Neonatal Fc receptor expression in macrophages is indispensable for IgG homeostasis

Physiologically-based pharmacokinetic modeling to predict the exposure and provide dosage regimens of Ustekinumab in pediatric patients with inflammatory bowel disease

Ustekinumab (UST), a fully human immunoglobulin G1 κ monoclonal antibody, exhibiting high affinity for the p40 subunit shared by IL-12 and IL-23, which play key roles in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). By scaling the physiologically-based pharmacokinetic modeling (PBPK) model of UST in adult patients with IBD, we aim to predict effective dosages for UST in pediatric patients, thereby offering a more practical dosing regimen for real-world applications. In this work, a PBPK model for UST in adult patients with IBD has been developed using PK-Sim and Mobi. Advanced ontogeny model has been incorporated to extrapolate the model to pediatric patients. The simulation results showed that the fold errors of the predicted and observed values of the area under the curve (AUC) and peak plasma concentration (Cmax) were between 0.79 and 1.73. For children aged 6-18, it is recommended to administer the drug per kilogram of body weight, at the model-recommended dose, to achieve a median AUC similar to that of the adult reference population post-administration. This comprehensive model construction enables us to comprehensively and extensively explore the pharmacokinetic characteristics of UST in pediatric patients of different age groups, providing robust support for clinical applications and personalized drug therapy.

Differential effects of FcRn antagonists on the subcellular trafficking of FcRn and albumin

The homeostasis of IgG is maintained by the neonatal Fc receptor, FcRn. Consequently, antagonism of FcRn to reduce endogenous IgG levels is an emerging strategy for treating antibody-mediated autoimmune disorders using either FcRn-specific antibodies or an engineered Fc fragment. For certain FcRn-specific antibodies, this approach has resulted in reductions in the levels of serum albumin, the other major ligand transported by FcRn. Cellular and molecular analyses of a panel of FcRn antagonists have been carried out to elucidate the mechanisms leading to their differential effects on albumin homeostasis. These analyses have identified 2 processes underlying decreases in albumin levels during FcRn blockade: increased degradation of FcRn and competition between antagonist and albumin for FcRn binding. These findings have potential implications for the design of drugs to modulate FcRn function.

IgG is an aging factor that drives adipose tissue fibrosis and metabolic decline

Aging is underpinned by pronounced metabolic decline; however, the drivers remain obscure. Here, we report that IgG accumulates during aging, particularly in white adipose tissue (WAT), to impair adipose tissue function and metabolic health. Caloric restriction (CR) decreases IgG accumulation in WAT, whereas replenishing IgG counteracts CR's metabolic benefits. IgG activates macrophages via Ras signaling and consequently induces fibrosis in WAT through the TGF-β/SMAD pathway. Consistently, B cell null mice are protected from aging-associated WAT fibrosis, inflammation, and insulin resistance, unless exposed to IgG. Conditional ablation of the IgG recycling receptor, neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn), in macrophages prevents IgG accumulation in aging, resulting in prolonged healthspan and lifespan. Further, targeting FcRn by antisense oligonucleotide restores WAT integrity and metabolic health in aged mice. These findings pinpoint IgG as a hidden culprit in aging and enlighten a novel strategy to rejuvenate metabolic health.

IL-6-mediated endothelial injury impairs antiviral humoral immunity after bone marrow transplantation

Endothelial function and integrity are compromised after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation (BMT), but how this affects immune responses broadly remains unknown. Using a preclinical model of CMV reactivation after BMT, we found compromised antiviral humoral responses induced by IL-6 signaling. IL-6 signaling in T cells maintained Th1 cells, resulting in sustained IFN-γ secretion, which promoted endothelial cell (EC) injury, loss of the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) responsible for IgG recycling, and rapid IgG loss. T cell-specific deletion of IL-6R led to persistence of recipient-derived, CMV-specific IgG and inhibited CMV reactivation. Deletion of IFN-γ in donor T cells also eliminated EC injury and FcRn loss. In a phase III clinical trial, blockade of IL-6R with tocilizumab promoted CMV-specific IgG persistence and significantly attenuated early HCMV reactivation. In sum, IL-6 invoked IFN-γ-dependent EC injury and consequent IgG loss, leading to CMV reactivation. Hence, cytokine inhibition represents a logical strategy to prevent endothelial injury, thereby preserving humoral immunity after immunotherapy.

Antibody Drug Clearance: An Underexplored Marker of Outcomes with Checkpoint Inhibitors

Immune-checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapy has dramatically changed the clinical landscape for several cancers, and ICI use continues to expand across many cancer types. Low baseline clearance (CL) and/or a large reduction of CL during treatment correlates with better clinical response and longer survival. Similar phenomena have also been reported with other monoclonal antibodies (mAb) in cancer and other diseases, highlighting a characteristic of mAb clinical pharmacology that is potentially shared among various mAbs and diseases. Though tempting to attribute poor outcomes to low drug exposure and arguably low target engagement due to high CL, such speculation is not supported by the relatively flat exposure-response relationship of most ICIs, where a higher dose or exposure is not likely to provide additional benefit. Instead, an elevated and/or increasing CL could be a surrogate marker of the inherent resistant phenotype that cannot be reversed by maximizing drug exposure. The mechanisms connecting ICI clearance, therapeutic efficacy, and resistance are unclear and likely to be multifactorial. Therefore, to explore the potential of ICI CL as an early marker for efficacy, this review highlights the similarities and differences of CL characteristics and CL-response relationships for all FDA-approved ICIs, and we compare and contrast these to selected non-ICI mAbs. We also discuss underlying mechanisms that potentially link mAb CL with efficacy and highlight existing knowledge gaps and future directions where more clinical and preclinical investigations are warranted to clearly understand the value of baseline and/or time-varying CL in predicting response to ICI-based therapeutics.

