fat consumption, percentage of body water, and RPE, not affecting the cortical arousal.

Psychophysiological Response and Fine Motor Skills in High-Altitude Parachute Jumps

Clemente-Suárez, Vicente Javier, José Juan Robles-Pérez, Ketty Herrera-Mendoza, Beliña Herrera-Tapias, and Jesús Fernández-Lucas. Psychophysiological response and fine motor skills in high-altitude parachute jumps. High Alt Med Biol 18:392-399, 2017.-We analyzed the psychophysiological response and specific fine motor skill of an experienced jumper in HALO (high altitude low opening) and HAHO (high altitude high opening) parachute jumps. Eight HALO and eight HAHO jumpers were analyzed. They jumped at 5500 m, HALO jumpers opened the parachute at 500 m and HAHO jumpers at 4300 m of altitude. Before and after the jumps, parameters of muscle strength, cortical arousal, blood creatine kinase (CK) and glucose, blood oxygen saturation, rate of perceived exertion (RPE), and specific fine motor skills of an experienced jumper were assessed; during the jump, heart rate (HR), HR variability, and speed were evaluated. HALO and HAHO jumps produced a significant increase in CK, lactate, and RPE, and a decrease in glucose. HAHO decreased cortical arousal, presented a higher sympathetic modulation, and a higher HR during the jump than HALO. HALO and HAHO produced an increase in the physiological, sympathetic modulation and muscle destruction, and a decrease in cortical arousal and a higher blood lactate concentration only in the HAHO jump. Also, somatic and cognitive anxiety correlated with higher strength manifestation and muscle destruction. This novel research could be used to improve actual training systems in both civil and military parachute jumpers.

Periodized training achieves better autonomic modulation and aerobic performance than non-periodized training

BACKGROUND

The aim of the present research was to analyze autonomic response and aerobic performance after performing three different workloads training distributions.

METHODS

Thirty athletes (mean age 38.7±9.8 years, height 174.7±6.5 cm, body weight 72.0±9.8 kg) were randomly divided into three groups of 10 participants each, to perform three different 4-week training programs: in a PRO group, aerobic training intensity increased during the 4 weeks; in a UNI group, aerobic intensity was uniform throughout the program; and in a FRE group, free training was performed. Total power, the very-low-frequency band, the low-frequency (LF) band, the high-frequency (HF) band, LF and HF normalized, basal heart rate, LF/HF ratio and maximal aerobic velocity were measured before and after the 4 weeks of training.

RESULTS

A significantly increase (P<0.05) in HF and HF normalized in the PRO group was measured. The basal HR of FRE group increased significantly after the 4-week training program.

CONCLUSIONS

After a 4-week training, PRO training workload distribution achieved higher autonomic adaptation than UNI and FRE training workload distribution. This information could help the coaches to develop better training programs and organize correctly the different mesocycles of training during the season to obtain a correct autonomic response of their athletes.

Effect of Combat Stress in the Psychophysiological Response of Elite and Non-Elite Soldiers

We aimed to analyse the effect of combat stress in the psychophysiological responses of elite and non-elite soldiers. We analysed heart rate, cortical arousal, skin temperature, blood lactate concentration and lower body muscular strength before and after a tactical combat simulation in 40 warfighters divided in two groups: elite (n: 20; 28.5 ± 6.38 years) and non-elite (n:20; 31.94 ± 6.24 years) group. Elite presented a significantly higher lactate concentration after combat than non elite soldiers (3.8 ± 1.5 vs 6.6 ± 1.3 mmol/L). Non-elite soldiers had a higher heart rate pre and post the simulation than elite (82.9 ± 12.3 vs 64.4 ± 11. pre non elite and elite respectively; 93.0 ± 12.8 vs 88 ± 13.8 bpm post non elite and elite respectively). Elite soldiers presented higher lower muscular strength than elite in all test and before and after the combat simulation. Cortical arousal was not modified significantly in both groups. We conclude elite soldiers presented in combat a higher anaerobic metabolism activation and muscular strength than non-elite soldiers, but cardiovascular, cortical, and muscular strength manifestation presented the same response in both elite and non-elite soldiers.

Use of Bioimpedianciometer as Predictor of Mountain Marathon Performance

This study aimed to examine the relation among body composition, training experience and race time during a mountain marathon. Body composition and training pre-race experience analyses were conducted previous to a mountain marathon in 52 male athletes. A significant correlation between race time and mountain marathon with chronological age, body fat mass, percentage of body fat (BF), level of abdominal obesity, sport experience and daily training volume was revealed. In addition, BF and athlete's chronological age were negatively associated with race performance. In contrast, the daily training volume was positively associated with mountain marathon time. A regression analysis showed that race time could be predicted (R² = .948) by the daily training load, sports experience, age, body fat mass, BF and level of abdominal obesity. The comparison between performance groups regarding to body composition and training characteristics showed that the higher performance group was lighter with lower BF, fat mass and level of abdominal obesity, and with more days of training per week compared with the lower performance group (p < .05). Therefore, coaches and fitness trainers working with mountain marathon runners should develop exercise and nutritional strategies to reduce BF and consider increasing mean daily training volume to improve performance.

