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Price JL, Visagie CM, Meyer H, Yilmaz N. Fungal Species and Mycotoxins Associated with Maize Ear Rots Collected from the Eastern Cape in South Africa. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:95. [PMID: 38393173 PMCID: PMC10891880 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16020095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Revised: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 02/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Maize production in South Africa is concentrated in its central provinces. The Eastern Cape contributes less than 1% of total production, but is steadily increasing its production and has been identified as a priority region for future growth. In this study, we surveyed ear rots at maize farms in the Eastern Cape, and mycotoxins were determined to be present in collected samples. Fungal isolations were made from mouldy ears and species identified using morphology and DNA sequences. Cladosporium, Diplodia, Fusarium and Gibberella ear rots were observed during field work, and of these, we collected 78 samples and isolated 83 fungal strains. Fusarium was identified from Fusarium ear rot (FER) and Gibberella ear rot (GER) and Stenocarpella from Diplodia ear rot (DER) samples, respectively. Using LC-MS/MS multi-mycotoxin analysis, it was revealed that 83% of the collected samples contained mycotoxins, and 17% contained no mycotoxins. Fifty percent of samples contained multiple mycotoxins (deoxynivalenol, 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol, diplodiatoxin and zearalenone) and 33% contained a single mycotoxin. Fusarium verticillioides was not isolated and fumonisins not detected during this survey. This study revealed that ear rots in the Eastern Cape are caused by a wide range of species that may produce various mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenna-Lee Price
- Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0028, South Africa; (J.-L.P.); (C.M.V.)
| | - Cobus Meyer Visagie
- Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0028, South Africa; (J.-L.P.); (C.M.V.)
| | - Hannalien Meyer
- Southern African Grain Laboratory (SAGL), Grain Building-Agri Hub Office Park, 477 Witherite Street, The Willows, Pretoria 0040, South Africa;
| | - Neriman Yilmaz
- Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0028, South Africa; (J.-L.P.); (C.M.V.)
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Alhelaisi A, Alrezaki A, Nahdi S, Aldahmash W, Alwasel S, Harrath AH. Early-Life Exposure to the Mycotoxin Fumonisin B1 and Developmental Programming of the Ovary of the Offspring: The Possible Role of Autophagy in Fertility Recovery. TOXICS 2023; 11:980. [PMID: 38133381 PMCID: PMC10747440 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11120980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are produced by more than one hundred fungi and produce secondary metabolites that contaminate various agricultural commodities, especially rice and corn. Their presence in the food chain is considered a serious problem worldwide. In recent years, a link between exposure to mycotoxins and impaired fertility has been suggested. Consequently, it has become vital to investigate the interactive effects of these mycotoxins on ovarian function. In this study, we investigated the intergenerational effects of the mycotoxin fumonisin B1 (FB1) on ovarian structure and function. Virgin Wistar albino female rats were separated into control and FB1 treatment groups and examined from day 6 of pregnancy until delivery (20 and 50 mg/kg b.w./day). The obtained female rats of the first (F1) and second generations (F2) were euthanized at 4 weeks of age, and ovary samples were collected. We found that the ovary weight index increased with the high dose of the treatment (50 mg/kg b.w./day) among both F1 and F2, in a manner similar to that observed in polycystic ovary syndrome. As expected, FB1 at a high dose (50 mg/kg b.w.) reduced the number of primordial follicles in F1 and F2, leading to an accelerated age-related decline in reproductive capacity. Moreover, it reduced the fertility rate among the F1 female rats by affecting follicle growth and development, as the number of secondary and tertiary follicles decreased. Histopathological changes were evidenced by the altered structures of most of the growing follicle oocytes, as revealed by a thinning irregular zona pellucida and pyknosis in granulosa cells. These findings are concomitant with steroidogenesis- and folliculogenesis-related gene expression, as evidenced by the decrease in CYP19 activity and estrogen receptor beta (ESR2) gene expression. Additionally, GDF-9 mRNA levels were significantly decreased, and IGF-1 mRNA levels were significantly increased. However, the results from the ovaries of the F2 treatment groups were different and unexpected. While there was no significant variation in CYP19 activity compared to the control, the ESR2 significantly increased, leading to stereological and histopathological changes similar to those of the control, except for some altered follicles. The hallmark histological feature was the appearance of vacuolar structures within the oocyte and between granulosa cell layers. Interestingly, the autophagic marker LC3 was significantly increased in the F2 offspring, whereas this protein was significantly decreased in the F1 offspring. Therefore, we suggest that the promotion of autophagy in the ovaries of the F2 offspring may be considered a recovery mechanism from the effect of prenatal FB1 exposure. Thus, autophagy corrected the effect of FB1 during the early life of the F1 female rats, leading to F2 offspring with ovarian structure and function similar to those of the control. However, the offspring, treated female rats may experience early ovarian aging because their ovarian pool was affected.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Abdel Halim Harrath
- Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia; (A.A.); (A.A.); (S.N.); (W.A.); (S.A.)