FcRY is a key molecule controlling maternal blood IgY transfer to yolks during egg development in avian species

Maternal immunoglobulin transfer plays a key role in conferring passive immunity to neonates. Maternal blood immunoglobulin Y (IgY) in avian species is transported to newly-hatched chicks in two steps: 1) IgY is transported from the maternal circulation to the yolk of maturing oocytes, 2) the IgY deposited in yolk is transported to the circulation of the embryo via the yolk sac membrane. An IgY-Fc receptor, FcRY, is involved in the second step, but the mechanism of the first step is still unclear. We determined whether FcRY was also the basis for maternal blood IgY transfer to the yolk in the first step during egg development. Immunohistochemistry revealed that FcRY was expressed in the capillary endothelial cells in the internal theca layer of the ovarian follicle. Substitution of the amino acid residue in Fc region of IgY substantially changed the transport efficiency of IgY into egg yolks when intravenously-injected into laying quail; the G365A mutant had a high transport efficiency, but the Y363A mutant lacked transport ability. Binding analyses of IgY mutants to FcRY indicated that the mutant with a high transport efficiency (G365A) had a strong binding activity to FcRY; the mutants with a low transport efficiency (G365D, N408A) had a weak binding activity to FcRY. One exception, the Y363A mutant had a remarkably strong binding affinity to FcRY, with a small dissociation rate. The injection of neutralizing FcRY antibodies in laying quail markedly reduced IgY uptake into egg yolks. The neutralization also showed that FcRY was engaged in prolongation of half-life of IgY in the blood; FcRY is therefore a multifunctional receptor that controls avian immunity. The pattern of the transport of the IgY mutants from the maternal blood to the egg yolk was found to be identical to that from the fertilized egg yolk to the newly-hatched chick blood circulation, via the yolk sac membrane. FcRY is therefore a critical IgY receptor that regulates the IgY uptake from the maternal blood circulation into the yolk of avian species, further indicating that the two steps of maternal-newly-hatched IgY transfer are controlled by a single receptor.

Reducing neonatal Fc receptor binding enhances clearance and brain-to-blood ratio of TfR-delivered bispecific amyloid-β antibody

Recent development of amyloid-β (Aβ)-targeted immunotherapies for Alzheimer's disease (AD) have highlighted the need for accurate diagnostic methods. Antibody-based positron emission tomography (PET) ligands are well suited for this purpose as they can be directed toward the same target as the therapeutic antibody. Bispecific, brain-penetrating antibodies can achieve sufficient brain concentrations, but their slow blood clearance remains a challenge, since it prolongs the time required to achieve a target-specific PET signal. Here, two antibodies were designed based on the Aβ antibody bapineuzumab (Bapi) - one monospecific IgG (Bapi) and one bispecific antibody with an antigen binding fragment (Fab) of the transferrin receptor (TfR) antibody 8D3 fused to one of the heavy chains (Bapi-Fab8D3) for active, TfR-mediated transport into the brain. A variant of each antibody was designed to harbor a mutation to the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) binding domain, to increase clearance. Blood and brain pharmacokinetics of radiolabeled antibodies were studied in wildtype (WT) and AD mice (AppNL-G-F). The FcRn mutation substantially reduced blood half-life of both Bapi and Bapi-Fab8D3. Bapi-Fab8D3 showed high brain uptake and the brain-to-blood ratio of its FcRn mutated form was significantly higher in AppNL-G-F mice than in WT mice 12 h after injection and increased further up to 168 h. Ex vivo autoradiography showed specific antibody retention in areas with abundant Aβ pathology. Taken together, these results suggest that reducing FcRn binding of a full-sized bispecific antibody increases the systemic elimination and could thereby drastically reduce the time from injection to in vivo imaging.

Decoupling FcRn and tumor contributions to elevated immune checkpoint inhibitor clearance in cancer cachexia

High baseline clearance of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), independent of dose or systemic exposure, is associated with cachexia and poor outcomes in cancer patients. Mechanisms linking ICI clearance, cachexia and ICI therapy failure are unknown. Here, we evaluate in four murine models and across multiple antibodies whether altered baseline catabolic clearance of administered antibody requires a tumor and/or cachexia and whether medical reversal of cachexia phenotype can alleviate altered clearance. Key findings include mild cachexia phenotype and lack of elevated pembrolizumab clearance in the MC38 tumor-bearing model. We also observed severe cachexia and decreased, instead of increased, baseline pembrolizumab clearance in the tumor-free cisplatin-induced cachexia model. Liver Fcgrt expression correlated with altered baseline catabolic clearance, though elevated clearance was still observed with antibodies having no (human IgA) or reduced (human H310Q IgG1) FcRn binding. We conclude cachexia phenotype coincides with altered antibody clearance, though tumor presence is neither sufficient nor necessary for altered clearance in immunocompetent mice. Magnitude and direction of clearance alteration correlated with hepatic Fcgrt, suggesting changes in FcRn expression and/or recycling function may be partially responsible, though factors beyond FcRn also contribute to altered clearance in cachexia.

The endosomal system of primary human vascular endothelial cells and albumin-FcRn trafficking

Human serum albumin (HSA) has a long circulatory half-life owing, in part, to interaction with the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn or FCGRT) in acidic endosomes and recycling of internalised albumin. Vascular endothelial and innate immune cells are considered the most relevant cells for FcRn-mediated albumin homeostasis in vivo. However, little is known about endocytic trafficking of FcRn-albumin complexes in primary human endothelial cells. To investigate FcRn-albumin trafficking in physiologically relevant endothelial cells, we generated primary human vascular endothelial cell lines from blood endothelial precursors, known as blood outgrowth endothelial cells (BOECs). We mapped the endosomal system in BOECs and showed that BOECs efficiently internalise fluorescently labelled HSA predominantly by fluid-phase macropinocytosis. Pulse-chase studies revealed that intracellular HSA molecules co-localised with FcRn in acidic endosomal structures and that the wildtype HSA, but not the non-FcRn-binding HSAH464Q mutant, was excluded from late endosomes and/or lysosomes. Live imaging revealed that HSA is partitioned into FcRn-positive tubules derived from maturing macropinosomes, which are then transported towards the plasma membrane. These findings identify the FcRn-albumin trafficking pathway in primary vascular endothelial cells, relevant to albumin homeostasis.

