Monitoring glycation levels of a bispecific monoclonal antibody at subunit level by ultrahigh-resolution MALDI FT-ICR mass spectrometry

Identification of heavily glycated proteoforms by hydrophilic-interaction liquid chromatography and native size-exclusion chromatography - High-resolution mass spectrometry

BACKGROUND

The non-enzymatic glycation of proteins and their advanced glycation end products (AGEs) are associated with protein transformations such as in the development of diseases and biopharmaceutical storage. The characterization of heavily glycated proteins at the intact level is of high interest as it allows to describe co-occurring protein modifications. However, the high heterogeneity of glycated protein makes this process challenging, and novel methods are required to accomplish this.

RESULTS

In this study, we investigated two novel LC-HRMS methods to study glycated reference proteins at the intact protein level: low-flow hydrophilic-interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC) and native size-exclusion chromatography (SEC). Model proteins were exposed to conditions that favored extensive glycation and the formation of AGEs. After glycation, complicated MS spectra were observed, along with a sharply reduced signal response, possibly due to protein denaturation and the formation of aggregates. When using HILIC-MS, the glycated forms of the proteins could be resolved based on the number of reducing monosaccharides. Moreover, some positional glycated isomers were separated. The SEC-MS method under non-denaturing conditions provided insights into glycated aggregates but offered only a limited separation of glycated species based on molar mass. Overall, more than 25 different types of species were observed in both methods, differing in molar mass by 14-162 Da. 19 of these species have not been previously reported.

SIGNIFICANCE

The proposed strategies show great potential to characterize highly glycated intact proteins from native and denaturing perspectives and provide new opportunities for fast clinical diagnoses and investigating glycation-related diseases.

Monitoring mAb proteoforms in mouse plasma using an automated immunocapture combined with top-down and middle-down mass spectrometry

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) have established themselves as the leading biopharmaceutical therapeutic modality. Once the developability of a mAb drug candidate has been assessed, an important step is to check its in vivo stability through pharmacokinetics (PK) studies. The gold standard is ligand-binding assay (LBA) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) performed at the peptide level (bottom-up approach). However, these analytical techniques do not allow to address the different mAb proteoforms that can arise from biotransformation. In recent years, top-down and middle-down mass spectrometry approaches have gained popularity to characterize proteins at the proteoform level but are not yet widely used for PK studies. We propose here a workflow based on an automated immunocapture followed by top-down and middle-down liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) approaches to characterize mAb proteoforms spiked in mouse plasma. We demonstrate the applicability of our workflow on a large concentration range using pembrolizumab as a model. We also compare the performance of two state-of-the-art Orbitrap platforms (Tribrid Eclipse and Exploris 480) for these studies. The added value of our workflow for an accurate and sensitive characterization of mAb proteoforms in mouse plasma is highlighted.

Evaluating the effect of glycation on lipase activity using boronate affinity chromatography and mass spectrometry

Protein glycation may occur naturally when reducing sugars and proteins coexist, which is often the case for industrial enzymes. The impact of post-translational modifications on enzyme performance (e.g., stability or function) is often not predictable, highlighting the importance of having appropriate analytical methodologies to monitor the influence of glycation on performance. Here, a boronate affinity chromatography method was developed to enrich glycated species followed by mass spectrometry for structural characterization and activity assays for functional assessment. This approach was applied to a (temperature-stressed) lipase used for food applications revealing that storage at -20 °C and 4 °C resulted in minor glycation (below 9%), whereas storage at 25 °C led to a higher glycation level with up to four sugars per lipase molecule. Remarkably, activity measurements revealed that glycation did not reduce lipase activity or stability. Altogether, this novel strategy is a helpful extension to the current analytical toolbox supporting development of enzyme products.

Revealing charge heterogeneity of stressed trastuzumab at the subunit level

Trastuzumab is known to be heterogeneous in terms of charge. Stressing trastuzumab under physiological conditions (pH 7.4 and 37 °C) increases charge heterogeneity further. Separation of charge variants of stressed trastuzumab at the intact protein level is challenging due to increasing complexity making it difficult to obtain pure charge variants for further characterization. Here we report an approach for revealing charge heterogeneity of stressed trastuzumab at the subunit level by pH gradient cation-exchange chromatography. Trastuzumab subunits were generated after limited proteolytic cleavage with papain, IdeS, and GingisKHAN®. The basic pI of Fab and F(ab)₂ fragments allowed to use the same pH gradient for intact protein and subunit level analysis. Baseline separation of Fab subunits was obtained after GingisKHAN® and papain digestion and the corresponding modifications were determined by LC-MS/MS peptide mapping and middle-down MALDI-ISD FT-ICR MS. The described approach allows a comprehensive charge variant analysis of therapeutic antibodies that have two or more modification sites in the Fab region.

