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Varghese SM, Shanbal JC. Graphophonological-semantic flexibility and its contribution to reading comprehension in children with dyslexia: A pilot study. APPLIED NEUROPSYCHOLOGY. CHILD 2024:1-13. [PMID: 39126424 DOI: 10.1080/21622965.2024.2389119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/12/2024]
Abstract
Graphophonological-semantic flexibility is the cognitive flexibility in reading that enables individuals to manage multiple phonological and semantic aspects of text simultaneously. This study investigated graphophonological-semantic flexibility and its contribution to reading comprehension in children with dyslexia, comparing them to age-matched, typically developing peers. Thirty children aged 8-11 were assessed using a reading-specific sorting task, where they categorized word cards by initial phoneme and meaning within a 2x2 matrix. After sorting, participants explained their arrangements, and their sorting speed, accuracy, and composite scores were evaluated. Additionally, reading comprehension was assessed through passages followed by questions. Results revealed significant differences between children with dyslexia and their peers in sorting accuracy and composite scores. Children with dyslexia exhibited poorer accuracy and longer sorting times, leading to lower composite scores indicative of reduced graphophonological-semantic flexibility. Age showed a positive correlation with sorting accuracy and composite scores. Moreover, sorting accuracy and composite scores were strong predictors of reading comprehension. These findings suggest that children with dyslexia face challenges in managing both phonological and semantic aspects of text concurrently, highlighting the importance of graphophonological-semantic flexibility in reading development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sneha Mareen Varghese
- Department of Speech Language Studies, Dr. S. R. Chandrasekhar Institute of Speech and Hearing, Bengaluru, India
| | - Jayashree C Shanbal
- Department of Speech Language Pathology, All India Institute of Speech and Hearing, Mysuru, India
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2
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Wan C, Cai H, Li F. Age Three: Milestone in the Development of Cognitive Flexibility. Behav Sci (Basel) 2024; 14:578. [PMID: 39062401 PMCID: PMC11274188 DOI: 10.3390/bs14070578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2024] [Revised: 06/29/2024] [Accepted: 07/02/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Although the cognitive flexibility (CF) of preschool children has been extensively studied, the development of CF in children around three years old is unclear. This study aimed to investigate the CF of three-year-olds in a stepwise rule-induction task (sRIT) comprising nine steps in which children are encouraged to switch attention to a new rule and then implicitly inhibit the old one. A pair of boxes was displayed at each step, and children aged 2.5 to 3.5 years were asked to select the target. When children learned a rule (e.g., the shape rule), they were encouraged to switch rules through negative feedback. The results showed that most children (81.10%) passed at least one of the two sets of the sRIT, and children over the age of three years performed better than those under three years. Additionally, a positive correlation existed between rule switching and rule generalization, whereby the old rule was implicitly inhibited. These findings indicate that age three might be a milestone in the development of CF, and inhibitory control might play a vital role in rule switching.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Fuhong Li
- School of Psychology, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang 330022, China; (C.W.); (H.C.)
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3
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Gao X, Wang L, Lu L, Wu W. The influence of bootleg innovation on individual innovation performance: The mediating effect of cognitive flexibility and the moderating effect of leadership's emotional intelligence. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0296782. [PMID: 38306357 PMCID: PMC10836670 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0296782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Based Correctly handling the creativity of employees who have not been adopted is not only conducive to continuously stimulating employees' creativity and improving individual innovation performance, but also conducive to making the best use of organizational resources. This study integrates conservation of resource theory (COR) and social information processing theory to explore the influence of bootleg innovation behavior in organizations on individual innovation performance, as well as the mediating role of cognitive flexibility and the moderating role of leadership emotional intelligence. A three-stage time-lagged research design is used to obtain a valid sample of 327 employees from China. The PROCESS macro for SPSS was applied to test the hypothesized relationships. Findings demonstrated that bootleg innovation is positively related to individual innovation performance; cognitive flexibility mediates the relationship between bootleg innovation and individual innovation performance. Moreover, leadership emotional intelligence moderates the relationship between bootleg innovation and individual innovation performance and between bootleg innovation and cognitive flexibility and between cognitive flexibility and individual innovation performance respectively. The conclusion of the study not only provides a theoretical basis for individuals and leaders to deal with employees' creative abortion, but also provides a new thinking mode for how to maximize the effectiveness of unaccepted ideas and promote individual innovation performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxiao Gao
- School of Business, Shenzhen Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, China
| | | | - Lei Lu
- School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Weilin Wu
- School of Economics, Institute of China Common Prosperity Research, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing, Zhejiang, China
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4
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Ferguson C, Hobson C, Hedge C, Waters C, Anning K, van Goozen S. Disentangling the relationships between motor control and cognitive control in young children with symptoms of ADHD. Child Neuropsychol 2024; 30:289-314. [PMID: 36946244 DOI: 10.1080/09297049.2023.2190965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/23/2023]
Abstract
Children with ADHD experience difficulties with motor and cognitive control. However, the relationships between these symptoms are poorly understood. As a step toward improving treatment, this study investigated associations between specific aspects of motor control and cognitive control in children with varying levels of hyperactive-impulsive symptoms. A heterogeneous sample of 255 children of 4 to 10 years of age (median = 6.50, MAD = 1.36) completed a battery of tests probing motor generation, visuomotor fluency, visuomotor flexibility, cognitive inhibition, verbal and visuospatial working memory, and cognitive flexibility. Their caregivers were interviewed regarding their hyperactive-impulsive symptoms. 25.9% of the main sample met diagnostic criteria for ADHD. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to determine whether specific aspects of motor control were associated with specific aspects of cognitive control, and whether any associations were moderated by hyperactive-impulsive symptoms. Additionally, cognitive modeling (the drift diffusion model approximated with EZ-DM) was used to understand performance on a cognitive inhibition task. Visuomotor fluency was significantly associated with cognitive inhibition. Visuomotor flexibility was significantly associated with cognitive flexibility. There were no significant moderation effects. Cognitive modeling was inconclusive. In conclusion, the ability to fluently perform visually guided continuous movement is linked with the ability to inhibit the effects of distracting information. The ability to spontaneously use visual information to flexibly alter motor responses is related to the ability to cognitively shift from one frame of mind to another. These relationships appear to be quantitatively and qualitatively similar across the childhood hyperactive-impulsive continuum as rated by parents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cameron Ferguson
- School of Psychological Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
- Community Neurological Rehabilitation Service, Aneurin Bevan University Health Board, NHS Wales, Newport, United Kingdom
| | - Christopher Hobson
- South Wales Doctoral Programme in Clinical Psychology, Cardiff and Vale University Health Board, NHS Wales, Cardiff, United Kingdom
- Neurodevelopment Assessment Unit, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Craig Hedge
- School of Psychology, Aston University, Aston, United Kingdom
| | - Cerith Waters
- South Wales Doctoral Programme in Clinical Psychology, Cardiff and Vale University Health Board, NHS Wales, Cardiff, United Kingdom
- Neurodevelopment Assessment Unit, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Kate Anning
- Neurodevelopment Assessment Unit, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
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5
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Bobrowicz K, Thibaut JP. The Development of Flexible Problem Solving: An Integrative Approach. J Intell 2023; 11:119. [PMID: 37367522 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence11060119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 06/03/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Flexible problem solving, the ability to deal with currently goal-irrelevant information that may have been goal-relevant in previous, similar situations, plays a prominent role in cognitive development and has been repeatedly investigated in developmental research. However, this research, spanning from infancy to the school years, lacks a unifying framework, obscuring the developmental timing of flexible problem solving. Therefore, in this review paper, previous findings are gathered, organized, and integrated under a common framework to unveil how and when flexible problem solving develops. It is showed that the development of flexible problem solving coincides with increases in executive functions, that is, inhibition, working memory and task switching. The analysis of previous findings shows that dealing with goal-irrelevant, non-salient information received far more attention than generalizing in the presence of goal-irrelevant, salient information. The developmental timing of the latter can only be inferred from few transfer studies, as well as executive functions, planning and theory of mind research, to highlight gaps in knowledge and sketch out future research directions. Understanding how transfer in the presence of seemingly relevant but truly irrelevant information develops has implications for well-balanced participation in information societies, early and lifespan education, and investigating the evolutionary trajectory of flexible problem solving.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Bobrowicz
- Department of Behavioural and Cognitive Sciences, University of Luxembourg, 4366 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Jean-Pierre Thibaut
- LEAD-Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR-5022, University of Burgundy, 21000 Dijon, France