IgG sialylation occurs via the FcRn-mediated recycling pathway in endothelial cells

IgG is a key mediator of immune responses throughout the human body, and the structure of the conserved glycan on the Fc region has been identified as a key inflammatory switch regulating its downstream effects. In particular, the absence of terminal sialic acid has been shown to increase the affinity of IgG for activating Fc receptors, cascading the inflammatory response in a variety of diseases and conditions. Previously, we have shown that IgG sialylation is mediated by B cell-extrinsic processes. Here, we show that the FcRn-mediated recycling pathway within endothelial cells is a critical modulator of IgG sialylation. Building a deeper understanding of how IgG sialylation is regulated will drive the development of novel therapeutics which dynamically tune IgG functionality in vivo.

The therapeutic age of the neonatal Fc receptor

IgGs are essential soluble components of the adaptive immune response that evolved to protect the body from infection. Compared with other immunoglobulins, the role of IgGs is distinguished and enhanced by their high circulating levels, long half-life and ability to transfer from mother to offspring, properties that are conferred by interactions with neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn). FcRn binds to the Fc portion of IgGs in a pH-dependent manner and protects them from intracellular degradation. It also allows their transport across polarized cells that separate tissue compartments, such as the endothelium and epithelium. Further, it is becoming apparent that FcRn functions to potentiate cellular immune responses when IgGs, bound to their antigens, form IgG immune complexes. Besides the protective role of IgG, IgG autoantibodies are associated with numerous pathological conditions. As such, FcRn blockade is a novel and effective strategy to reduce circulating levels of pathogenic IgG autoantibodies and curtail IgG-mediated diseases, with several FcRn-blocking strategies on the path to therapeutic use. Here, we describe the current state of knowledge of FcRn-IgG immunobiology, with an emphasis on the functional and pathological aspects, and an overview of FcRn-targeted therapy development.

Toward systems-informed models for biologics disposition: covariates of the abundance of the neonatal Fc Receptor (FcRn) in human tissues and implications for pharmacokinetic modelling

Biologics are a fast-growing therapeutic class, with intertwined pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, affected by the abundance and function of the FcRn receptor. While many investigators assume adequacy of classical models, such as allometry, for pharmacokinetic characterization of biologics, advocates of physiologically-based pharmacokinetics (PBPK) propose consideration of known systems parameters that affect the fate of biologics to enable a priori predictions, which go beyond allometry. The aim of this study was to deploy a systems-informed modelling approach to predict the disposition of Fc-containing biologics. We used global proteomics to quantify the FcRn receptor [p51 and β₂-microglobulin (B2M) subunits] in 167 samples of human tissue (liver, intestine, kidney and skin) and assessed covariates of its expression. FcRn p51 subunit was highest in liver relative to other tissues, and B2M was 1-2 orders of magnitude more abundant than FcRn p51 across all sets. There were no sex-related differences, while higher expression was confirmed in neonate liver compared with adult liver. Trends of expression in liver and kidney indicated a moderate effect of body mass index, which should be confirmed in a larger sample size. Expression of FcRn p51 subunit was approximately 2-fold lower in histologically normal liver tissue adjacent to cancer compared with healthy liver. FcRn mRNA in plasma-derived exosomes correlated moderately with protein abundance in matching liver tissue, opening the possibility of use as a potential clinical tool. Predicted effects of trends in FcRn abundance in healthy and disease (cancer and psoriasis) populations using trastuzumab and efalizumab PBPK models were in line with clinical observations, and global sensitivity analysis revealed endogenous IgG plasma concentration and tissue FcRn abundance as key systems parameters influencing exposure to Fc-conjugated biologics.

A pore-forming protein drives macropinocytosis to facilitate toad water maintaining

Maintaining water balance is a real challenge for amphibians in terrestrial environments. Our previous studies with toad Bombina maxima discovered a pore-forming protein and trefoil factor complex βγ-CAT, which is assembled under tight regulation depending on environmental cues. Here we report an unexpected role for βγ-CAT in toad water maintaining. Deletion of toad skin secretions, in which βγ-CAT is a major component, increased animal mortality under hypertonic stress. βγ-CAT was constitutively expressed in toad osmoregulatory organs, which was inducible under the variation of osmotic conditions. The protein induced and participated in macropinocytosis in vivo and in vitro. During extracellular hyperosmosis, βγ-CAT stimulated macropinocytosis to facilitate water import and enhanced exosomes release, which simultaneously regulated aquaporins distribution. Collectively, these findings uncovered that besides membrane integrated aquaporin, a secretory pore-forming protein can facilitate toad water maintaining via macropinocytosis induction and exocytosis modulation, especially in responses to osmotic stress.

In addition to membrane-integrated aquaporins, a novel secretory pore-forming protein, βγ-CAT, can facilitate toad water maintaining via macropinocytosis induction and exocytosis modulation, especially in responses to osmotic stress.

The neonatal Fc receptor expression during macrophage differentiation is related to autophagy

The neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) plays a central role in recycling and biodistributing immunoglobulin G. FcRn is also involved in many physiological immune functions as well as pathological immune responses in cancer or autoimmune diseases. Low levels of FcRn in tumor cells and the microenvironment is associated with poor prognosis in non-small cell lung cancers. Among cells that are present in the tumor microenvironment, macrophages express high levels of FcRn. Macrophages are involved in these pathophysiological contexts by their dual differentiation states of pro- or anti-inflammatory macrophages. However, variations in FcRn protein expression have not been described in macrophage subtypes. In this work, we studied FcRn expression in an in vitro model of pro- and anti-inflammatory macrophage differentiation. We demonstrated an inverse relation between FcRn protein and mRNA expression in macrophage populations. Autophagy, which is involved in protein degradation and acquisition of phagocytic function in macrophages, participated in regulating FcRn levels. Intravenous immunoglobulin protected FcRn against autophagosome degradation in anti-inflammatory macrophages. Our data demonstrate that autophagy participates in regulating FcRn expression in pro- and anti-inflammatory macrophages. This finding raises new questions concerning the regulation of FcRn in immune functions.