Analytical Techniques for the Characterization and Quantification of Monoclonal Antibodies

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are a fast-growing class of biopharmaceuticals. They are widely used in the identification and detection of cell makers, serum analytes, and pathogenic agents, and are remarkably used for the cure of autoimmune diseases, infectious diseases, or malignancies. The successful application of therapeutic mAbs is based on their ability to precisely interact with their appropriate target sites. The precision of mAbs rely on the isolation techniques delivering pure, consistent, stable, and safe lots that can be used for analytical, diagnostic, or therapeutic applications. During the creation of a biologic, the key quality features of a particular mAb, such as structure, post-translational modifications, and activities at the biomolecular and cellular levels, must be characterized and profiled in great detail. This implies the requirement of powerful state of the art analytical techniques for quality control and characterization of mAbs. Until now, various analytical techniques have been developed to characterize and quantify the mAbs according to the regulatory guidelines. The present review summarizes the major techniques used for the analyses of mAbs which include chromatographic, electrophoretic, spectroscopic, and electrochemical methods in addition to the modifications in these methods for improving the quality of mAbs. This compilation of major analytical techniques will help students and researchers to have an overview of the methodologies employed by the biopharmaceutical industry for structural characterization of mAbs for eventual release of therapeutics in the drug market.

Characterization of high-molecular weight by-products in the production of a trivalent bispecific 2+1 heterodimeric antibody

The development of increasingly complex antibody formats, such as bispecifics, can lead to the formation of increasingly complex high- and low-molecular-weight by-products. Here, we focus on the characterization of high molecular weight species (HMWs) representing the highest complexity of size variants. Standard methods used for product release, such as size exclusion chromatography (SEC), can separate HMW by-products from the main product, but cannot distinguish smaller changes in mass. Here, for the identification of the diverse and complex HMW variants of a trivalent bispecific CrossMAb antibody, offline fractionation, as well as production of HMW by-products combined with comprehensive analytical testing, was applied. Furthermore, HMW variants were analyzed regarding their chemical binding nature and tested in functional assays regarding changes in potency of the variants. Changes in potency were explained by detailed characterization using mass photometry, SDS-PAGE analysis, native mass spectrometry (MS) coupled to SEC and bottom-up proteomics. We identified a major portion of the HMW by-products to be non-covalently linked, leading to dissociation and changes in activity. We also identified and localized high heterogeneity of a by-product of concern and applied a CD3 affinity column coupled to native MS to annotate unexpected by-products. We present here a multi-method approach for the characterization of complex HMW by-products. A better understanding of these by-products is beneficial to guide analytical method development and proper specification setting for therapeutic bispecific antibodies to ensure constant efficacy and patient safety of the product through the assessment of by-products.

Analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry: An update for 2019-2020

This review is the tenth update of the original article published in 1999 on the application of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometry to the analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates and brings coverage of the literature to the end of 2020. Also included are papers that describe methods appropriate to analysis by MALDI, such as sample preparation techniques, even though the ionization method is not MALDI. The review is basically divided into three sections: (1) general aspects such as theory of the MALDI process, matrices, derivatization, MALDI imaging, fragmentation, quantification and the use of arrays. (2) Applications to various structural types such as oligo- and polysaccharides, glycoproteins, glycolipids, glycosides and biopharmaceuticals, and (3) other areas such as medicine, industrial processes and glycan synthesis where MALDI is extensively used. Much of the material relating to applications is presented in tabular form. The reported work shows increasing use of incorporation of new techniques such as ion mobility and the enormous impact that MALDI imaging is having. MALDI, although invented nearly 40 years ago is still an ideal technique for carbohydrate analysis and advancements in the technique and range of applications show little sign of diminishing.