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Rodríguez C, Moreno-Llanos I. A Pragmatic Turn in the Study of Early Executive Functions by Object Use and Gestures. A Case Study from 8 to 17 Months of Age at a Nursery School. Integr Psychol Behav Sci 2023; 57:607-654. [PMID: 33074468 PMCID: PMC10113360 DOI: 10.1007/s12124-020-09578-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The two first years of life are critical in the development of Executive Functions (EF). However, very little is known about their early manifestations, how they develop, how they relate to other psychological constructions or the status of other people's influence in this early development. The study of EFs has been carried out through standardised tasks, but some authors question their ecological validity and suggest an approach involving everyday situations and the challenges that children set for themselves. In this article we first review these issues in relation to the first manifestations of EFs. We secondly present a longitudinal case study at nursery school of a child between the ages of 8 and 17 months, considering the challenges and the means he employed in order to resolve them. We found that, from 8 months of age, the child gave himself challenges in relation to the functional uses of objects and instruments. He regulated his own behavior both through object and instrument uses and private gestures. He also involved the teacher at 17 months. This finding suggests that (1) the material world is particularly important in these early manifestations of EF, (2) teachers' interventions are essential. Implications of the findings for early years education are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cintia Rodríguez
- Department of Psychology, Autónoma University of Madrid, C/Iván Pavlov, n. 6, 28049, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Iván Moreno-Llanos
- Department of Psychology, Autónoma University of Madrid, C/Iván Pavlov, n. 6, 28049, Madrid, Spain
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Lucenet J, Blaye A. Contextual adaptation of cognitive flexibility in kindergartners and fourth graders. J Exp Child Psychol 2023; 227:105586. [PMID: 36413870 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Revised: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the development of children's ability to find the optimal balance between flexibility and stability as a function of the frequency of required task switches. This question was addressed in two situations contrasting the dynamics of engagement of reconfiguration processes (reactive vs. proactive). A cued task-switching paradigm was presented to kindergartners and fourth graders, who are known to differ in their preferential mode of control engagement. Flexibility adaptation was examined through the modulation of switching costs by switch proportion, the so-called list-wide switch proportion (LWSP) effect. When the situation forced the use of reactive control (Experiment 1: simultaneous presentation of the cue and the stimulus), we found the LWSP effect with a greater magnitude in kindergartners than in fourth graders. In the situation inducing proactive control (Experiment 2: task cue presented before and until the stimulus), flexibility adaptation was obtained when error rates were considered but not response times. By demonstrating that even young children are capable of flexibility adaptation to contextual demands, these findings support the hypothesis that implicitly triggered adaptation of control may develop as early as the end of the preschool years despite the immaturity of cognitive control during this period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Lucenet
- Laboratoire de Psychologie, EA 4139, University of Bordeaux, 33076 Bordeaux, France.
| | - Agnès Blaye
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive, UMR CNRS 7290, University of Aix-Marseille, 13331 Marseille, France
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8
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Leclercq M, Gimenes G, Maintenant C, Clerc J. Goal choice in preschoolers is influenced by context, cognitive flexibility, and metacognition. Front Psychol 2023; 13:1063566. [PMID: 37006717 PMCID: PMC10052421 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1063566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
IntroductionGoal choice is one of the first, and most important, steps in self-regulated learning (SRL). It is particularly challenging for young children (before 5–6 years), who tend to rely on available environmental cues, which makes their goals fragile because of the instability and variability of the environment. Therefore, it can be assumed that the conditions under which a task is performed may influence a child’s learning goal choice. Moreover, adapting to constraints involves control capacities provided by executive functions (EF) and metacognition.MethodsThe main purpose of this study was to determine factors that influence the way preschoolers choose a learning goal during the first step of SRL. We tested whether adding constraints to perform a task may influence the choice of the procedure that a child aims to learn to perform this task. We also examined the role of cognitive flexibility and metacognition in goal selection in the face of these changes, and tested the influence of change over time, comparing participants’ performance at two points in the school year. One hundred 4-year-olds were asked to perform a jigsaw puzzle task under two conditions: predictable vs. unpredictable environmental change. Individual levels of cognitive flexibility and metacognition were also measured.ResultsThe results show that only a predictable change, but not an unpredictable one, leaded children to change their learning goals. Furthermore, when participants were faced with an unpredictable change, metacognition and cognitive flexibility significantly predicted learning goal change. Results are discussed regarding the development of SRL, flexibility, and metacognition. Educational suggestions are proposed.Highlights– The choice of a learning goal by a preschooler is influenced by the conditions of task performance and environmental cues. Facing a predictable change is more disruptive to children before the age of 4.5, and more likely to cause them to change their goal.– A shift is observed, from age 4 and during the school year, from a perceptual to a conceptual level of processing.– Cognitive flexibility and metacognition also determine learning goal choice in preschoolers, but only in front of unpredictable changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion Leclercq
- Univ. Lille, ULR 4072 – PSITEC – Psychologie: Interactions, Temps, Emotions, Cognition, Lille, France
- *Correspondence: Marion Leclercq, ✉
| | - Guillaume Gimenes
- Univ. Lille, ULR 4072 – PSITEC – Psychologie: Interactions, Temps, Emotions, Cognition, Lille, France
| | - Célia Maintenant
- Laboratory PAVeA, Department of Psychology, University of Tours, Tours, France
| | - Jérôme Clerc
- Laboratory CNRS LPNC, Department Psychology, University of Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France
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9
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Schwarze SA, Laube C, Khosravani N, Lindenberger U, Bunge SA, Fandakova Y. Does prefrontal connectivity during task switching help or hinder children's performance? Dev Cogn Neurosci 2023; 60:101217. [PMID: 36807013 PMCID: PMC9969289 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2023.101217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The ability to flexibly switch between tasks is key for goal-directed behavior and continues to improve across childhood. Children's task switching difficulties are thought to reflect less efficient engagement of sustained and transient control processes, resulting in lower performance on blocks that intermix tasks (sustained demand) and trials that require a task switch (transient demand). Sustained and transient control processes are associated with frontoparietal regions, which develop throughout childhood and may contribute to task switching development. We examined age differences in the modulation of frontoparietal regions by sustained and transient control demands in children (8-11 years) and adults. Children showed greater performance costs than adults, especially under sustained demand, along with less upregulation of sustained and transient control activation in frontoparietal regions. Compared to adults, children showed increased connectivity between the inferior frontal junction (IFJ) and lateral prefrontal cortex (lPFC) from single to mixed blocks. For children whose sustained activation was less adult-like, increased IFJ-lPFC connectivity was associated with better performance. Children with more adult-like sustained activation showed the inverse effect. These results suggest that individual differences in task switching in later childhood at least partly depend on the recruitment of frontoparietal regions in an adult-like manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sina A. Schwarze
- Center for Lifespan Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Lentzeallee 94, 14195 Berlin, Germany,Correspondence to: Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Lentzeallee 94, 14195 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Corinna Laube
- Center for Lifespan Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Lentzeallee 94, 14195 Berlin, Germany,Fresenius University of Applied Sciences, Jägerstraße 32, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Neda Khosravani
- Center for Lifespan Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Lentzeallee 94, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Ulman Lindenberger
- Center for Lifespan Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Lentzeallee 94, 14195 Berlin, Germany,Max Planck UCL Centre for Computational Psychiatry and Ageing Research, Lentzeallee 94, 14195 Berlin, Germany,Max Planck UCL Centre for Computational Psychiatry and Ageing Research, 10-12 Russell Square, WC1B 5EH London, UK
| | - Silvia A. Bunge
- Department of Psychology and Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California at Berkeley, 2121 Berkeley Way, Berkeley, CA 94720-1650, USA
| | - Yana Fandakova
- Center for Lifespan Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Lentzeallee 94, 14195 Berlin, Germany
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10
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Reindl E, Völter CJ, Civelek Z, Duncan L, Lugosi Z, Felsche E, Herrmann E, Call J, Seed AM. The shifting shelf task: a new, non-verbal measure for attentional set shifting. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20221496. [PMID: 36651050 PMCID: PMC9845975 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.1496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Attentional set shifting is a core ingredient of cognition, allowing for fast adaptation to changes in the environment. How this skill compares between humans and other primates is not well known. We examined performance of 3- to 5-year-old children and chimpanzees on a new attentional set shifting task. We presented participants with two shelves holding the same set of four boxes. To choose the correct box on each shelf, one has to switch attention depending on which shelf one is currently presented with. Experiment 1 (forty-six 3- to 5-year olds, predominantly European White) established content validity, showing that the majority of errors were specific switching mistakes indicating failure to shift attention. Experiment 2 (one hundred and seventy-eight 3- to 6-year olds, predominantly European White) showed that older children made fewer mistakes, but if mistakes were made, a larger proportion were switching mistakes rather than 'random' errors. Experiment 3 (52 chimpanzees) established suitability of the task for non-human great apes and showed that chimpanzees' performance was comparable to the performance of 3- and 4-year olds, but worse than 5-year olds. These results suggest that chimpanzees and young children share attentional set shifting capacities, but that there are unique changes in the human lineage from 5 years of age.