The Fab region of IgG impairs the internalization pathway of FcRn upon Fc engagement

Binding to the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) extends serum half-life of IgG, and antagonizing this interaction is a promising therapeutic approach in IgG-mediated autoimmune diseases. Fc-MST-HN, designed for enhanced FcRn binding capacity, has not been evaluated in the context of a full-length antibody, and the structural properties of the attached Fab regions might affect the FcRn-mediated intracellular trafficking pathway. Here we present a comprehensive comparative analysis of the IgG salvage pathway between two full-size IgG1 variants, containing wild type and MST-HN Fc fragments, and their Fc-only counterparts. We find no evidence of Fab-regions affecting FcRn binding in cell-free assays, however, cellular assays show impaired binding of full-size IgG to FcRn, which translates into improved intracellular FcRn occupancy and intracellular accumulation of Fc-MST-HN compared to full size IgG1-MST-HN. The crystal structure of Fc-MST-HN in complex with FcRn provides a plausible explanation why the Fab disrupts the interaction only in the context of membrane-associated FcRn. Importantly, we find that Fc-MST-HN outperforms full-size IgG1-MST-HN in reducing IgG levels in cynomolgus monkeys. Collectively, our findings identify the cellular membrane context as a critical factor in FcRn biology and therapeutic targeting.

SARS-CoV-2-Antikörper-Antwort auf die zweite COVID-19-Impfung bei neuromuskulären Patienten unter immunmodulierender Therapie

Einer erfolgreichen Impfung (adäquater Anstieg der Anti-S[Spike]-Protein-Antikörper) gegen SARS-CoV‑2 (engl. severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2) wird ein suffizienter Schutz gegen einen schweren Verlauf von COVID-19 (engl. coronavirus disease 2019) zugeschrieben. Bei Patient*innen mit chronisch-inflammatorischen Erkrankungen (engl. „chronic inflammatory diseases“ [CID]) und Immunsuppression ist der Impferfolg weiterhin im wissenschaftlichen Diskurs. Daher evaluierten wir bei Patient*innen mit einer neuromuskulären Erkrankung (NME), die zu regelmäßigen Infusionen von Immunglobulinen in unserer neurologischen Tagesklinik/Ambulanz vorstellig wurden, 2 Wochen nach vollständiger Immunisierung die Antikörpertiter gegen das S1 (S1-Untereinheit des Spike-Proteins) -Antigen von SARS-CoV‑2. Unsere Daten zeigen, dass Patient*innen mit einer chronischen autoimmunen NME und gleichzeitiger immunsuppressiver bzw. immunmodulierender Therapie nach einer Impfung sowohl mit einem mRNA- als auch mit einem Vektorimpfstoff eine Antikörperantwort aufwiesen. Im Vergleich zu gesunden Proband*innen zeigte sich eine vergleichbare Anzahl an Serokonversionen durch die Impfung. Eine Korrelation zwischen Immunglobulindosierung und Impfantwort sowie Infusionsintervall und Impfantwort ließ sich nicht feststellen. Demgegenüber zeigte jedoch insbesondere die Kombination aus Mycophenolatmofetil (MMF) und Prednisolon eine signifikante Reduktion der spezifischen Antikörpersynthese.

Biophysical differences in IgG1 Fc-based therapeutics relate to their cellular handling, interaction with FcRn and plasma half-life

Antibody-based therapeutics (ABTs) are used to treat a range of diseases. Most ABTs are either full-length IgG1 antibodies or fusions between for instance antigen (Ag)-binding receptor domains and the IgG1 Fc fragment. Interestingly, their plasma half-life varies considerably, which may relate to how they engage the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn). As such, there is a need for an in-depth understanding of how different features of ABTs affect FcRn-binding and transport behavior. Here, we report on how FcRn-engagement of the IgG1 Fc fragment compare to clinically relevant IgGs and receptor domain Fc fusions, binding to VEGF or TNF-α. The results reveal FcRn-dependent intracellular accumulation of the Fc, which is in line with shorter plasma half-life than that of full-length IgG1 in human FcRn-expressing mice. Receptor domain fusion to the Fc increases its half-life, but not to the extent of IgG1. This is mirrored by a reduced cellular recycling capacity of the Fc-fusions. In addition, binding of cognate Ag to ABTs show that complexes of similar size undergo cellular transport at different rates, which could be explained by the biophysical properties of each ABT. Thus, the study provides knowledge that should guide tailoring of ABTs regarding optimal cellular sorting and plasma half-life.

Analysis of clinically approved antibody-based therapeutics reveals different structural designs, such as full-length IgG1 or Fc-fusions, entail distinct biophysical properties that affect FcRn binding, intracellular transport and plasma half-life.

Clinical Significance of Serum Albumin and Implications of FcRn Inhibitor Treatment in IgG-Mediated Autoimmune Disorders

Serum albumin (SA), the most abundant soluble protein in the body, maintains plasma oncotic pressure and regulates the distribution of vascular fluid and has a range of other important functions. The goals of this review are to expand clinical knowledge regarding the functions of SA, elucidate effects of dysregulated SA concentration, and discuss the clinical relevance of hypoalbuminemia resulting from various diseases. We discuss potential repercussions of SA dysregulation on cholesterol levels, liver function, and other processes that rely on its homeostasis, as decreased SA concentration has been shown to be associated with increased risk for cardiovascular disease, hyperlipidemia, and mortality. We describe the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of SA, as well as its ability to bind and transport a plethora of endogenous and exogenous molecules. SA is the primary serum protein involved in binding and transport of drugs and as such has the potential to affect, or be affected by, certain medications. Of current relevance are antibody-based inhibitors of the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn), several of which are under clinical development to treat immunoglobulin G (IgG)-mediated autoimmune disorders; some have been shown to decrease SA concentration. FcRn acts as a homeostatic regulator of SA by rescuing it, as well as IgG, from intracellular degradation via a common cellular recycling mechanism. Greater clinical understanding of the multifunctional nature of SA and the potential clinical impact of decreased SA are needed; in particular, the potential for certain treatments to reduce SA concentration, which may affect efficacy and toxicity of medications and disease progression.