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Chen X, Abdallah MF, Landschoot S, Audenaert K, De Saeger S, Chen X, Rajkovic A. Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium verticillioides and Their Main Mycotoxins: Global Distribution and Scenarios of Interactions in Maize. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:577. [PMID: 37756003 PMCID: PMC10534665 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15090577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Revised: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Maize is frequently contaminated with multiple mycotoxins, especially those produced by Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium verticillioides. As mycotoxin contamination is a critical factor that destabilizes global food safety, the current review provides an updated overview of the (co-)occurrence of A. flavus and F. verticillioides and (co-)contamination of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and fumonisin B1 (FB1) in maize. Furthermore, it summarizes their interactions in maize. The gathered data predict the (co-)occurrence and virulence of A. flavus and F. verticillioides would increase worldwide, especially in European cold climate countries. Studies on the interaction of both fungi regarding their growth mainly showed antagonistic interactions in vitro or in planta conditions. However, the (co-)contamination of AFB1 and FB1 has risen worldwide in the last decade. Primarily, this co-contamination increased by 32% in Europe (2010-2020 vs. 1992-2009). This implies that fungi and mycotoxins would severely threaten European-grown maize.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangrong Chen
- Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (M.F.A.); (A.R.)
- Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (S.L.); (K.A.)
| | - Mohamed F. Abdallah
- Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (M.F.A.); (A.R.)
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut 71515, Egypt
| | - Sofie Landschoot
- Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (S.L.); (K.A.)
| | - Kris Audenaert
- Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (S.L.); (K.A.)
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Centre of Excellence in Mycotoxicology and Public Health, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium;
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein Campus, P.O. Box 17011, Gauteng 2028, South Africa
| | - Xiangfeng Chen
- Shandong Analysis and Test Centre, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Science), Jinan 250014, China;
| | - Andreja Rajkovic
- Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (M.F.A.); (A.R.)
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Kaela CR, Lilly M, Rheeder JP, Misihairabgwi JM, Alberts JF. Mycological and Multiple Mycotoxin Surveillance of Sorghum and Pearl Millet Produced by Smallholder Farmers in Namibia. Curr Microbiol 2023; 80:164. [PMID: 37014446 PMCID: PMC10073170 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-023-03263-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023]
Abstract
Mycological (mycotoxigenic Fusarium and aflatoxigenic Aspergillus spp.) and multiple mycotoxins [aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), fumonisin B (FB), deoxynivalenol and zearalenone] surveillance was conducted on raw whole grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) produced on smallholder farms, and processed products sold at open markets in northern Namibia. Fungal contamination was determined with morphological methods as well as with quantitative Real-Time PCR (qPCR). The concentrations of multiple mycotoxins in samples were determined with liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The incidence of mycotoxigenic Fusarium spp., Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, as well as the concentrations of AFB1 and FB were significantly (P < 0.001) higher in the malts as compared to the raw whole grains, with Aspergillus spp. and AFB1 exhibiting the highest contamination (P < 0.001). None of the analysed mycotoxins were detected in the raw whole grains. Aflatoxin B1 above the regulatory maximum level set by the European Commission was detected in sorghum (2 of 10 samples; 20%; 3-11 µg/kg) and pearl millet (6 of 11 samples; 55%; 4-14 µg/kg) malts. Low levels of FB1 (6 of 10 samples; 60%; 15-245 µg/kg) were detected in sorghum malts and no FB was detected in pearl millet malts. Contamination possibly occurred postharvest, during storage, and/or transportation and processing. By critically monitoring the complete production process, the sources of contamination and critical control points could be identified and managed. Mycotoxin awareness and sustainable education will contribute to reducing mycotoxin contamination. This could ultimately contribute to food safety and security in northern Namibia where communities are exposed to carcinogenic mycotoxins in their staple diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Calvin R Kaela
- Department of Agriculture, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Private Bag X8, Wellington, South Africa
| | - Mariska Lilly
- Applied Microbial and Health Biotechnology Institute (AMHBI), Cape Peninsula University of Technology, PO Box 1906, Bellville, South Africa
| | - John P Rheeder
- Department of Biotechnology and Consumer Science, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, PO Box 652, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Jane M Misihairabgwi
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Namibia, PO Box 13301, Windhoek, Namibia
| | - Johanna F Alberts
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, PO Box 1906, Bellville, South Africa.