The effects of two different swimming training periodization on physiological parameters at various exercise intensities

This study analysed the effects of two different periodization strategies on physiological parameters at various exercise intensities in competitive swimmers. Seventeen athletes of both sexes were divided to two groups, the traditional periodization (TPG, n = 7) and the reverse periodization group (RPG, n = 10). Each group followed a 10-week training period based on the two different periodization strategies. Before and after training, swimming velocity (SV), energy expenditure (EE), energy cost (EC) and percentage of aerobic (%Aer) and anaerobic (%An) energy contribution to the swimming intensities corresponding to the aerobic threshold (AerT), the anaerobic threshold (AnT) and the velocity at maximal oxygen uptake (vVO₂max) were measured. Both groups increased the %An at the AerT and AnT intensity (P ≤ .05). In contrast, at the AnT intensity, EE and EC were only increased in TPG. Complementary, %Aer, %An, EE and EC at vVO₂max did not alter in both groups (P > .05); no changes were observed in SV in TPG and RPG at all three intensities. These results indicate that both periodization schemes confer almost analogous adaptations in specific physiological parameters in competitive swimmers. However, given the large difference in the total training volume between the two groups, it is suggested that the implementation of the reverse periodization model is an effective and time-efficient strategy to improve performance mainly for swimming events where the AnT is an important performance indicator.

Psychophysiological response and energy balance during a 14-h ultraendurance mountain running event

Many studies have researched the psychophysiological response and energy balance of athletes in numerous ultraendurance probes, but none has investigated an ultraendurance mountain running event. The current study aims to analyze changes in blood lactate concentration, rating of perceived exertion, heart rate, heart rate variability, and energy balance after the performance of an ultraendurance mountain running event. The parameters in the 6 participants who finished the event were analyzed (age, 30.8 ± 3.1 years; height, 176.2 ± 8.6 cm; body mass, 69.2 ± 3.7 kg). The race covered 54 km, with 6441 m of altitude change, 3556 m downhill and 2885 m uphill. The athletes completed together the race in 14 h and 6 min. After the ultraendurance event, the athletes presented a negative energy balance of 4732 kcal, a blood lactate concentration of 2.8 ± 0.3 mmol/L, a heart rate mean/heart rate maximum ratio of 0.64, a heart rate mean of 111.4 ± 5.9 beats/min, a decrease in vagal modulation, and an increase in sympathetic modulation, and recorded 19.5 ± 1.5 points on the 6–20 rating of perceived exertion scale. The event was a stressful stimulus for the athletes despite the low intensity measured by blood lactate concentration and heart rate. The results obtained may be used by coaches as a reference parameter of heart rate, heart rate variability, rating of perceived exertion, and lactate concentration to develop specific training programs. In addition, the energy balance data obtained in this research may improve nutritional intake strategies.

Changes in biochemical, strength, flexibility, and aerobic capacity parameters after a 1700 km ultraendurance cycling race

The purpose of the present research was to study the organic response after ultraendurance cycling race. Selected biochemical, leg strength, flexibility, and aerobic capacity parameters were analyzed in 6 subjects 5 days before and 5 days after completing a 1700 km ultraendurance cycling race. After the race, participants presented a significant decrease in Hb (167.8 ± 9.5 versus 141.6 ± 15.7 mg/dL), strength (29.4 ± 2.7 versus 25.5 ± 3.7 cm in a countermovement jump), and oxygen uptake and heart rate at ventilatory threshold (1957.0 ± 458.4 versus 1755.2 ± 281.5 mL/kg/min and 140.0 ± 9.7 versus 130.8 ± 8.3 bpm, resp.). Testosterone presented a decrease tendency (4.2 ± 2.5 versus 3.9 ± 2.6 ng/L) in opposition to the increase tendency of cortisol and ammonium parameters. Transferrin and iron levels presented high values related to an overstimulation of the liver, a normal renal function, a tendency to decrease flexibility, and an increase in aerobic capacity, finding a tendency to increase the absolute maximal oxygen uptake (37.2 ±2.4 versus 38.7 ± 1.8 mL/min) in contrast to previous studies conducted with subjects with similar age. These results can be used to program training interventions, recovery times between probes, and nutritional and/or ergonomic strategies in ultraendurance events.