Seeing the complete picture: proteins in top-down mass spectrometry

Top-down protein mass spectrometry can provide unique insights into protein sequence and structure, including precise proteoform identification and study of protein–ligand and protein–protein interactions. In contrast with the commonly applied bottom-up approach, top-down approaches do not include digestion of the protein of interest into small peptides, but instead rely on the ionization and subsequent fragmentation of intact proteins. As such, it is fundamentally the only way to fully characterize the composition of a proteoform. Here, we provide an overview of how a top-down protein mass spectrometry experiment is performed and point out recent applications from the literature to the reader. While some parts of the top-down workflow are broadly applicable, different research questions are best addressed with specific experimental designs. The most important divide is between studies that prioritize sequence information (i.e., proteoform identification) versus structural information (e.g., conformational studies, or mapping protein–protein or protein–ligand interactions). Another important consideration is whether to work under native or denaturing solution conditions, and the overall complexity of the sample also needs to be taken into account, as it determines whether (chromatographic) separation is required prior to MS analysis. In this review, we aim to provide enough information to support both newcomers and more experienced readers in the decision process of how to answer a potential research question most efficiently and to provide an overview of the methods that exist to answer these questions.

Characterization of the Time-Domain Isotopic Beat Patterns of Monoclonal Antibodies in Fourier Transform Mass Spectrometry

The time-domain transients in the Fourier transform mass spectrometry (FTMS) analysis of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are known to exhibit characteristic isotopic beat patterns. These patterns are defined by the isotopic distributions of all gaseous mAb ions present in the FTMS mass analyzer, originating from single or multiple charge states, and from single or multiple proteoforms. For an isolated charge state of a single proteoform, the mAb isotopic beat pattern resembles narrow splashes of signal amplitude (beats), spaced periodically in the time-domain transient, with broad (often exceeding 1 s) "valleys" between them. Here, we reinforce the importance of isotopic beat patterns for the accurate interpretation and presentation of FTMS data in the analysis of mAbs and other large biopolymers. An updated, mAb-grade version of the transient-mediated FTMS data simulation and visualization tool, FTMS Simulator is introduced and benchmarked. We then apply this tool to evaluate the charge-state dependent characteristics of isotopic beats in mAbs analyses with modern models of Orbitrap and ion cyclotron resonance (ICR) FTMS instruments, including detection of higher-order harmonics. We demonstrate the impact of the isotopic beat patterns on the analytical characteristics of the resulting mass spectra of individual and overlapping mAb proteoforms. The results reported here detail highly nonlinear dependences of resolution and signal-to-noise ratio on the time-domain transient period, absorption or magnitude mode spectra representation, and apodization functions. The provided description and the demonstrated ability to routinely conduct accurate simulations of FTMS data for large biopolymers should aid the end-users of Orbitrap and ICR FTMS instruments in the analysis of mAbs and other biopolymers, including viruses.

MALDI-TOF-MS-Based Identification of Monoclonal Murine Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies within One Hour

During the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, many virus-binding monoclonal antibodies have been developed for clinical and diagnostic purposes. This underlines the importance of antibodies as universal bioanalytical reagents. However, little attention is given to the reproducibility crisis that scientific studies are still facing to date. In a recent study, not even half of all research antibodies mentioned in publications could be identified at all. This should spark more efforts in the search for practical solutions for the traceability of antibodies. For this purpose, we used 35 monoclonal antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 to demonstrate how sequence-independent antibody identification can be achieved by simple means applied to the protein. First, we examined the intact and light chain masses of the antibodies relative to the reference material NIST-mAb 8671. Already half of the antibodies could be identified based solely on these two parameters. In addition, we developed two complementary peptide mass fingerprinting methods with MALDI-TOF-MS that can be performed in 60 min and had a combined sequence coverage of over 80%. One method is based on the partial acidic hydrolysis of the protein by 5 mM of sulfuric acid at 99 °C. Furthermore, we established a fast way for a tryptic digest without an alkylation step. We were able to show that the distinction of clones is possible simply by a brief visual comparison of the mass spectra. In this work, two clones originating from the same immunization gave the same fingerprints. Later, a hybridoma sequencing confirmed the sequence identity of these sister clones. In order to automate the spectral comparison for larger libraries of antibodies, we developed the online software ABID 2.0. This open-source software determines the number of matching peptides in the fingerprint spectra. We propose that publications and other documents critically relying on monoclonal antibodies with unknown amino acid sequences should include at least one antibody fingerprint. By fingerprinting an antibody in question, its identity can be confirmed by comparison with a library spectrum at any time and context.