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Affiliation(s)
- E. Reindl
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9JP, UK,Department of Anthropology, Durham University, Durham DH1 3LE, UK
| | - C. J. Völter
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9JP, UK,Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna Medical University of Vienna, University of Vienna, Vienna 1210, Austria
| | - Z. Civelek
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9JP, UK
| | - L. Duncan
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9JP, UK,School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 3FX, UK
| | - Z. Lugosi
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9JP, UK,Division of Psychology, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK,Faculty of Social Sciences and Public Policy, School of Education, Communication and Society, King's College London, London WC2R 2LS, UK
| | - E. Felsche
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9JP, UK,Department of Comparative Cultural Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig 04103, Germany
| | - E. Herrmann
- Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth PO1 2UP, UK
| | - J. Call
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9JP, UK
| | - A. M. Seed
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9JP, UK
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Thea T. Concepts in Psychology and the Need to Critically Reflect on Them. STUDIA UNIVERSITATIS BABEȘ-BOLYAI PSYCHOLOGIA-PAEDAGOGIA 2022. [DOI: 10.24193/subbpsyped.2022.2.04] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
"This opinion article raises the issue of conceptual crisis in psychology, i.e. the problem of having several meanings underlying many of the concepts we study. After exemplifying with the concepts of “flexibility” and “cognition”, I propose three avenues on the way to conceptual clarity, and stress the need for a stronger theoretical psychology. Keywords: concepts in psychology, cognition, flexibility. "
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12
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Vernucci S, García-Coni A, Zamora EV, Gelpi-Trudo R, Andrés ML, Canet-Juric L. Age-related Changes in Task Switching Costs in Middle Childhood. JOURNAL OF COGNITION AND DEVELOPMENT 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/15248372.2022.2156514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Santiago Vernucci
- Instituto de Psicología Básica, Aplicada y Tecnología
- Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata (UNMDP)
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Mar del Plata, Argentina
| | - Ana García-Coni
- Instituto de Psicología Básica, Aplicada y Tecnología
- Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata (UNMDP)
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Mar del Plata, Argentina
| | - Eliana Vanesa Zamora
- Instituto de Psicología Básica, Aplicada y Tecnología
- Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata (UNMDP)
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Mar del Plata, Argentina
| | - Rosario Gelpi-Trudo
- Instituto de Psicología Básica, Aplicada y Tecnología
- Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata (UNMDP)
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Mar del Plata, Argentina
| | - María Laura Andrés
- Instituto de Psicología Básica, Aplicada y Tecnología
- Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata (UNMDP)
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Mar del Plata, Argentina
| | - Lorena Canet-Juric
- Instituto de Psicología Básica, Aplicada y Tecnología
- Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata (UNMDP)
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Mar del Plata, Argentina
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Lei J, Charman T, Leigh E, Russell A, Mohamed Z, Hollocks MJ. Examining the relationship between cognitive inflexibility and internalizing and externalizing symptoms in autistic children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Autism Res 2022; 15:2265-2295. [PMID: 36196666 PMCID: PMC10092776 DOI: 10.1002/aur.2826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Compared to neurotypical peers, autistic adolescents show greater cognitive inflexibility (CI) which manifests at the behavioral and cognitive level and potentially increases vulnerability for the development of internalizing (INT) and externalizing (EXT) symptoms. This systematic review and meta-analysis explored the association between CI and INT/EXT in autistic adolescents. PubMed, EMBASE, MEDLINE, PsycINFO and Web of Science databases were searched to identify relevant studies until April 2022 (PROSPERO protocol: CRD42021277294). Systematic review included 21 studies (n = 1608) of CI and INT, and 15 studies (n = 1115) of CI and EXT. A pooled effect size using Pearson's correlation between CI and INT/EXT was calculated and the moderating effects of age, sex, IQ and study quality were investigated using meta-regressions. Sensitivity analyses were completed to investigate the impact of measure variance for CI and co-occurring ADHD on the overall effects. Greater CI is associated with increased INT (nine studies; n = 833; r = 0.39 (moderate effect), 95% confidence interval [0.32, 0.46]) and EXT (six studies; n = 295; r = 0.48 (large effect), 95% confidence interval [0.38, 0.58]). Results withheld when only using parental reports of CI and excluding autistic adolescents with co-occurring ADHD. Increased CI may be a transdiagnostic vulnerability factor that can increase autistic adolescents' rigid or perseverative patterns of unhelpful cognition and behaviors and reduce their ability to access psychological interventions. Addressing CI may improve autistic children and adolescents' engagement with psychological therapy for co-occurring mental health difficulties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiedi Lei
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK.,South London and Maudsley NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Tony Charman
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK.,South London and Maudsley NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Eleanor Leigh
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Ailsa Russell
- Centre for Applied Autism Research, Department of Psychology, University of Bath, Bath, UK
| | - Zameer Mohamed
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK.,South London and Maudsley NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Matthew J Hollocks
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK.,South London and Maudsley NHS Trust, London, UK
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Andreou M, Konstantopoulos K, Peristeri E. Cognitive flexibility in autism: Evidence from young autistic children. Autism Res 2022; 15:2296-2309. [PMID: 36193816 PMCID: PMC10092108 DOI: 10.1002/aur.2828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
We examined the cognitive flexibility performance of young autistic children and a group of neurotypical peers. Thirty-six autistic children (72-83 months) and 200 age-matched typically-developing children were assessed on the Children's Color Trails Test (CCTT), a semantic and a phonemic verbal fluency task. The results showed that the autistic children performed worse than their neurotypical peers in the switching component of the CCTT. In the fluency tests, the autistic group generated overall fewer word items than their neurotypical peers, however, their poorer performance was driven by specific linguistic stimuli in the fluency tasks. The findings suggest that cognitive flexibility for the autistic children was affected in the nonverbal CCTT only, while poor performance in semantic and phonemic fluency seemed to be inherent to the language properties of the verbal fluency tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Andreou
- Department of Speech and Language TherapyUniversity of PeloponneseKalamataGreece
| | | | - Eleni Peristeri
- School of EnglishAristotle University of ThessalonikiThessalonikiGreece
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15
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Paphiti M, Jansson-Verkasalo E, Eggers K. Complex response inhibition and cognitive flexibility in school-aged Cypriot-Greek-speaking children who stutter. Front Psychol 2022; 13:991138. [PMID: 36467248 PMCID: PMC9716181 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.991138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 10/10/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Over the last few years, research findings have suggested limitations in executive function (EF) of children who stutter (CWS) with the evidence being more consistent in studies with preschoolers (3-6 years old) than in studies with school-aged children (6-12 years old). The purpose of the current study was to assess complex response inhibition and cognitive flexibility in school-aged CWS and their non-stuttering peers. METHODS Participants, 19 CWS (mean age = 7.58 years, range 6.08-9.17) and 19 age-and gender-matched children who do not stutter (CWNS; mean age = 7.58 years, range 6.08-9.33), completed a visual task consisting of three task blocks. Analyses were based on response times and error percentages during the different task blocks. RESULTS All participants showed expected performance-costs in task block comparisons targeting complex response inhibition and cognitive flexibility. Significant group differences were found in measures of cognitive flexibility with CWS performing slower compared to CWNS (p = 0.02). Additionally, significant block × group interactions demonstrated that CWS, compared to CWNS, slowed down more (i.e., higher performance-cost) under both complex response inhibition (p = 0.049) and cognitive flexibility task conditions (p = 0.04 for no-set-shifting and p = 0.02 for set-shifting). CONCLUSION These results are in line with some of the previous findings in school-aged CWS and suggest that CWS present lower performance in complex response inhibition and cognitive flexibility task conditions when compared to their non-stuttering peers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Paphiti