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Micro-climatic variations across Malawi have a greater influence on contamination of maize with aflatoxins than with fumonisins. Mycotoxin Res 2022; 39:33-44. [PMID: 36443622 PMCID: PMC10156841 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-022-00471-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Revised: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
This study reports levels of aflatoxin and fumonisin in maize samples (n = 1294) from all agroecological zones (AEZs) in Malawi. Most maize samples (> 75%) were contaminated with aflatoxins and 45% with fumonisins, which co-occurred in 38% of the samples. Total aflatoxins varied across the AEZs, according to mean annual temperature (P < 0.05) of the AEZs. Samples from the lower Shire AEZ (median = 20.8 µg/kg) had higher levels of aflatoxins (P < 0.05) than those from the other AEZs (median = 3.0 µg/kg). Additionally, the majority (75%) of the positive samples from the lower Shire AEZ had aflatoxin levels exceeding the EU regulatory limit (4 µg/kg), whereas 25%, 37%, and 39% of positive samples exceeded the threshold in the mid-elevation, Lake Shore and upper and middle Shire, and highlands AEZs, respectively. The lower Shire AEZ is characterised by higher mean temperatures throughout the year and low erratic rainfall. However, total fumonisins did not show significant variation across AEZs, but all positive samples exceeded 150 µg/kg, required for tolerable daily intake of 1.0 µg/kg body weight per day, established by the European Food Safety Authority Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain. Therefore, results of this study suggest that contamination of maize with aflatoxin responds to micro-climate more than with fumonisins. In addition, the data will be useful to public health policy-makers and stakeholders to articulate and implement monitoring and mitigation programs.
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Underreported Human Exposure to Mycotoxins: The Case of South Africa. Foods 2022; 11:foods11172714. [PMID: 36076897 PMCID: PMC9455755 DOI: 10.3390/foods11172714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Revised: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
South Africa (SA) is a leading exporter of maize in Africa. The commercial maize farming sector contributes to about 85% of the overall maize produced. More than 33% of South Africa’s population live in rural settlements, and their livelihoods depend entirely on subsistence farming. The subsistence farming system promotes fungal growth and mycotoxin production. This review aims to investigate the exposure levels of the rural population of South Africa to dietary mycotoxins contrary to several reports issued concerning the safety of South African maize. A systematic search was conducted using Google Scholar. Maize is a staple food in South Africa and consumption rates in rural and urban communities are different, for instance, intake may be 1–2 kg/person/day and 400 g/person/day, respectively. Commercial and subsistence maize farming techniques are different. There exist differences influencing the composition of mycotoxins in food commodities from both sectors. Depending on the levels of contamination, dietary exposure of South Africans to mycotoxins is evident in the high levels of fumonisins (FBs) that have been detected in SA home-grown maize. Other potential sources of exposure to mycotoxins, such as carryover effects from animal products and processed foods, were reviewed. The combined effects between FBs and aflatoxins (AFs) have been reported in humans/animals and should not be ignored, as sporadic breakouts of aflatoxicosis have been reported in South Africa. These reports are not a true representation of the entire country as reports from the subsistence-farming rural communities show high incidence of maize contaminated with both AFs and FBs. While commercial farmers and exporters have all the resources needed to perform laboratory analyses of maize products, the greater challenge in combatting mycotoxin exposure is encountered in rural communities with predominantly subsistence farming systems, where conventional food surveillance is lacking.