Glycan and Protein Analysis of Glycoengineered Bacterial E. coli Vaccines by MALDI-in-Source Decay FT-ICR Mass Spectrometry

Bacterial glycoconjugate vaccines have a major role in preventing microbial infections. Immunogenic bacterial glycans, such as O-antigen polysaccharides, can be recombinantly expressed and combined with specific carrier proteins to produce effective vaccines. O-Antigen polysaccharides are typically polydisperse, and carrier proteins can have multiple glycosylation sites. Consequently, recombinant glycoconjugate vaccines have a high structural heterogeneity, making their characterization challenging. Since development and quality control processes rely on such characterization, novel strategies are needed for faster and informative analysis. Here, we present a novel approach employing minimal sample preparation and ultrahigh-resolution mass spectrometry analysis for protein terminal sequencing and characterization of the oligosaccharide repeat units of bacterial glycoconjugate vaccines. Three glycoconjugate vaccine candidates, obtained from the bioconjugation of the O-antigen polysaccharides from E. coli serotypes O2, O6A, and O25B with the genetically detoxified exotoxin A from Pseudomonas aeruginosa, were analyzed by MALDI-in-source decay (ISD) FT-ICR MS. Protein and glycan ISD fragment ions were selectively detected using 1,5-diaminonaphtalene and a 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid/2-hydroxy-5-methoxybenzoic acid mixture (super-DHB) as a MALDI matrix, respectively. The analysis of protein fragments required the absence of salts in the samples, while the presence of salt was key for the detection of sodiated glycan fragments. MS/MS analysis of O-antigen ISD fragments allowed for the detection of specific repeat unit signatures. The developed strategy requires minute sample amounts, avoids the use of chemical derivatizations, and comes with minimal hands-on time allowing for fast corroboration of key structural features of bacterial glycoconjugate vaccines during early- and late-stage development.

Native Liquid Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry to Structurally and Functionally Characterize Endo-Xylanase Proteoforms

Xylanases are of great value in various industries, including paper, food, and biorefinery. Due to their biotechnological production, these enzymes can contain a variety of post-translational modifications, which may have a profound effect on protein function. Understanding the structure–function relationship can guide the development of products with optimal performance. We have developed a workflow for the structural and functional characterization of an endo-1,4-β-xylanase (ENDO-I) produced by Aspergillus niger with and without applying thermal stress. This workflow relies on orthogonal native separation techniques to resolve proteoforms. Mass spectrometry and activity assays of separated proteoforms permitted the establishment of structure–function relationships. The separation conditions were focus on balancing efficient separation and protein functionality. We employed size exclusion chromatography (SEC) to separate ENDO-I from other co-expressed proteins. Charge variants were investigated with ion exchange chromatography (IEX) and revealed the presence of low abundant glycated variants in the temperature-stressed material. To obtain better insights into the effect on glycation on function, we enriched for these species using boronate affinity chromatography (BAC). The activity measurements showed lower activity of glycated species compared to the non-modified enzyme. Altogether, this workflow allowed in-depth structural and functional characterization of ENDO-I proteoforms.

Assessment of Macro- and Microheterogeneity of Monoclonal Antibodies Using Capillary Zone Electrophoresis Hyphenated with Mass Spectrometry

This chapter focuses on the application of capillary zone electrophoresis hyphenated with mass spectrometry (CZE-MS) for the characterization of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). mAbs are complex molecules comprising different glycoforms and many other posttranslational modifications. In addition to this inherent microheterogeneity, misassembling of antibodies can take place during production contributing to their macroheterogeneity. CZE-MS is a versatile and powerful technique which has demonstrated high potential for the assessment of both micro- and macroheterogeneity of mAbs. In this chapter, technical and practical considerations for the characterization of mAbs by CZE-MS are described. CE-MS interfacing, capillary coatings for the prevention of mAb adsorption, and sample preparation considerations are covered in detail. The assessment of the macro- and microheterogeneity is discussed and exemplified through three different approaches involving analysis of intact, enzymatically digested, and reduced antibodies. The examples also illustrate the use of two commercially available interfacing techniques (i.e., sheath liquid and sheathless) as well as different types of capillary coatings (positively charged and neutral coatings).