- Department of Psychology and Speech-Language Pathology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Eira Jansson-Verkasalo
- Department of Psychology and Speech-Language Pathology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Kurt Eggers
- Department of Psychology and Speech-Language Pathology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Speech-Language Pathology/Audiology Research Group, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Speech-Language Therapy and Audiology, Thomas More University College, Antwerp, Belgium
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Paphiti M, Eggers K. Cognitive flexibility in younger and older children who stutter. Front Psychol 2022; 13:1017319. [PMID: 36467213 PMCID: PMC9715977 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1017319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 10/10/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Recent research findings suggest possible weaknesses in cognitive flexibility (CF) in children who stutter (CWS) when compared to children who do not stutter (CWNS). Studies so far, have been conducted with either younger (3-6 years old) or older children (6-12 years old) with a variety of measures. The purpose of the present study was to investigate CF with the use of a single behavioral measure across a broader age range (4-10 years old). METHODS Participants were 37 CWS (mean age = 6.90 years) and 37 age-and gender-matched CWNS (mean age = 6.88 years), divided in a younger (below 7 years) and older (above 7 years) age group. All participants undertook a computerized visual set-shifting task consisting of three blocks. CF was evaluated through across-and within-block comparisons of the actual response speed and accuracy values. In addition, mixing-and set-shifting-costs were evaluated based on the mean response speed and accuracy. RESULTS All participants showed expected mixing-and set-shifting-costs. Only the within-block analyses yielded significant between (sub)group differences. Investigation of the block × classification group × age group interactions showed that older CWS had larger set-shifting-costs (slowed down more and made more errors) compared to older CWNS. CONCLUSION While all participants required more time during set-shifting trials, only the older CWS (7-10 years old), and not younger CWS, were slower and made more errors. This finding corroborates previous findings in CWS of a similar age and could possibly point to a role of CF in stuttering persistence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Paphiti
- Department of Psychology and Speech-Language Pathology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Kurt Eggers
- Department of Psychology and Speech-Language Pathology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Speech-language Pathology/Audiology Research Group, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Speech-Language Therapy and Audiology, Thomas More University College, Antwerp, Belgium
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17
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Fong CYC, Ho CSH. Executive functions in Chinese kindergarten children with early reading problems. DYSLEXIA (CHICHESTER, ENGLAND) 2022; 28:325-341. [PMID: 35586880 DOI: 10.1002/dys.1714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Learning to read Chinese is a complex task that draws on a range of executive function (EF) skills since early development. However, no studies have examined EF as a potential contributing factor to early reading problems among Chinese children. The present longitudinal study identified 48 poor readers and 48 normal readers among a sample of 190 Chinese children at the end of kindergarten. Measures of EF skills (working memory, inhibition control, and cognitive flexibility) and reading outcomes (word reading, sentence reading fluency, and sentence reading comprehension) were administered to the children. The two groups were retrospectively compared on the EF measures after age and nonverbal IQ were considered. Poor readers were found to perform significantly worse than normal readers in all the examined EF skills. Correlation and regression results revealed a relatively different nature of the relationship between EF and reading in poor readers as compared with normal readers. Inhibition control predicted reading outcomes in poor readers only, while cognitive flexibility predicted reading outcomes in normal readers only. Working memory was significantly correlated to word reading in poor readers and to reading comprehension in normal readers. The results are discussed in terms of the special characteristics of the Chinese language.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cathy Yui-Chi Fong
- Department of Early Childhood Education, The Education University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, Hong Kong SAR
| | - Connie Suk-Han Ho
- Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR
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18
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Podjarny G, Kamawar D, Andrews K. Two birds in the hand: Concurrent and switching cognitive flexibility in preschoolers. J Exp Child Psychol 2022; 220:105418. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2020] [Revised: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Developmental differences in processing the valence and magnitude of incentive cues: Mid-adolescents are more sensitive to potential gains than early- or late-adolescents. COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE, & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2022; 22:557-573. [PMID: 35043303 PMCID: PMC9090868 DOI: 10.3758/s13415-021-00978-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Recent research has focused on the interaction between motivation and cognitive control and shown that both are important for goal-directed behavior. There also is evidence for developmental differences in the sensitivity and behavioral effectiveness of incentives, showing that mid-adolescents might be especially susceptible to rewards. Further pursuing this line of research, the present study examined developmental differences in incentive processing and whether these potential differences also would correspond to changes in cognitive control. We compared the processing of high and low potential gains and losses in early-, mid-, and late adolescents by means of event-related potentials (ERPs) and examined whether these incentives also led to specific performance differences in task-switching. We expected that potential gains compared to potential losses and high compared to low incentives would lead to more preparatory updating as reflected in the P3b and consequently to better task performance and smaller global and local switch costs as indicators of cognitive control in all age groups. Furthermore, we expected that mid-adolescents should be especially sensitive to high gains and thus show the most pronounced enhancements in task performance and global and local switch costs in trials with high gains, respectively. Our results corroborate the idea of a special sensitivity to high rewards during mid-adolescence. The analysis of ERPs showed age-related differences in the processing of incentive cues that also varied with cognitive control demands. However, the different incentives did not impact age-related differences in indices of cognitive control, but had a general effect on response speed.
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Nonverbal Switching Ability of Monolingual and Bilingual Children with and without Developmental Language Disorder. LANGUAGES 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/languages7020108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Bilingualism is associated with enhanced switching skills, while a developmental language disorder (DLD) may negatively impact switching ability. However, both studies with bilinguals as well as studies including children with DLD have revealed mixed results. Moreover, the interaction of bilingualism and DLD has not been addressed and the origin of the stronger or weaker switching performance is unknown. The current study aimed to fill these gaps. Monolingual and bilingual children with and without DLD (n = 32 in each of the four groups) completed a nonverbal color/shape switching task when they were 7 to 8 years old, and a Continuous Performance Task two years earlier. The latter tapped into their response inhibition and sustained attention skills, which may underlie switching ability. No differences between monolinguals and bilinguals were found on the switching task. Children with DLD had higher mixing costs than peers without DLD, which was driven by differences in sustained attention skills. These results add to the body of research indicating that the cognitive advantages of bilingualism are unstable. Additionally, the results substantiate the hypothesis that attention processes are foundational for complex cognitive skills, such as switching, and suggest cascading effects for children with weaker attention skills, such as children with DLD.