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Yli-Mattila T, Sundheim L. Fumonisins in African Countries. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14060419. [PMID: 35737080 PMCID: PMC9228379 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14060419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Revised: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Maize and other cereals are the commodities most contaminated with fumonisins. The maize acreage is increasing in Africa, and the maize harvest provides important foods for humans and feeds for domestic animals throughout the continent. In North Africa, high levels of fumonisins have been reported from Algeria and Morocco, while low levels have been detected in the rather few fumonisin analyses reported from Tunisia and Egypt. The West African countries Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ghana, and Nigeria all report high levels of fumonisin contamination of maize, while the few maize samples analysed in Togo contain low levels. In Eastern Africa, high levels of fumonisin contamination have been reported from the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. The samples analysed from Rwanda contained low levels of fumonisins. Analysis of maize from the Southern African countries Malawi, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe revealed high fumonisin levels, while low levels of fumonisins were detected in the few analyses of maize from Botswana and Mozambique.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tapani Yli-Mattila
- Molecular Plant Biology, Department of Life Technologies, University of Turku, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: 358-440560700
| | - Leif Sundheim
- Norwegian Institute for Bioeconomy Research, P.O. Box 115, N-1431 Ås, Norway;
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Research Progress on Fumonisin B1 Contamination and Toxicity: A Review. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26175238. [PMID: 34500671 PMCID: PMC8434385 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26175238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Revised: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Fumonisin B1 (FB1), belonging to the member of fumonisins, is one of the most toxic mycotoxins produced mainly by Fusarium proliferatum and Fusarium verticillioide. FB1 has caused extensive contamination worldwide, mainly in corn, rice, wheat, and their products, while it also poses a health risk and is toxic to animals and human. It has been shown to cause oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress, cellular autophagy, and apoptosis. This review focuses on the current stage of FB1 contamination, its toxic effects of acute toxicity, immunotoxicity, organ toxicity, and reproductive toxicity on animals and humans. The potential toxic mechanisms of FB1 are discussed. One of the main aims of the work is to provide a reliable reference strategy for understanding the occurrence and toxicity of FB1.
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Alberts J, Rheeder J, Gelderblom W, Shephard G, Burger HM. Rural Subsistence Maize Farming in South Africa: Risk Assessment and Intervention models for Reduction of Exposure to Fumonisin Mycotoxins. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11060334. [PMID: 31212811 PMCID: PMC6628387 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11060334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 04/27/2019] [Accepted: 05/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Maize is a staple crop in rural subsistence regions of southern Africa, is mainly produced for direct household consumption and is often contaminated with high levels of mycotoxins. Chronic exposure to mycotoxins is a risk factor for human diseases as it is implicated in the development of cancer, neural tube defects as well as stunting in children. Although authorities may set maximum levels, these regulations are not effective in subsistence farming communities. As maize is consumed in large quantities, exposure to mycotoxins will surpass safe levels even where the contamination levels are below the regulated maximum levels. It is clear that the lowering of exposure in these communities requires an integrated approach. Detailed understanding of agricultural practices, mycotoxin occurrence, climate change/weather patterns, human exposure and risk are warranted to guide adequate intervention programmes. Risk communication and creating awareness in affected communities are also critical. A range of biologically based products for control of mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in maize have been developed and commercialised. Application of these methods is limited due to a lack of infrastructure and resources. Other challenges regarding integration and sustainability of technological and community-based mycotoxin reduction strategies include (i) food security, and (ii) the traditional use of mouldy maize.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Alberts
- Mycotoxicology Research Group, Institute of Biomedical and Microbial Biotechnology, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Bellville 7535, South Africa.
| | - John Rheeder
- Mycotoxicology Research Group, Institute of Biomedical and Microbial Biotechnology, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Bellville 7535, South Africa.
| | - Wentzel Gelderblom
- Mycotoxicology Research Group, Institute of Biomedical and Microbial Biotechnology, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Bellville 7535, South Africa.
| | - Gordon Shephard
- Mycotoxicology Research Group, Institute of Biomedical and Microbial Biotechnology, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Bellville 7535, South Africa.
| | - Hester-Mari Burger
- Mycotoxicology Research Group, Institute of Biomedical and Microbial Biotechnology, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Bellville 7535, South Africa.