Glycoform analysis of intact erythropoietin by MALDI FT-ICR mass spectrometry

Recombinant human erythropoietin (EPO) is a complex therapeutic glycoprotein with three N- and one O-glycosylation sites. Glycosylation of EPO influences its safety and efficacy and is defined as a critical quality attribute. Thus, analytical methods for profiling EPO glycosylation are highly demanded. Owing to the complexity of the intact protein, information about EPO glycosylation is commonly derived from released glycan and glycopeptide analysis using mass spectrometry (MS). Alternatively, comprehensive insights into the glycoform heterogeneity of intact EPO are obtained using ESI MS-based methods with or without upfront separation of EPO glycoforms. MALDI MS, typically performed with TOF mass analyzers, has been also used for the analysis of intact EPO but, due to the poor glycoform resolution, has only provided limited glycoform information. Here, we present a MALDI FT-ICR MS method for the glycosylation profiling of intact EPO with improved glycoform resolution and without loss of sialic acid residues commonly observed in MALDI analysis. Three EPO variants were characterized in-depth and up to 199 glycoform compositions were assigned from the evaluation of doubly-charged ions, without any deconvolution of the mass spectra. Key glycosylation features such as sialylation, acetylation, and N-acetyllactosamine repeats were determined and found to agree with previously reported data obtained from orthogonal analyses. The developed method allowed for a fast and straightforward data acquisition and evaluation and can be potentially used for the high-throughput comparison of EPO samples throughout its manufacturing process.

Role of Advanced Glycation End-Products and Other Ligands for AGE Receptors in Thyroid Cancer Progression

To date, thyroid cancers (TCs) remain a clinical challenge owing to their heterogeneous nature. The etiopathology of TCs is associated not only with genetic mutations or chromosomal rearrangements, but also non-genetic factors, such as oxidative-, nitrosative-, and carbonyl stress-related alterations in tumor environment. These factors, through leading to the activation of intracellular signaling pathways, induce tumor tissue proliferation. Interestingly, the incidence of TCs is often coexistent with various simultaneous mutations. Advanced glycation end-products (AGEs), their precursors and receptors (RAGEs), and other ligands for RAGEs are reported to have significant influence on carcinogenesis and TCs progression, inducing gene mutations, disturbances in histone methylation, and disorders in important carcinogenesis-related pathways, such as PI₃K/AKT/NF-kB, p21/MEK/MPAK, or JAK/STAT, RAS/ERK/p53, which induce synthesis of interleukins, growth factors, and cytokines, thus influencing metastasis, angiogenesis, and cancer proliferation. Precursors of AGE (such as methylglyoxal (MG)) and selected ligands for RAGEs: AS1004, AS1008, and HMGB1 may, in the future, become potential targets for TCs treatment, as low MG concentration is associated with less aggressive anaplastic thyroid cancer, whereas the administration of anti-RAGE antibodies inhibits the progression of papillary thyroid cancer and anaplastic thyroid cancer. This review is aimed at collecting the information on the role of compounds, engaged in glycation process, in the pathogenesis of TCs. Moreover, the utility of these compounds in the diagnosis and treatment of TCs is thoroughly discussed. Understanding the mechanism of action of these compounds on TCs pathogenesis and progression may potentially be the grounds for the development of new treatment strategies, aiming at quality-of-life improvements.

Structural and Functional Characterization of SARS-CoV-2 RBD Domains Produced in Mammalian Cells