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21
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Exploring the development of attentional set shifting in young children with a novel Intradimensional/Extradimensional shift task. J Exp Child Psychol 2022; 221:105428. [PMID: 35489135 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Revised: 01/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Attentional set shifting is a core part of cognition, allowing quick and flexible adaption to new demands. The study of its development during early childhood has been hampered by a shortage of measures not requiring language. This article argues for a revival of the Intradimensional/Extradimensional (ID/ED) shift task by presenting a new nonverbal version of the task (Shifting Tray task). Children (N = 95 3- to 5-year-olds; 49 girls; predominantly European White) were presented with pairs of trays, each filled with a substrate and an upside-down cup on top, and were asked to find stickers. In the pre-switch phase, children learned (through trial and error) which dimension (substrate or cup) was predictive of the rewards. In the post-switch phase, all stimuli were exchanged. For children in the intradimensional shift condition, the dimension predictive of the sticker was the same as the one predictive in the pre-switch phase. For children in the extradimensional shift condition, the previously irrelevant dimension was now relevant. Results showed that most 3-year-olds were able to switch, and older children did not outperform younger children. The easy and flexible nature of the task allows researchers to investigate the impact of labels and instructions and to use it in cross-cultural and comparative research.
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22
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de Santana AN, Roazzi A, de Nobre APMC. The Relationship between Cognitive Flexibility and Mathematical Performance in Children: A Meta-Analysis. Trends Neurosci Educ 2022; 28:100179. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tine.2022.100179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Waring R, Rickard Liow S, Dodd B, Eadie P. Differentiating phonological delay from phonological disorder: Executive function performance in preschoolers. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LANGUAGE & COMMUNICATION DISORDERS 2022; 57:288-302. [PMID: 35060663 DOI: 10.1111/1460-6984.12694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Revised: 10/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The conversational speech of most children can be understood by people outside the family by the time they reach 4 years. However, for some children, speech sound disorders (SSDs) persist into their early school years, and beyond, despite adequate hearing, oromotor function, and language learning opportunities. One explanation for children's SSDs are domain-general cognitive-linguistic deficits that impair the child's ability to correctly derive rules governing how speech sounds legally combine to form words in a specific language. AIMS To explore whether there are differences in performance on executive function tasks between children who make speech errors characteristic of phonological delay and those who make speech errors characteristic of phonological disorder. METHODS & PROCEDURES Twenty-six children aged from 3;6 to 5;2 (13 with phonological delay and 13 with phonological disorder), matched pairwise for age and sex (nine males), were assessed on tasks measuring cognitive flexibility (rule abstraction and cognitive shift) and phonological working memory. OUTCOME & RESULTS For the cognitive flexibility tasks, the performance of children with phonological delay was significantly better than that for children with phonological disorder, but there were no group differences for the phonological working memory task. CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS Children with phonological disorders might benefit from intervention programmes that incorporate training in cognitive flexibility. WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ON THE SUBJECT Children with phonological delay and phonological disorder comprise the two largest SSD subgroups that present to speech-language therapy clinics. Evidence suggests domain-general cognitive processes (e.g., phonological working memory, ability to revise faulty underlying representations, rule abstraction, and cognitive shift) influence phonological development. Differences between the two subgroups in the types of speech errors, linguistic abilities, developmental trajectories, and responses to intervention have been reported, yet little is known about the underlying cognitive-linguistic deficits. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS TO EXISTING KNOWLEDGE The results of this study suggest that children with phonological delay and phonological disorder have distinct patterns of performance on executive function tasks: Children with phonological disorder showed deficits in domain general rule-abstraction and cognitive shift when compared to children with phonological delay. WHAT ARE THE POTENTIAL OR ACTUAL CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS OF THIS WORK?: The findings draw attention to: (1) the importance of differential diagnosis of phonological delay and phonological disorder; (2) the role of domain-general cognitive processes in explaining why children make particular types of errors; and (3) the need to develop innovative and tailored intervention techniques that target specific underlying deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Waring
- Audiology and Speech Pathology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Susan Rickard Liow
- Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Barbara Dodd
- Audiology and Speech Pathology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Patricia Eadie
- Graduate School of Education, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
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24
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Yanaoka K, Van't Wout F, Saito S, Jarrold C. Prior task experience increases 5-year-old children's use of proactive control: Behavioral and pupillometric evidence. Dev Sci 2021; 25:e13181. [PMID: 34623719 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Revised: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Children engage cognitive control reactively when they encounter conflicts; however, they can also resolve conflicts proactively. Recent studies have begun to clarify the mechanisms that support the use of proactive control in children; nonetheless, sufficient knowledge has not been accumulated regarding these mechanisms. Using behavioral and pupillometric measures, we tested the novel possibility that 5-year-old children (N = 58) learn to use proactive control via the acquisition of abstract task knowledge that captures regularities of the task. Participants were assigned to either a proactive training group or a control training group. In the proactive training group, participants engaged in a training phase where using proactive control was encouraged, followed by a test phase using different stimuli where both proactive and reactive control could be used. In the control training group, participants engaged in a training phase where both cognitive control strategies could be used, followed by a similarly-structured test phase using different stimuli. We demonstrated children in the control training group responded more quickly and accurately and showed greater cue-related pupil dilation in the test phase than in the training phase. However, there were no differences in response times, accuracies, and pupil dilation between the proactive and control training groups in the training and test phases. These findings suggest that prior task experience, that goes beyond specific knowledge about the timing of task goal activation, can lead children to engage more proactive control endogenously, even if they are not directly encouraged to do so.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaichi Yanaoka
- Graduate School of Education, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.,Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | - Satoru Saito
- Graduate School of Education, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
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25
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Markant J, Amso D. Context and attention control determine whether attending to competing information helps or hinders learning in school-aged children. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2021; 13:e1577. [PMID: 34498382 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Attention control regulates efficient processing of goal-relevant information by suppressing interference from irrelevant competing inputs while also flexibly allocating attention across relevant inputs according to task demands. Research has established that developing attention control skills promote effective learning by minimizing distractions from task-irrelevant competing information. Additional research also suggests that competing contextual information can provide meaningful input for learning and should not always be ignored. Instead, attending to competing information that is relevant to task goals can facilitate and broaden the scope of children's learning. We review this past research examining effects of attending to task-relevant and task-irrelevant competing information on learning outcomes, focusing on relations between visual attention and learning in childhood. We then present a synthesis argument that complex interactions across learning goals, the contexts of learning environments and tasks, and developing attention control mechanisms will determine whether attending to competing information helps or hinders learning. This article is categorized under: Psychology > Attention Psychology > Learning Psychology > Development and Aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Markant
- Department of Psychology, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
- Tulane Brain Institute, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Dima Amso
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
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26
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Vivaldi RA, Allen ML. Beyond literal depiction: Children's flexible understanding of pictures. J Exp Child Psychol 2021; 210:105208. [PMID: 34157496 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2020] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Pictures can represent more than one entity, and they can also represent literal or nonliteral concepts associated with a referent. In two studies, we examined whether 4-year-olds, 6-year-olds, and adults can view pictures as both literal and nonliteral when they are presented with different contextual cues, which would indicate representational flexibility. In Study 1, children and adults were asked to name iconic pictures after hearing a story explaining how a fictional character had created or used a picture in, for instance, a literal context (e.g., a girl used a picture of a crown to represent what she wanted for Christmas) and a second story on how the same artist produced or used an identical picture in a nonliteral context (e.g., the same girl used the picture of a crown to represent what she wanted to be when she grew up). After each story, the picture was shown and participants were asked "What does this mean?" The 6-year-olds and adults, but not the 4-year-olds, showed representational flexibility in their interpretations of pictures across contexts. Study 2 provided evidence of flexible pictorial interpretations, even for the younger age group, when children were presented with a game in which they were asked to select a suitable picture to represent a nonliteral referent. Taken together, our results suggest that the conditions under which representational flexibility is elicited influence the developmental progression observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romina A Vivaldi
- Department of Psychology, School of Life Sciences and Education, Staffordshire University, Stoke-on-Trent ST4 2DF, UK.
| | - Melissa L Allen
- School of Education, University of Bristol, Clifton BS8 1JA, UK
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27
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Considerations for using the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test to assess cognitive flexibility. Behav Res Methods 2021; 53:2083-2091. [PMID: 33754321 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-021-01551-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) is a popular neurocognitive task used to assess cognitive flexibility, and aspects of executive functioning more broadly, in research and clinical practice. Despite its widespread use and the development of an updated WCST manual in 1993, confusion remains in the literature about how to score the WCST, and importantly, how to interpret the outcome variables as indicators of cognitive flexibility. This critical review provides an overview of the changes in the WCST, how existing scoring methods of the task differ, the key terminology and how these relate to the assessment of cognitive flexibility, and issues with the use of the WCST across the literature. In particular, this review focuses on the confusion between the terms 'perseverative responses' and 'perseverative errors' and the inconsistent scoring of these variables. To our knowledge, this critical review is the first of its kind to focus on the inherent issues surrounding the WCST when used as an assessment of cognitive flexibility. We provide recommendations to overcome these and other issues when using the WCST in future research and clinical practice.