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Meyer H, Skhosana ZD, Motlanthe M, Louw W, Rohwer E. Long Term Monitoring (2014⁻2018) of Multi-Mycotoxins in South African Commercial Maize and Wheat with a Locally Developed and Validated LC-MS/MS Method. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11050271. [PMID: 31091836 PMCID: PMC6563230 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11050271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Revised: 05/10/2019] [Accepted: 05/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins occur worldwide in the major grains, and producers, traders and processors are all challenged to prevent serious health problems for consumers. The challenges originate with pre-harvest fungi infections in the grain fields, increased contamination during improper storage and, finally, the mycotoxin accumulation in commercial food and feed products. Little is known about the multi-mycotoxin occurrence in maize and wheat commercially produced in South Africa. This is the first comprehensive study that reports on the multi-mycotoxin occurrence in South African produced maize and wheat crops after harvest, over four production seasons, in all the production regions of the country. The study was made possible with the development of a fit-for-purpose, cost-effective LC-MS/MS multi-mycotoxin method, validated for 13 “regulated” mycotoxins. A low mycotoxin risk was found in South African produced wheat, with only deoxynivalenol (DON) in 12.5% of the 160 samples at levels well below the 2000 µg/kg South African (SA) regulatory level. It was concluded that aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is seldom present in South African produced commercial maize. The concentrations, regional variation and seasonal trends of deoxynivalenol and fumonisins, the two most prevalent mycotoxins, and of zearalenone (ZON), are reported for white and yellow maize in all the production provinces, based on the analytical results of 1400 maize samples. A threefold to eightfold increase in deoxynivalenol mean concentrations in white maize was observed in the main production regions in the fourth season, with 8.9% samples above 2000 µg/kg. A strong correlation was found between higher deoxynivalenol concentrations and the presence of 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15-ADON). The mean fumonisin concentrations were well below the 4000 µg/kg South African regulatory value. A possible shift in the incidence and severity of mycotoxigenic Fusarium spp. in the provinces must be investigated. The variations and trends highlight the importance of a continuous monitoring of multi-mycotoxins in South Africa along the grain value chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannalien Meyer
- The Southern African Grain Laboratory (SAGL), Grain Building-Agri Hub Office Park, 477 Witherite Street, The Willows, Pretoria 0040, South Africa.
| | - Zanele Diana Skhosana
- The Southern African Grain Laboratory (SAGL), Grain Building-Agri Hub Office Park, 477 Witherite Street, The Willows, Pretoria 0040, South Africa.
| | - Mamsy Motlanthe
- The Southern African Grain Laboratory (SAGL), Grain Building-Agri Hub Office Park, 477 Witherite Street, The Willows, Pretoria 0040, South Africa.
| | - Wiana Louw
- The Southern African Grain Laboratory (SAGL), Grain Building-Agri Hub Office Park, 477 Witherite Street, The Willows, Pretoria 0040, South Africa.
| | - Egmont Rohwer
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0028, South Africa.
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Lulamba TE, Stafford RA, Njobeh PB. A sub-Saharan African perspective on mycotoxins in beer - a review. JOURNAL OF THE INSTITUTE OF BREWING 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/jib.558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Tshikala Eddie Lulamba
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science; University of Johannesburg; Doornfontein Campus, CnrSiemert & Beit Streets, 2028 Johannesburg - New Doornfontein Johannesburg South Africa
| | - Robert A. Stafford
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science; University of Johannesburg; Doornfontein Campus, CnrSiemert & Beit Streets, 2028 Johannesburg - New Doornfontein Johannesburg South Africa
| | - Patrick Berka Njobeh
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science; University of Johannesburg; Doornfontein Campus, CnrSiemert & Beit Streets, 2028 Johannesburg - New Doornfontein Johannesburg South Africa
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12
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Gruber-Dorninger C, Jenkins T, Schatzmayr G. Multi-mycotoxin screening of feed and feed raw materials from Africa. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2018. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2017.2292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