Deciphering albumin-directed drug delivery by imaging

Albumin is the most abundant plasma protein, exhibits extended circulating half-life, and its properties have long been exploited for diagnostics and therapies. Many drugs intrinsically bind albumin or have been designed to do so, yet questions remain about true rate limiting factors that govern albumin-based transport and their pharmacological impacts, particularly in advanced solid cancers. Imaging techniques have been central to quantifying - at a molecular and single-cell level - the impact of mechanisms such as phagocytic immune cell signaling, FcRn-mediated recycling, oncogene-driven macropinocytosis, and albumin-drug interactions on spatial albumin deposition and related pharmacology. Macroscopic imaging of albumin-binding probes quantifies vessel structure, permeability, and supports efficiently targeted molecular imaging. Albumin-based imaging in patients and animal disease models thus offers a strategy to understand mechanisms, guide drug development and personalize treatments.

Mathematical Models to Characterize the Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion of Protein Therapeutics

Therapeutic proteins (TPs) have ranked among the most important and fastest-growing classes of drugs in the clinic, yet the development of successful TPs is often limited by unsatisfactory efficacy. Understanding pharmacokinetic (PK) characteristics of TPs is key to achieving sufficient and prolonged exposure at the site of action, which is a prerequisite for eliciting desired pharmacological effects. PK modeling represents a powerful tool to investigate factors governing in vivo disposition of TPs. In this mini-review, we discuss many state-of-the-art models that recapitulate critical processes in each of the absorption, distribution, metabolism/catabolism, and excretion pathways of TPs, which can be integrated into the physiologically-based pharmacokinetic framework. Additionally, we provide our perspectives on current opportunities and challenges for evolving the PK models to accelerate the discovery and development of safe and efficacious TPs. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This minireview provides an overview of mechanistic pharmacokinetic (PK) models developed to characterize absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination (ADME) properties of therapeutic proteins (TPs), which can support model-informed discovery and development of TPs. As the next-generation of TPs with diverse physicochemical properties and mechanism-of-action are being developed rapidly, there is an urgent need to better understand the determinants for the ADME of TPs and evolve existing platform PK models to facilitate successful bench-to-bedside translation of these promising drug molecules.

Model-Based Assessment of the Contribution of Monocytes and Macrophages to the Pharmacokinetics of Monoclonal Antibodies

PURPOSE

We have hypothesized that a high concentration of circulating monocytes and macrophages may contribute to the fast weight-based clearance of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) in young children. Exploring this hypothesis, this work uses modeling to clarify the role of monocytes and macrophages in the elimination of mAbs.

METHODS

Leveraging pre-clinical data from mice, a minimal physiologically-based pharmacokinetic model was developed to characterize mAb uptake and FcRn-mediated recycling in circulating monocytes, macrophages, and endothelial cells. The model characterized IgG disposition in complex scenarios of site-specific FcRn deletion and variable endogenous IgG levels. Evaluation was performed for predicting IgG disposition with co-administration of high dose IVIG. A one-at-a-time sensitivity analysis quantified the role of relevant cellular parameters on IgG elimination in various scenarios.

RESULTS

The plasma AUC of mAbs was highly sensitive to endothelial cell parameters, but had near-nil sensitivity to monocyte and macrophage parameters, even in scenarios with 90% loss of FcRn expression/activity. In mice with normal FcRn expression, simulations suggest that less than 2% of an IV dose is eliminated in macrophages, while endothelial cells are predicted to dominate mAb elimination.

CONCLUSIONS

The model suggests that the role of monocytes and macrophages in IgG homeostasis includes extensive uptake and highly efficient FcRn-mediated protection, but not appreciable degradation when FcRn is present. Therefore, it is very unlikely that a high concentration of circulating monocytes can contribute to explaining the fast weight-based clearance of mAbs in very young children, even if FcRn expression/activity was 90% lower in children than in adults.

Endothelial p130cas confers resistance to anti-angiogenesis therapy

Anti-angiogenic therapies, such as anti-VEGF antibodies (AVAs), have shown promise in clinical settings. However, adaptive resistance to such therapies occurs frequently. We use orthotopic ovarian cancer models with AVA-adaptive resistance to investigate the underlying mechanisms. Genomic profiling of AVA-resistant tumors guides us to endothelial p130cas. We find that bevacizumab induces cleavage of VEGFR2 in endothelial cells by caspase-10 and that VEGFR2 fragments internalize into the nucleus and autophagosomes. Nuclear VEGFR2 and p130cas fragments, together with TNKS1BP1 (tankyrase-1-binding protein), initiate endothelial cell death. Blockade of autophagy in AVA-resistant endothelial cells retains VEGFR2 at the membrane with bevacizumab treatment. Targeting host p130cas with RGD (Arg-Gly-Asp)-tagged nanoparticles or genomic ablation of vascular p130cas in p130casflox/floxTie2Cre mice significantly extends the survival of mice with AVA-resistant ovarian tumors. Higher vascular p130cas is associated with shorter survival of individuals with ovarian cancer. Our findings identify opportunities for new strategies to overcome adaptive resistance to AVA therapy.

Ticks and antibodies: May parasite density and tick evasion influence the outcomes following immunization protocols?