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28
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Bardikoff N, Sabbagh MA. Multidimensional Reasoning Can Promote 3-Year-Old Children's Performance on the Dimensional Change Card Sort Task. Child Dev 2021; 92:e924-e939. [PMID: 33496007 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
An important aspect of executive functioning is the ability to flexibly switch between behavioral rules. This study explored how considering the multidimensionality of objects affects behavioral rule switching in 3-year-old children. In Study 1 (N = 40), children who participated in a brief game separating and aggregating an object's dimensions (i.e., color and shape) showed improved performance on the Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS), a measure of behavioral rule switching, relative to controls. In Study 2 (N = 80) DCCS performance improved even when the initial practice involved a different dimension (pattern and shape). Thus, practice thinking about multidimensionality can affect 3-year-olds' DCCS performance and therefore may play an important role in the development of flexible thinking.
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Ming H, Zhang F, Jiang Y, Ren Y, Huang S. Family socio-economic status and children's executive function: The moderating effects of parental subjective socio-economic status and children's subjective social mobility. Br J Psychol 2021; 112:720-740. [PMID: 33421109 DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Revised: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Family socio-economic status (SES) is significantly related to disparities in children's executive function. Children from economically disadvantaged backgrounds perform worse on executive function tasks than their peers from high-SES families. The protective factors in the relationship between SES and executive function have not been sufficiently investigated, especially from the perspective of parents' and children's perceptions and expectations regarding SES. Therefore, this study aimed to examine whether parental subjective SES and children's subjective social mobility separately moderated the relationship between family SES and children's executive function among 885 participants aged 9-13 years. The results showed that family SES was positively related to the three components of executive function (cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, and working memory). Moreover, the relationship between SES and cognitive flexibility was weak among the children with a high level of subjective social mobility or those whose parents had high levels of subjective SES. Among children from families with economic hardship, subjective social mobility is a potential protective factor mitigating the negative effects of low family SES on their cognitive flexibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Ming
- Faculty of Psychology, Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University, China
| | - Feng Zhang
- Faculty of Psychology, Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University, China
| | - Ying Jiang
- Faculty of Psychology, Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University, China
| | - Yi Ren
- Faculty of Psychology, Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University, China
| | - Silin Huang
- Faculty of Psychology, Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University, China
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Anderson JD, Wagovich SA, Ofoe L. Cognitive Flexibility for Semantic and Perceptual Information in Developmental Stuttering. JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH : JSLHR 2020; 63:3659-3679. [PMID: 33108236 PMCID: PMC8582833 DOI: 10.1044/2020_jslhr-19-00119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Revised: 02/13/2020] [Accepted: 08/16/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this study was to examine cognitive flexibility for semantic and perceptual information in preschool children who stutter (CWS) and who do not stutter (CWNS). Method Participants were 44 CWS and 44 CWNS between the ages of 3;0 and 5;11 (years;months). Cognitive flexibility was measured using semantic and perceptual categorization tasks. In each task, children were required to match a target object with two different semantic or perceptual associates. Main dependent variables were reaction time and accuracy. Results The accuracy with which CWS and CWNS shifted between one semantic and perceptual representation to another was similar, but the CWS did so significantly more slowly. Both groups of children had more difficulty switching between perceptual representations than semantic ones. Conclusion CWS are less efficient (slower), though not less accurate, than CWNS in their ability to switch between different representations in both the verbal and nonverbal domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie D. Anderson
- Department of Speech and Hearing Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington
| | - Stacy A. Wagovich
- Department of Speech, Language and Hearing Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia
| | - Levi Ofoe
- Department of Speech and Hearing Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington
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31
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Söğüt M, Göksun T, Altan-Atalay A. The role of numeracy skills on the Wisconsin card sorting test (WCST) performances of 5- to 8-Year-old turkish children. BRITISH JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2020; 39:231-246. [PMID: 33058246 DOI: 10.1111/bjdp.12353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Revised: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) is one of the most widely used complex EF task for various populations. However, it seems questionable to employ the task for preschool-aged children due to their lack of numerical efficiency while sorting cards according to the number dimension. The present study aimed to examine the association of numeracy skills with different EF-related abilities as measured by the WCST. For the assessment of numeracy skills, we used the Early Numeracy Test (ENT). One hundred and fourteen Turkish children between the ages of 5 and 8 were administered the WCST and ENT in a counterbalanced order. Results revealed a significant correlation only between the three ENT scores and the concept formation factor of the WCST, indicating a significant relationship between the WCST performance and numeracy skills in terms of concept formation. This finding highlights the specific relation between numeracy skills and subcomponents of the WCST and points to potential interfering variables that should be taken into account while evaluating the scores of the sorting tasks for children between the ages of 5 and 8.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meryem Söğüt
- Department of Psychology, Koç University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Tilbe Göksun
- Department of Psychology, Koç University, Istanbul, Turkey
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Charisi V, Gomez E, Mier G, Merino L, Gomez R. Child-Robot Collaborative Problem-Solving and the Importance of Child's Voluntary Interaction: A Developmental Perspective. Front Robot AI 2020; 7:15. [PMID: 33501184 PMCID: PMC7806108 DOI: 10.3389/frobt.2020.00015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence and development of cognitive strategies for the transition from exploratory actions towards intentional problem-solving in children is a key question for the understanding of the development of human cognition. Researchers in developmental psychology have studied cognitive strategies and have highlighted the catalytic role of the social environment. However, it is not yet adequately understood how this capacity emerges and develops in biological systems when they perform a problem-solving task in collaboration with a robotic social agent. This paper presents an empirical study in a human-robot interaction (HRI) setting which investigates children's problem-solving from a developmental perspective. In order to theoretically conceptualize children's developmental process of problem-solving in HRI context, we use principles based on the intuitive theory and we take into consideration existing research on executive functions with a focus on inhibitory control. We considered the paradigm of the Tower of Hanoi and we conducted an HRI behavioral experiment to evaluate task performance. We designed two types of robot interventions, "voluntary" and "turn-taking"-manipulating exclusively the timing of the intervention. Our results indicate that the children who participated in the voluntary interaction setting showed a better performance in the problem solving activity during the evaluation session despite their large variability in the frequency of self-initiated interactions with the robot. Additionally, we present a detailed description of the problem-solving trajectory for a representative single case-study, which reveals specific developmental patterns in the context of the specific task. Implications and future work are discussed regarding the development of intelligent robotic systems that allow child-initiated interaction as well as targeted and not constant robot interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vicky Charisi
- Centre for Advanced Studies, Joint Research Centre, European Commission, Seville, Spain
| | - Emilia Gomez
- Centre for Advanced Studies, Joint Research Centre, European Commission, Seville, Spain
- Music Technology Group, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Gonzalo Mier
- Service Robotics Lab, School of Engineering, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Seville, Spain
| | - Luis Merino
- Service Robotics Lab, School of Engineering, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Seville, Spain
| | - Randy Gomez
- Honda Research Institute Japan Co., Ltd., Saitama, Japan