As animal feed is prone to infestation with mycotoxin-producing fungi, mycotoxin contamination of feed should be monitored. Here, we report a multi-mycotoxin survey of feed samples from Africa. We determined the concentrations of aflatoxins, fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin, zearalenone and ochratoxin A in 1,045 samples of finished feed and feed raw materials (maize, maize silage, other cereals, etc.) from South Africa and 318 samples from Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, Senegal, Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria, Ghana, Namibia, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia and Madagascar. We compared the measured mycotoxin concentrations to regulatory limits or guidance values that are in effect in the European Union and analysed the co-occurrence of these mycotoxins. To determine the occurrence of other fungal secondary metabolites, a subset of the samples was analysed using a multi-analyte liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry-based method for the simultaneous detection of over 700 fungal metabolites. We found that 33.3% of maize samples and 54.4% of finished feed samples from Senegal, Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria, Ghana, Namibia, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania exceeded the European regulatory limit of 20 ng/g aflatoxins. The Fusarium mycotoxins zearalenone, fumonisins and deoxynivalenol were prevalent in all commodities from all countries, but concentrations were in most cases below European guidance values. Concentrations of deoxynivalenol and zearalenone were correlated. Several other Fusarium metabolites occurred frequently (e.g. moniliformin, beauvericin, aurofusarin) or in high concentrations (e.g. aurofusarin, fusaproliferin). Furthermore, high levels of diplodiatoxin were occasionally detected in samples from South Africa and the Alternaria metabolite tenuazonic acid was prevalent and reached high concentrations. In conclusion, aflatoxins frequently occurred in African feed samples in potentially unsafe concentrations. While Fusarium mycotoxins mostly occurred in concentrations below European guidance values, a correlation between deoxynivalenol and zearalenone concentrations suggests that toxicological interactions of these compounds deserve attention. Several less investigated fungal secondary metabolites occurred frequently or reached high concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - T. Jenkins
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - G. Schatzmayr
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria
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Eze U, Routledge M, Okonofua F, Huntriss J, Gong Y. Mycotoxin exposure and adverse reproductive health outcomes in Africa: a review. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2018. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2017.2261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
It is well established that mycotoxin exposure can have adverse effects on reproductive health resulting to poor reproductive potential. The most studied mycotoxin in relation to poor reproductive health in humans is aflatoxin, although fumonisins, trichothecenes and zearalenone have also been reported to impair reproductive function and cause abnormal foetal development. These potent fungal toxins contaminate many food products making them a prominent agricultural, food safety and public health challenge, especially in Africa due to little or lack of mycotoxin regulation in agricultural products. Neonates can be exposed to aflatoxins in utero, as the toxins pass from mother to the foetus through the placenta. This exposure may continue during breast feeding, to the introduction of weaning foods, and then foods taken by adults. The consequences of aflatoxin exposure in mothers, foetus and children are many, including anaemia in pregnancy, low birth weight, interference with nutrient absorption, suppression of immune function, child growth retardation and abnormal liver function. In males, reports have indicated a possible relationship between aflatoxin exposure and poor sperm quality culminating in infertility. Maternal exposure to fumonisin during early pregnancy has been associated with increased risk of neural tube defects among newborns in regions where maize is the common dietary staple with the possibility of chronic fumonisin exposure. Furthermore, zearalenone has been linked to precocious puberty and premature thelarche in girls, correlating with extremely high serum oestrogen levels. This review presents an overview of the several reports linking aflatoxins, fumonisins, trichothecenes, and zearalenone exposure to poor reproductive health outcomes in Africa, with emphasis on birth outcomes, foetal health and infertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- U.A. Eze
- School of Food Science and Nutrition, Food Science Building, University of Leeds, Woodhouse Ln, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ebonyi State University, P.M.B. 053, Abakaliki, Nigeria
- Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Leeds, Woodhouse Ln, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - M.N. Routledge
- Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Leeds, Woodhouse Ln, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - F.E. Okonofua
- University of Medical Sciences, Ondo Medical Village, Laje Road, Ondo, Nigeria
- Centre of Excellence in Reproductive Health Innovation [CERHI], University of Benin, P.M.B 1154, Benin City, Nigeria
| | - J. Huntriss
- Division of Reproduction and Early Development, Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Leeds, Woodhouse Ln, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - Y.Y. Gong
- School of Food Science and Nutrition, Food Science Building, University of Leeds, Woodhouse Ln, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
- Department of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Ministry of Health, 7 Panjiayuan Nanli, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100021, China P.R
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14