Ticks are a major concern to human health and livestock worldwide, being responsible for economic losses that go beyond billions of US dollars per year. This scenario instigates the development of vaccines against these ectoparasites, emphasized by the fact that the main method of controlling ticks still relies on the use of acaricides, what increases costs and may affect the environment as well as human and animal health. The first commercial vaccines against ectoparasites were produced against the tick Rhipicephalus microplus and their efficacy were based on antibodies. Many additional attempts have been conducted to produce protective immune responses against ticks by immunization with specific antigens and the antibody response has usually been the main target of evaluation. But some controversy still populates the roles possibly performed by humoral responses in tick-mammalian host relationships. This review focuses on the analysis of specific aspects concerning antibodies and ticks, especially the influence of parasite density and evasion/modulation. The immunization trials already described against R. microplus were also compiled and analyzed based on the characteristics of the molecules tested, protocols of immunization and tick challenge. Within these issues, it is discussed if or when antibody levels can be directly correlated with the development of tick resistance, and whether anti-tick protective immune responses generated by infestations may become ineffective under a different tick density. Also, higher titers of antibodies can be correlated with protection or susceptibility to tick infestations, what may be altered following continuous or repeated infestations and differ greatly comparing hosts with distinct genetic backgrounds. Regarding evasion, ticks present a sophisticated mechanism for dealing with antibodies, including Immunoglobulin Binding Proteins (IGBPs), that capture, transport and inject them back into the host, while keeping their properties within the parasite. The comparison of immunization protocols shows a total of 22 molecules already tested in cattle vaccination trials against R. microplus, with the predominance of concealed and dual antigens as well as marked differences in tick challenge schemes. The presence of an antibody evasion apparatus and variable levels of tick resistance when facing different densities of parasites are concerns that should be considered when testing vaccine candidates. Ultimately, more refinement may be necessary to effectively design a cocktail vaccine with tick molecules, which may be needed to be altered and combined in non-competing immune contexts to be universally secure and protective.

Therapeutic antibodies - natural and pathological barriers and strategies to overcome them

Antibody-based therapeutics have become a major class of therapeutics with over 120 recombinant antibodies approved or under review in the EU or US. This therapeutic class has experienced a remarkable expansion with an expected acceleration in 2021-2022 due to the extraordinary global response to SARS-CoV2 pandemic and the public disclosure of over a hundred anti-SARS-CoV2 antibodies. Mainly delivered intravenously, alternative delivery routes have emerged to improve antibody therapeutic index and patient comfort. A major hurdle for antibody delivery and efficacy as well as the development of alternative administration routes, is to understand the different natural and pathological barriers that antibodies face as soon as they enter the body up to the moment they bind to their target antigen. In this review, we discuss the well-known and more under-investigated extracellular and cellular barriers faced by antibodies. We also discuss some of the strategies developed in the recent years to overcome these barriers and increase antibody delivery to its site of action. A better understanding of the biological barriers that antibodies have to face will allow the optimization of antibody delivery near its target. This opens the way to the development of improved therapy with less systemic side effects and increased patients' adherence to the treatment.

Prevention of diabetes-associated fibrosis: Strategies in FcRn-targeted nanosystems for oral drug delivery

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease with an elevated risk of micro- and macrovascular complications, such as fibrosis. To prevent diabetes-associated fibrosis, the symptomatology of diabetes must be controlled, which is commonly done by subcutaneous injection of antidiabetic peptides. To minimize the pain and distress associated with such injections, there is an urgent need for non-invasive oral transmucosal drug delivery strategies. However, orally administered peptide-based drugs are exposed to harsh conditions in the gastrointestinal tract and poorly cross the selective intestinal epithelium. Thus, targeting of drugs to receptors expressed in epithelial cells, such as the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn), may therefore enhance uptake and transport through mucosal barriers. This review compiles how in-depth studies of FcRn biology and engineering of receptor-binding molecules may pave the way for design of new classes of FcRn-targeted nanosystems. Tailored strategies may open new avenues for oral drug delivery and provide better treatment options for diabetes and, consequently, fibrosis prevention.

FcRn expression in cancer: Mechanistic basis and therapeutic opportunities

There is an urgent need to identify new cellular targets to expand the repertoire, potency and safety of cancer therapeutics. Neonatal Fc Receptor (FcRn)-driven cellular recycling plays a predominant role in the prolonged serum half-life of human serum albumin (HSA) and immunoglobulin G (IgG) exploited in long-acting cancer drug designs. FcRn-mediated HSA and IgG uptake in epithelial cells and dendritic cell antigen presentation offers new therapeutic opportunities beyond half-life extension. Altered FcRn expression in solid tumours accounting for HSA catabolism or recycling supports a role for FcRn in tumour metabolism and growth. This review addresses the mechanistic basis for different FcRn expression profiles observed in cancer and exploitation for targeted drug delivery. Furthermore, the review highlights FcRn-mediated immunosurveillance and immune therapy. FcRn offers a potential attractive cancer target but in-depth understanding of role and expression profiles during cancer pathogenesis is required for tailoring targeted drug designs.

Fusion of engineered albumin with factor IX Padua extends half-life and improves coagulant activity

The short half‐life of coagulation factor IX (FIX) for haemophilia B (HB) therapy has been prolonged through fusion with human serum albumin (HSA), which drives the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn)‐mediated recycling of the chimera. However, patients would greatly benefit from further FIX‐HSA half‐life extension. In the present study, we designed a FIX‐HSA variant through the engineering of both fusion partners. First, we developed a novel cleavable linker combining the two FIX activation sites, which resulted in improved HSA release. Second, insertion of the FIX R338L (Padua) substitution conferred hyperactive features (sevenfold higher specific activity) as for FIX Padua alone. Furthermore, we exploited an engineered HSA (QMP), which conferred enhanced human (h)FcRn binding [dissociation constant (K_D) 0·5 nM] over wild‐type FIX‐HSA (K_D 164·4 nM). In hFcRn transgenic mice, Padua‐QMP displayed a significantly prolonged half‐life (2·7 days, P < 0·0001) versus FIX‐HSA (1 day). Overall, we developed a novel FIX‐HSA protein with improved activity and extended half‐life. These combined properties may result in a prolonged functional profile above the therapeutic threshold, and thus in a potentially widened therapeutic window able to improve HB therapy. This rational engineering of both partners may pave the way for new fusion strategies for the design of engineered biotherapeutics.