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Zhu M, Zhuo B, Cao B, Li F. Distinct brain activation in response to negative feedback at different stages in a variant of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Biol Psychol 2020; 150:107810. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2019.107810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Revised: 11/04/2019] [Accepted: 11/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Arán Filippetti V, Krumm G. A hierarchical model of cognitive flexibility in children: Extending the relationship between flexibility, creativity and academic achievement. Child Neuropsychol 2020; 26:770-800. [DOI: 10.1080/09297049.2019.1711034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Arán Filippetti
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Centro Interdisciplinario de Investigaciones en Psicología Matemática y Experimental (CIIPME), Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Facultad de Humanidades, Educación y Ciencias Sociales, Universidad Adventista del Plata, Entre Ríos, Argentina
| | - Gabriela Krumm
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Centro Interdisciplinario de Investigaciones en Psicología Matemática y Experimental (CIIPME), Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Facultad de Humanidades, Educación y Ciencias Sociales, Universidad Adventista del Plata, Entre Ríos, Argentina
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Cortés Pascual A, Moyano Muñoz N, Quílez Robres A. The Relationship Between Executive Functions and Academic Performance in Primary Education: Review and Meta-Analysis. Front Psychol 2019; 10:1582. [PMID: 31354585 PMCID: PMC6638196 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to research the relationship between executive functions and academic performance in primary education (6–12 years). Based on 21 samples (n = 7,947), a meta-analysis of random effects demonstrated a moderately significant weighted effect size (r = 0.365) and was found to be a good predictor of academic performance. For the subjects of language and mathematics, the results of the random effects model were similar and slightly higher for mathematics (r = 0.350; r = 0.365). Thus, the theory that executive functions have greater influence on mathematical performance is supported, especially in aspects such as coding, organization, and the immediate retrieval of information. Regarding the different executive function components (working memory, inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and planning), working memory had the highest presence (k = 14, n = 3,740) and predictive weight for performance, with an effect size of r = 0.370 for random effects, with a moderate level of significance. The moderating effect of variables such as gender and age were also analyzed. After performing a meta-regression, gender resulted in a value of R2 = 0.49; the age variable was not significant. This result is especially important since age has traditionally been considered to be the moderating variable of executive functions. The review reveals a good predictive power of executive functions in the primary education stage, and it is even higher at the early ages, indicating its great significance in describing future performance. The study also revealed the competencies and specific aspects of the executive functions that affect the way in which its components intervene in the academic area, demonstrating the mediating effect of variables such as physical fitness, motor skills, and memory processes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nieves Moyano Muñoz
- Department of Psychology and Sociology, Faculty of Humanities and Education, University of Zaragoza, Aragon, Spain
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Ku S, Feng X, Hooper EG, Wu Q, Gerhardt M. Interactions between familial risk profiles and preschoolers' emotionality in predicting executive function. JOURNAL OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.appdev.2019.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Dörrenbächer S, Kray J. Impairments in resource allocation and executive control in children with ADHD. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry 2019; 24:462-481. [PMID: 30525944 DOI: 10.1177/1359104518816115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Children diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) show pronounced alterations in cognitive tasks, such as a highly variable mode of responding. There is an ongoing debate about the key driving mechanisms of such alterations (e.g. specific inhibition or working memory (WM) impairments or general impairments in the allocation of energetic resources). The aim of this study was to disentangle such process-specific versus general limitations in cognitive and energetic mechanisms in children with ADHD compared to typically developed (TD) children based on the performance in a task-switching paradigm. This paradigm allows for both a common measurement and a later segregation of different executive sub-processes. Task-switching performance, including performance variability, of 26 children diagnosed with combined-type ADHD (8-13 years) was compared against the performance of 26 age-matched/IQ-matched TD children. Results revealed that compared to TD children, ADHD-diagnosed children showed alterations in performance variability during task switching, both in general (indicating disturbances in resource allocation) and conditionally on WM demands (indicating a specific WM deficit). Hence, our study provides diagnostically relevant new insights into performance impairments in children with ADHD compared to TD children. Importantly, it seems mandatory to include information on performance variability when trying to phenotype alterations in cognitive performance in ADHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Dörrenbächer
- Development of Language, Learning and Action, Department of Psychology, Saarland University, Germany
| | - Jutta Kray
- Development of Language, Learning and Action, Department of Psychology, Saarland University, Germany
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Willinger U, Deckert M, Schmöger M, Schaunig-Busch I, Formann AK, Auff E. Developmental Steps in Metaphorical Language Abilities: The Influence of Age, Gender, Cognitive Flexibility, Information Processing Speed, and Analogical Reasoning. LANGUAGE AND SPEECH 2019; 62:207-228. [PMID: 29226757 DOI: 10.1177/0023830917746552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Metaphor is a specific type of figurative language that is used in various important fields such as in the work with children in clinical or teaching contexts. The aim of the study was to investigate the developmental course, developmental steps, and possible cognitive predictors regarding metaphor processing in childhood and early adolescence. METHOD One hundred sixty-four typically developing children (7-year-olds, 9-year-olds) and early adolescents (11-year-olds) were tested for metaphor identification, comprehension, comprehension quality, and preference by the Metaphoric Triads Task as well as for analogical reasoning, information processing speed, cognitive flexibility under time pressure, and cognitive flexibility without time pressure. RESULTS Metaphor identification and comprehension consecutively increased with age. Eleven-year-olds showed significantly higher metaphor comprehension quality and preference scores than seven- and nine-year-olds, whilst these younger age groups did not differ. Age, cognitive flexibility under time pressure, information processing speed, analogical reasoning, and cognitive flexibility without time pressure significantly predicted metaphor comprehension. CONCLUSIONS Metaphorical language ability shows an ongoing development and seemingly changes qualitatively at the beginning of early adolescence. These results can possibly be explained by a greater synaptic reorganization in early adolescents. Furthermore, cognitive flexibility under time pressure and information processing speed possibly facilitate the ability to adapt metaphor processing strategies in a flexible, quick, and appropriate way.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Eduard Auff
- Department of Neurology, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
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What do I do next? The influence of two self-cueing strategies on children’s engagement of proactive control. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2019.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Morra S, Panesi S, Traverso L, Usai MC. Which tasks measure what? Reflections on executive function development and a commentary on Podjarny, Kamawar, and Andrews (2017). J Exp Child Psychol 2019; 167:246-258. [PMID: 29197781 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2017.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2017] [Revised: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
This article provides a selective review of the literature on executive function development and related topics, focusing on the conceptual and terminological confusions that might hinder communication among researchers in the field. The distinctions between working memory and updating, and between shifting and flexibility, are discussed. Methodological problems, which have implications regarding whether a certain task can be considered a measure of a psychological construct, are also discussed. Research on preschoolers is examined with particular attention because it is a rapidly growing but controversial field that seems in particular need of greater conceptual clarity. As a specific touchstone case, we discuss whether the Multidimensional Card Selection Task (MCST) created by Podjarny, Kamawar, and Andrews (2017) should better be considered a measure of concurrent cognitive flexibility or working memory capacity. It is argued that connecting tasks to theoretical constructs is not warranted unless based on rigorous empirical testing of well-formulated models.