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Ezekiel CN, Ayeni KI, Misihairabgwi JM, Somorin YM, Chibuzor-Onyema IE, Oyedele OA, Abia WA, Sulyok M, Shephard GS, Krska R. Traditionally Processed Beverages in Africa: A Review of the Mycotoxin Occurrence Patterns and Exposure Assessment. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2018; 17:334-351. [DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2017] [Revised: 11/23/2017] [Accepted: 11/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chibundu N. Ezekiel
- Dept. of Microbiology; Babcock Univ.; Ilishan Remo Ogun State Nigeria
- Dept. of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Center for Analytical Chemistry; Univ. of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU); Konrad Lorenzstr. 20 A-3430 Tulln Austria
| | - Kolawole I. Ayeni
- Dept. of Microbiology; Babcock Univ.; Ilishan Remo Ogun State Nigeria
| | - Jane M. Misihairabgwi
- Dept. of Biochemistry and Microbiology, School of Medicine; Univ. of Namibia; P. Bag 13301 Windhoek Namibia
| | - Yinka M. Somorin
- Microbiology, School of Natural Sciences; Natl. Univ. of Ireland; Galway Ireland
| | | | | | - Wilfred A. Abia
- School of Toxicology, Occupational Health/Safety and Risk Assessment, COSET; Inst. for Management and Professional Training (IMPT); Yaounde Cameroon
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Dept. of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Center for Analytical Chemistry; Univ. of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU); Konrad Lorenzstr. 20 A-3430 Tulln Austria
| | - Gordon S. Shephard
- Mycotoxicology and Chemoprevention Research Group, Inst. of Biomedical and Microbial Biotechnology; Cape Peninsula Univ. of Technology; PO Box 1906 Bellville 7535 South Africa
| | - Rudolf Krska
- Dept. of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Center for Analytical Chemistry; Univ. of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU); Konrad Lorenzstr. 20 A-3430 Tulln Austria
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15
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Getachew A, Chala A, Hofgaard IS, Brurberg MB, Sulyok M, Tronsmo AM. Multimycotoxin and fungal analysis of maize grains from south and southwestern Ethiopia. FOOD ADDITIVES & CONTAMINANTS PART B-SURVEILLANCE 2017; 11:64-74. [DOI: 10.1080/19393210.2017.1408698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alemayehu Getachew
- College of Agriculture, Hawassa University, Hawassa, Ethiopia
- Department of Plant Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Alemayehu Chala
- College of Agriculture, Hawassa University, Hawassa, Ethiopia
| | - Ingerd Skow Hofgaard
- Division of Biotechnology and Plant Health, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), Ås, Norway
| | - May Bente Brurberg
- Department of Plant Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
- Division of Biotechnology and Plant Health, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), Ås, Norway
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Tulln, Austria
| | - Anne-Marte Tronsmo
- Department of Plant Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
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16
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Valmorbida R, Savi GD, Silva JR, Yanez MMO, Soares CES, Runtzel C, Nascimento PN, Scussel VM. Quality and safety of maize (Zea mays L.) from Rondônia state storage units, Northern Brazil. FOOD ADDITIVES & CONTAMINANTS PART B-SURVEILLANCE 2017; 11:54-63. [PMID: 29145779 DOI: 10.1080/19393210.2017.1403967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The quality and safety of maize (Zea mays L.) from different grain storage units (GSUs), located in the main producing region of Rondônia State, Northern Brazil, were evaluated. Maize grains (n = 76) stored in four GSUs were collected from July to November 2014 and evaluated for grain damages, humidity, fungi and fumonisins (FBs) content. The climate conditions data were also obtained from plant growing to storage periods. Regarding the moisture content and water activity (aw), these varied from 10.0% to 16.1% and 0.5 to 0.8, respectively. As expected, fungi spores were present in 94.8% of the samples, prevailing Fusarium genera, with a fungi colony maximum of 2.2 × 104 CFU g-1. Regarding FBs, 60.5% of the samples were contaminated, below Brazilian and United States maximum limits, but 9.2% had levels higher than the European legislation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Valmorbida
- a Laboratory of Mycotoxicology and Food Contaminants, Food Science and Technology Department , Center of Agricultural Science, Federal University of Santa Catarina , Florianopolis , Brazil
| | - Geovana D Savi
- a Laboratory of Mycotoxicology and Food Contaminants, Food Science and Technology Department , Center of Agricultural Science, Federal University of Santa Catarina , Florianopolis , Brazil
| | - Juliana R Silva
- a Laboratory of Mycotoxicology and Food Contaminants, Food Science and Technology Department , Center of Agricultural Science, Federal University of Santa Catarina , Florianopolis , Brazil
| | - Monica M O Yanez
- a Laboratory of Mycotoxicology and Food Contaminants, Food Science and Technology Department , Center of Agricultural Science, Federal University of Santa Catarina , Florianopolis , Brazil
| | - Carlos E S Soares
- a Laboratory of Mycotoxicology and Food Contaminants, Food Science and Technology Department , Center of Agricultural Science, Federal University of Santa Catarina , Florianopolis , Brazil
| | - Cristina Runtzel
- a Laboratory of Mycotoxicology and Food Contaminants, Food Science and Technology Department , Center of Agricultural Science, Federal University of Santa Catarina , Florianopolis , Brazil
| | | | - Vildes M Scussel