The murine neonatal Fc receptor is required for transport of immunization-induced C. difficile-specific IgG to the gut and protection against disease but does not affect disease susceptibility

The pathology associated with C. difficile disease is caused in large part by TcdB, an intracellular bacterial toxin that inactivates small GTPases. Despite C. difficile causing an enteric disease, anti-toxin IgG is a clear correlate of protection against infection-associated pathology. Immunization with TcdB-based immunogens or passive transfer of monoclonal antibodies specific for the TcdB carboxy-terminal domain (CTD) confers protection following C. difficile infection. Whether the mechanism by which circulating IgG is delivered to the gut depends on specific receptor-mediated transport or is solely reflective of infection-induced damage to the gut remains unclear. Herein, we tested the hypothesis that neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) is required for delivery of systemic TcdB-specific IgG to the gut and protection against C. difficile-associated pathology. FcRn-expressing mice and FcRn-deficient littermates were immunized subcutaneously with Alhydrogel adjuvant-adsorbed CTD before challenge with live C. difficile spores. FcRn was required for delivery of systemic TcdB-specific IgG to the gut, and for vaccine-induced protection against C. difficile associated disease. The lack of FcRn expression had minimal effects on composition of the gut microbiome and did not affect susceptibility to C. difficile infection in non-immunized mice. In further experiments intraperitoneal injection FcRn-deficient mice with immune sera led to transport of protective IgG to the gut independently of infection confirming a reported method of bypassing the FcRn. Our results reveal an FcRn-dependent mechanism by which systemic immunization-induced IgG protects the gut during enteric C. difficile infection. These findings may be beneficial for targeting of C. difficile -specific IgG to the gut.

Association of IgG1 Antibody Clearance with FcγRIIA Polymorphism and Platelet Count in Infliximab-Treated Patients

The FcγRIIA/CD32A is mainly expressed on platelets, myeloid and several endothelial cells. Its affinity is considered insufficient for allowing significant binding of monomeric IgG, while its H131R polymorphism (histidine > arginine at position 131) influences affinity for multimeric IgG2. Platelet FcγRIIA has been reported to contribute to IgG-containing immune-complexe clearance. Given our finding that platelet FcγRIIA actually binds monomeric IgG, we investigated the role of platelets and FcγRIIA in IgG antibody elimination. We used pharmacokinetics analysis of infliximab (IgG1) in individuals with controlled Crohn’s disease. The influence of platelet count and FcγRIIA polymorphism was quantified by multivariate linear modelling. The infliximab half-life increased with R allele number (13.2, 14.4 and 15.6 days for HH, HR and RR patients, respectively). It decreased with increasing platelet count in R carriers: from ≈20 days (RR) and ≈17 days (HR) at 150 × 10⁹/L, respectively, to ≈13 days (both HR and RR) at 350 × 10⁹/L. Moreover, a flow cytometry assay showed that infliximab and monomeric IgG1 bound efficiently to platelet FcγRIIA H and R allotypes, whereas panitumumab and IgG2 bound poorly to the latter. We propose that infliximab (and presumably any IgG1 antibody) elimination is partly due to an unappreciated mechanism dependent on binding to platelet FcγRIIA, which is probably tuned by its affinity for IgG2.

In Translation: FcRn across the Therapeutic Spectrum

As an essential modulator of IgG disposition, the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) governs the pharmacokinetics and functions many therapeutic modalities. In this review, we thoroughly reexamine the hitherto elucidated biological and thermodynamic properties of FcRn to provide context for our assessment of more recent advances, which covers antigen-binding fragment (Fab) determinants of FcRn affinity, transgenic preclinical models, and FcRn targeting as an immune-complex (IC)-clearing strategy. We further comment on therapeutic antibodies authorized for treating SARS-CoV-2 (bamlanivimab, casirivimab, and imdevimab) and evaluate their potential to saturate FcRn-mediated recycling. Finally, we discuss modeling and simulation studies that probe the quantitative relationship between in vivo IgG persistence and in vitro FcRn binding, emphasizing the importance of endosomal transit parameters.

The neonatal Fc receptor in mucosal immune regulation

The neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) was first recognized for its role in transfer of maternal IgG to the foetus or newborn, providing passive immunity early in life. However, it has become clear that the receptor is versatile, widely expressed and plays an indispensable role in both immunological and non-immunological processes throughout life. The receptor rescues immunoglobulin G (IgG) and albumin from intracellular degradation and shuttles the ligands across polarized cell barriers, in all cases via a pH-dependent binding-and-release mechanism. These processes secure distribution and high levels of both IgG and albumin throughout the body. At mucosal sites, FcRn transports IgG across polarized epithelial cells where it retrieves IgG in complex with luminal antigens that is delivered to tissue-localized immune cells. In dendritic cells (DCs), FcRn orchestrates processing of IgG-opsonized immune complexes (ICs) in concert with classical Fcγ receptors, which results in antigen presentation and cross-presentation of antigenic peptides on MHC class II and I to CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, respectively. Hence, FcRn regulates transport of the ligands within and across different types of cells, but also processing of IgG-ICs by immune cells. As such, the receptor is involved in immune surveillance and protection against infections. In this brief review, we highlight how FcRn expressed by hematopoietic and non-hematopoietic cells contributes to immune regulation at mucosal barriers-biology that can be utilized in development of biologics and subunit vaccines for non-invasive delivery.

Selective Depletion of Antigen-Specific Antibodies for the Treatment of Demyelinating Disease

Current treatments for antibody-mediated autoimmunity are associated with lack of specificity, leading to immunosuppressive effects. To overcome this limitation, we have developed a class of antibody-based therapeutics for the treatment of autoimmunity involving antibodies that recognize the autoantigen, myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG). These agents ("Seldegs," for selective degradation) selectively eliminate antigen (MOG)-specific antibodies without affecting the levels of antibodies of other specificities. Seldeg treatment of mice during antibody-mediated exacerbation of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by patient-derived MOG-specific antibodies results in disease amelioration. Consistent with their therapeutic effects, Seldegs deliver their targeted antibodies to Kupffer and liver sinusoidal endothelial cells that are known to have tolerogenic effects. Our results show that Seldegs can ameliorate disease mediated by MOG-specific antibodies and indicate that this approach also has the potential to treat other autoimmune diseases where the specific clearance of antibodies is required.