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Zeytinoglu S, Calkins SD, Leerkes EM. Maternal emotional support but not cognitive support during problem-solving predicts increases in cognitive flexibility in early childhood. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DEVELOPMENT 2019; 43:12-23. [PMID: 31036983 PMCID: PMC6484867 DOI: 10.1177/0165025418757706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Cognitive flexibility is a sophisticated form of executive functions that predicts a range of adaptive outcomes; however, little is known about which caregiving behaviors predict the rapid improvements in children’s cognitive flexibility during early childhood. This study examined whether ordinary variations in mothers’ provision of emotional and cognitive support during problem-solving predict children’s cognitive flexibility and tested whether children’s cognitive flexibility predicts caregiving behaviors across time. Two hundred and seventy-eight children and their caregivers (96% mothers) participated in laboratory visits when children were in preschool, kindergarten, and first grade. At each visit, cognitive flexibility was measured via a computerized version of the Dimensional Change Card Sort task and mothers’ behaviors were observed during a semi-structured problem-solving board game task. Results from autoregressive cross-lagged structural regression analyses indicated that mothers’ emotional support predicted greater child cognitive flexibility from preschool to kindergarten, and from kindergarten to first grade, after accounting for the stability in these constructs over time and controlling for the influence of maternal education, and child age and minority status. Mothers’ cognitive support did not predict child cognitive flexibility over time. Child cognitive flexibility did not lead to changes in caregiving behaviors over time. Findings suggest that mothers’ provision of emotional support during problem-solving may be an important proximal mechanism that contributes to children’s cognitive flexibility across early childhood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selin Zeytinoglu
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, The University of North Carolina at Greensboro Greensboro, NC
27402
| | - Susan D. Calkins
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, The University of North Carolina at Greensboro Greensboro, NC
27402
| | - Esther M. Leerkes
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, The University of North Carolina at Greensboro Greensboro, NC
27402
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42
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A cross-cultural examination of selective attention in Canada and Japan: The role of social context. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2018.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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43
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Dörrenbächer S, Kray J. The Impact of Game-Based Task-Shifting Training on Motivation and Executive Control in Children with ADHD. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE ENHANCEMENT 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s41465-018-0083-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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44
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Podjarny G, Kamawar D, Andrews K. Measuring on the go: Response to Morra, Panesi, Traverso, and Usai. J Exp Child Psychol 2018. [PMID: 29530325 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2018.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Morra, Panesi, Traverso, and Usai's (Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 2017, Vol. 167, pp. 246-258) effort to clarify theoretical models and nomenclature confusion surrounding young children's executive functions development is laudable and important. In this article, we address some of the points these authors raised regarding our previous article (Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 2017, Vol. 159, pp. 199-218). Although we agree that the Multidimensional Card Selection Task makes working memory demands, it goes beyond working memory to measure concurrent cognitive flexibility in preschoolers. Using this task will allow researchers to fine-tune our models of cognitive flexibility and executive functions development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gal Podjarny
- Department of Psychology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada.
| | - Deepthi Kamawar
- Department of Psychology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada; Institute of Cognitive Science, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Katherine Andrews
- Department of Educational and Counselling Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1Y2, Canada
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Poljac E, Haartsen R, van der Cruijsen R, Kiesel A, Poljac E. Task intentions and their implementation into actions: cognitive control from adolescence to middle adulthood. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2017; 82:215-229. [PMID: 29026993 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-017-0927-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Accepted: 10/06/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Cognitive control processes involved in human multitasking arise, mature, and decline across age. This study investigated how age modulates cognitive control at two different levels: the level of task intentions and the level of the implementation of intentions into the corresponding actions. We were particularly interested in specifying maturation of voluntary task choice (intentions) and task-switching execution (their implementations) between adolescence and middle adulthood. Seventy-four participants were assigned to one of the four age groups (adolescents, 12-17 years; emerging adults, 18-22 years; young adults, 23-27 years; middle-aged adults, 28-56 years). Participants chose between two simple cognitive tasks at the beginning of each trial before pressing a spacebar to indicate that the task choice was made. Next, a stimulus was presented in one of the three adjacent boxes, with participants identifying either the location or the shape of the stimulus, depending on their task choice. This voluntary task-switching paradigm allowed us to investigate the intentional component (task choice) separately from its implementation (task execution). Although all participants showed a tendency to repeat tasks more often than switching between them, this repetition bias was significantly stronger in adolescents than in any adult group. Furthermore, participants generally responded slower after task switches than after task repetitions. This switch cost was similar across tasks in the two younger groups but larger for the shape than the location task in the two older groups. Together, our results demonstrate that both task intentions and their implementation into actions differ across age in quite specific ways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edita Poljac
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands. .,Department of Psychology, University of Freiburg, Engelbergerstr. 41, 79085, Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Rianne Haartsen
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Birkbeck, University of London, London, UK
| | - Renske van der Cruijsen
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Department of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Andrea Kiesel
- Department of Psychology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Ervin Poljac
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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Podjarny G, Kamawar D, Andrews K. The Multidimensional Card Selection Task: A new way to measure concurrent cognitive flexibility in preschoolers. J Exp Child Psychol 2017; 159:199-218. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2017.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2016] [Revised: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 02/08/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Ionescu T. The Variability-Stability-Flexibility Pattern: A Possible Key to Understanding the Flexibility of the Human Mind. REVIEW OF GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1037/gpr0000110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Flexibility is a defining characteristic of our species. The current literature presents cognitive flexibility as having several meanings; this lack of a single definition may hinder work on understanding the concept. In this article, I begin with describing the variability–stability–flexibility pattern in the development of various abilities and then argue that as part of this chain, flexibility can be considered a property of the cognitive system and not in itself an ability. The implications of and challenges to this view are discussed. This view can foster progress in the understanding of cognitive flexibility: It can serve as a unifying framework in which to study the dynamic flow of stability and flexibility in the functioning of the cognitive system.
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Ionescu T. When children succeed in changing their responses: Insights from three versions of a flexible categorization task. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/17405629.2017.1333957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Thea Ionescu
- Developmental Psychology Lab, Department of Psychology, Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
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49
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Mărcuş O, Stanciu O, MacLeod C, Liebregts H, Visu-Petra L. A FISTful of Emotion: Individual Differences in Trait Anxiety and Cognitive-Affective Flexibility During Preadolescence. JOURNAL OF ABNORMAL CHILD PSYCHOLOGY 2017; 44:1231-42. [PMID: 26690778 DOI: 10.1007/s10802-015-0110-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Cognitive-affective flexibility represents the ability to switch between alternative ways of processing emotional stimuli according to situational demands and individual goals. Although reduced flexibility has been implicated as a mechanism for the development of anxiety, there is very limited data on this relationship in children and adolescents. The aim of the current study was to investigate cognitive-affective flexibility in preadolescents (N = 112, 50 girls, 11-12 and 13-14 years old) and to examine if this ability is related to individual differences in trait anxiety. Their interplay was assessed using the modified version of the Flexible Item Selection Task (FIST; Jacques and Zelazo 2001) with non-emotional stimuli (geometrical shapes) and the Emotional FIST (EM-FIST) with emotional stimuli (emotional facial expressions). Performance on the EM-FIST indicated that across the whole age range, trials requiring greater cognitive flexibility were more demanding than nonflexible ones, as revealed by both response time and accuracy performance. Moreover, flexibility demands were higher for younger children than for older ones but only in terms of response speed. Individual differences in trait anxiety moderated the impact of flexibility only on the EM-FIST. Being flexible on the EM-FIST was more demanding for high trait anxious children than for their low trait anxious peers. Lastly, overall girls responded faster than boys, but only in the EM-FIST. These findings extend the presently limited literature concerning variability in cognitive-affective flexibility during this sensitive developmental window.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oana Mărcuş
- Department of Psychology, Developmental Psychology Lab, Babeş-Bolyai University, Republicii Str. No. 37, 400015, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Oana Stanciu
- Department of Psychology, Developmental Psychology Lab, Babeş-Bolyai University, Republicii Str. No. 37, 400015, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.,Department of Cognitive Science, Central European University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Colin MacLeod
- Department of Psychology, Developmental Psychology Lab, Babeş-Bolyai University, Republicii Str. No. 37, 400015, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.,Centre for the Advancement of Research on Emotion, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
| | - Heather Liebregts
- Centre for the Advancement of Research on Emotion, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
| | - Laura Visu-Petra
- Department of Psychology, Developmental Psychology Lab, Babeş-Bolyai University, Republicii Str. No. 37, 400015, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
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50
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Blakey E, Carroll DJ. Not All Distractions Are the Same: Investigating Why Preschoolers Make Distraction Errors When Switching. Child Dev 2017; 89:609-619. [DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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