- a Laboratory of Mycotoxicology and Food Contaminants, Food Science and Technology Department , Center of Agricultural Science, Federal University of Santa Catarina , Florianopolis , Brazil
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17
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Zabalgogeazcoa I, Alvarez A, Herrero N, Vazquez-de-Aldana BR. Production of fumonisins by endophytic strains of Tolypocladium cylindrosporum and its relation to fungal virus infection. Mycotoxin Res 2017; 34:49-57. [PMID: 29143925 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-017-0298-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Revised: 10/30/2017] [Accepted: 11/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Fumonisins were first discovered in Fusarium verticillioides, a fungus associated to disease and asymptomatic infections in maize. Afterwards, other fungal taxa have been found to produce fumonisins. The entomopathogenic ascomycete Tolypocladium cylindrosporum has been isolated from soil and also as an endophyte from leaves of grasses. The objectives of this work were to determine the in vitro production of fumonisin B (FB) mycotoxins and the immunosuppressive compound cyclosporine A (CyA) in several strains of T. cylindrosporum, and to examine the effect of fungal virus infection and temperature in FB production. FB1 was detected in 30% of the strains, ranging from 0.16 to 5.52 μg cm-2 in solid media, and FB2 was detected in 78% of the strains, ranging from 0.764 to 40.92 μg cm-2. CyA was not detected in any strain. The mean FB2 concentration of the endophytic strain Tc37W was three times greater (p < 0.05) than that of any other strain. Up to 34% more of FB2 was detected in strains infected by the virus TcV3 than in the corresponding virus-free versions. The effect of temperature on FB2 content was interactively significantly dependent on fungal strain and growth medium; in the YES medium, the FB2 of virus-infected strains Tc37-1V and Tc37W increased by 67 and 16%, respectively, at 26 °C as compared to 20 °C. The FB concentration in some fungal strains was similar to that in fungi associated to food and feed intoxications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iñigo Zabalgogeazcoa
- Institute of Natural Resources and Agrobiology of Salamanca (IRNASA-CSIC), Cordel de Merinas 40-52, 37008, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Amador Alvarez
- Institute of Natural Resources and Agrobiology of Salamanca (IRNASA-CSIC), Cordel de Merinas 40-52, 37008, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Noemi Herrero
- Institute of Natural Resources and Agrobiology of Salamanca (IRNASA-CSIC), Cordel de Merinas 40-52, 37008, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Beatriz R Vazquez-de-Aldana
- Institute of Natural Resources and Agrobiology of Salamanca (IRNASA-CSIC), Cordel de Merinas 40-52, 37008, Salamanca, Spain.
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18
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Misihairabgwi JM, Ezekiel CN, Sulyok M, Shephard GS, Krska R. Mycotoxin contamination of foods in Southern Africa: A 10-year review (2007-2016). Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2017; 59:43-58. [PMID: 28799776 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2017.1357003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Major staple foods in Southern Africa are prone to mycotoxin contamination, posing health risks to consumers and consequent economic losses. Regional climatic zones favor the growth of one or more main mycotoxin producing fungi, Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium. Aflatoxin contamination is mainly reported in maize, peanuts and their products, fumonisin contamination in maize and maize products and patulin in apple juice. Lack of awareness of occurrence and risks of mycotoxins, poor agricultural practices and undiversified diets predispose populations to dietary mycotoxin exposure. Due to a scarcity of reports in Southern Africa, reviews on mycotoxin contamination of foods in Africa have mainly focused on Central, Eastern and Western Africa. However, over the last decade, a substantial number of reports of dietary mycotoxins in South Africa have been documented, with fewer reports documented in Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Despite the reported high dietary levels of mycotoxins, legislation for their control is absent in most countries in the region. This review presents an up-to-date documentation of the epidemiology of mycotoxins in agricultural food commodities and discusses the implications on public health, current and recommended mitigation strategies, legislation, and challenges of mycotoxin research in Southern Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Misihairabgwi
- a Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, School of Medicine , University of Namibia , Windhoek, Namibia. P. Bag 13301, Windhoek , Namibia
| | - C N Ezekiel
- b Department of Microbiology , Babcock University, Ilishan Remo , Ogun State , Nigeria
| | - M Sulyok
- c Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln) , University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU) , Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, Tulln , Austria
| | - G S Shephard
- d Mycotoxicology and Chemoprevention Research Group, Institute of Biomedical and Microbial Biotechnology , Cape Peninsula University of Technology , PO Box 1906, Bellville , South Africa
| | - R Krska
- c Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln) , University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU) , Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, Tulln , Austria
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