V Region of IgG Controls the Molecular Properties of the Binding Site for Neonatal Fc Receptor

Neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) has a key role in the homeostasis of IgG. Despite its physiological and clinical importance, the interaction of IgG and FcRn remains not completely comprehended. Thus, IgG molecules with identical constant portions but with minor differences in their V regions have been demonstrated to interact with FcRn with a considerable heterogeneity in the binding affinity. To understand this discrepancy, we dissected the physicochemical mechanism of the interaction of 10 human IgG1 to human FcRn. The interactions of two Abs in the presence of their cognate Ags were also examined. Data from activation and equilibrium thermodynamics analyses as well as pH dependence of the kinetics revealed that the V region of IgG could modulate a degree of conformational changes and binding energy of noncovalent contacts at the FcRn binding interface. These results suggest that the V domains modulate FcRn binding site in Fc by allosteric effects. These findings contribute for a deeper understanding of the mechanism of IgG-FcRn interaction. They might also be of relevance for rational engineering of Abs for optimizing their pharmacokinetic properties.

How to use macrophages to realise the treatment of tumour

Macrophages (Mø) are immune cells with natural phagocytic ability and play an important role in tumorigenesis, development and metastasis. Mø play a dual role of tumour inhibition and tumour promotion in tumour development due to their two different phenotypes. Mø in the tumour microenvironment have long been referred to as tumour-associated Mø (TAMs). Mø are mainly involved in tumour resistance, cancer metastasis and mediating immunosuppression. Nowadays, Mø and Mø membranes have been widely used in drug delivery systems (DDSs) because of their good biocompatibility, natural phagocytosis and their important role in tumour development. In this review, from the perspective of Mø's role in tumour development, we present strategies and drugs of Mø targeting and focusing on the several types of biomimetic nanoparticles constructed by Mø and Mø membranes in tumour therapy, and discuss the problem of this delivery system in present research and future directions.

Relevance of the Materno-Fetal Interface for the Induction of Antigen-Specific Immune Tolerance

In humans, maternal IgGs are transferred to the fetus from the second trimester of pregnancy onwards. The transplacental delivery of maternal IgG is mediated by its binding to the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) after endocytosis by the syncytiotrophoblast. IgGs present in the maternal milk are also transferred to the newborn through the digestive epithelium upon binding to the FcRn. Importantly, the binding of IgGs to the FcRn is also responsible for the recycling of circulating IgGs that confers them with a long half-life. Maternally delivered IgG provides passive immunity to the newborn, for instance by conferring protective anti-flu or anti-pertussis toxin IgGs. It may, however, lead to the development of autoimmune manifestations when pathological autoantibodies from the mother cross the placenta and reach the circulation of the fetus. In recent years, strategies that exploit the transplacental delivery of antigen/IgG complexes or of Fc-fused proteins have been validated in mouse models of human diseases to impose antigen-specific tolerance, particularly in the case of Fc-fused factor VIII (FVIII) domains in hemophilia A mice or pre-pro-insulin (PPI) in the case of preclinical models of type 1 diabetes (T1D). The present review summarizes the mechanisms underlying the FcRn-mediated transcytosis of IgGs, the physiopathological relevance of this phenomenon, and the repercussion for drug delivery and shaping of the immune system during its ontogeny.

The neonatal Fc receptor in cancer FcRn in cancer

Since the neonatal IgG Fc receptor (FcRn) was discovered, it was found to be involved in immunoglobulin recycling and biodistribution, immune complexes routing, antigen presentation, humoral immune response, and cancer immunosurveillance. The latest data show that FcRn plays a part in cancer pathophysiology. In various types of cancers, such as lung and colorectal cancer, FcRn has been described as an early marker for prognosis. Dysregulation of FcRn expression by cancer cells allows them to increase their metabolism, and this process could be exploited for passive targeting of cytotoxic drugs. However, the roles of this receptor depend on whether the studied cell population is the tumor tissue or the infiltrating cells, bringing forward the need for further studies.

Blocking FcRn in humans reduces circulating IgG levels and inhibits IgG immune complex-mediated immune responses

The neonatal crystallizable fragment receptor (FcRn) functions as an intracellular protection receptor for immunoglobulin G (IgG). Recently, several clinical studies have reported the lowering of circulating monomeric IgG levels through FcRn blockade for the potential treatment of autoimmune diseases. Many autoimmune diseases, however, are derived from the effects of IgG immune complexes (ICs). We generated, characterized, and assessed the effects of SYNT001, a FcRn-blocking monoclonal antibody, in mice, nonhuman primates (NHPs), and humans. SYNT001 decreased all IgG subtypes and IgG ICs in the circulation of humans, as we show in a first-in-human phase 1, single ascending dose study. In addition, IgG IC induction of inflammatory pathways was dependent on FcRn and inhibited by SYNT001. These studies expand the role of FcRn in humans by showing that it controls not only IgG protection from catabolism but also inflammatory pathways associated with IgG ICs involved in a variety of autoimmune diseases.

The Neonatal Fc Receptor (FcRn): A Misnomer?

Antibodies are essential components of an adaptive immune response. Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is the most common type of antibody found in circulation and extracellular fluids. Although IgG alone can directly protect the body from infection through the activities of its antigen binding region, the majority of IgG immune functions are mediated via proteins and receptors expressed by specialized cell subsets that bind to the fragment crystallizable (Fc) region of IgG. Fc gamma (γ) receptors (FcγR) belong to a broad family of proteins that presently include classical membrane-bound surface receptors as well as atypical intracellular receptors and cytoplasmic glycoproteins. Among the atypical FcγRs, the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) has increasingly gained notoriety given its intimate influence on IgG biology and its ability to also bind to albumin. FcRn functions as a recycling or transcytosis receptor that is responsible for maintaining IgG and albumin in the circulation, and bidirectionally transporting these two ligands across polarized cellular barriers. More recently, it has been appreciated that FcRn acts as an immune receptor by interacting with and facilitating antigen presentation of peptides derived from IgG immune complexes (IC). Here we review FcRn biology and focus on newer advances including how emerging FcRn-targeted therapies may affect the immune responses to IgG and IgG IC.