As the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic is still ongoing and dramatically influences our life, the need for recombinant viral proteins for diagnostics, vaccine development, and research is very high. The spike (S) protein, and particularly its receptor-binding domain (RBD), mediates the interaction with the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor on host cells and may be modulated by its structural features. Therefore, well-characterized recombinant RBDs are essential. We have performed an in-depth structural and functional characterization of RBDs expressed in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) and human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293) cells. To structurally characterize the native RBDs (comprising N- and O-glycans and additional post translational modifications), a multilevel mass spectrometric approach was employed. Released glycan and glycopeptide analysis were integrated with intact mass analysis, glycan-enzymatic dissection, and top-down sequencing for comprehensive annotation of RBD proteoforms. The data showed distinct glycosylation for CHO- and HEK293-RBD with the latter exhibiting antenna fucosylation, a higher level of sialylation, and a combination of core 1 and core 2 type O-glycans. Additionally, using an alternative approach based on N-terminal cleavage of the O-glycosylation, the previously unknown O-glycosylation site was localized at T323. For both RBDs, the binding to SARS-CoV-2 antibodies of positive patients and affinity to the ACE2 receptor was addressed showing comparable results. This work not only offers insights into RBD structural and functional features but also provides an analytical workflow for characterization of new RBDs and batch-to-batch comparison.

Analysis of Synthetic Monodisperse Polysaccharides by Wide Mass Range Ultrahigh-Resolution MALDI Mass Spectrometry

Carbohydrates, such as oligo- and polysaccharides, are highly abundant biopolymers that are involved in numerous processes. The study of their structure and functions is commonly based on a material that is isolated from complex natural sources. However, a more precise analysis requires pure compounds with well-defined structures that can be obtained from chemical or enzymatic syntheses. Novel synthetic strategies have increased the accessibility of larger monodisperse polysaccharides, posing a challenge to the analytical methods used for their molecular characterization. Here, we present wide mass range ultrahigh-resolution matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR) mass spectrometry (MS) as a powerful platform for the analysis of synthetic oligo- and polysaccharides. Synthetic carbohydrates 16-, 64-, 100-, and 151-mers were mass analyzed and characterized by MALDI in-source decay FT-ICR MS. Detection of fragment ions generated from glycosidic bond cleavage (or cross-ring cleavage) provided information of the monosaccharide content and the linkage type, allowing for the corroboration of the carbohydrate compositions and structures.

Quantification of glycated IgG in CHO supernatants: A practical approach

Post-translational, nonenzymatic glycation of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) in the presence of reducing sugars (in bioprocesses) is a widely known phenomenon, which affects protein heterogeneity and potentially has an impact on quality, safety, and efficacy of the end product. Quantification of individual glycation levels is compulsory for each mAb therapeutically applied in humans. We therefore propose an analytical method for monitoring glycation levels of mAb products during the bioprocess. This is a useful tool for process-design considerations, especially concerning glucose-feed strategies and temperature as major driving factors of protein glycation. In this study, boronate affinity chromatography (BAC) was optimized for determination of the glycation level of mAbs in supernatants. In fact, the complex matrix found in supernatants is an underlying obstacle to use BAC, but with a simple clean-up step, we found that the elution profile could be significantly improved so that qualitative and quantitative determination could be reached. Complementary analytical methods confirmed the performance quality, including the correctness and specificity of the results. For quantitative determination of mAb glycation in supernatants, we established a calibration procedure for the retained mAb peak, identified as glycated antibody monomers. For this approach, an available fully characterized mAb standard, Humira®, was successfully applied, and continuous monitoring of mAbs across three repetitive fed-batch processes was finally performed. With this practical, novel approach, an insight was obtained into glycation levels during bioprocessing, in conjunction with glucose levels and product titer over time, facilitating efficient process development and batch-consistency monitoring.

Ten years in the making: application of CrossMab technology for the development of therapeutic bispecific antibodies and antibody fusion proteins

Bispecific antibodies have recently attracted intense interest. CrossMab technology was described in 2011 as novel approach enabling correct antibody light-chain association with their respective heavy chain in bispecific antibodies, together with methods enabling correct heavy-chain association using existing pairs of antibodies. Since the original description, CrossMab technology has evolved in the past decade into one of the most mature, versatile, and broadly applied technologies in the field, and nearly 20 bispecific antibodies based on CrossMab technology developed by Roche and others have entered clinical trials. The most advanced of these are the Ang-2/VEGF bispecific antibody faricimab, currently undergoing regulatory review, and the CD20/CD3 T cell bispecific antibody glofitamab, currently in pivotal Phase 3 trials. In this review, we introduce the principles of CrossMab technology, including its application for the generation of bi-/multispecific antibodies with different geometries and mechanisms of action, and provide an overview of CrossMab-based therapeutics in clinical trials.

Middle-up characterization of monoclonal antibodies by online reduction liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry

This study describes the fully automated middle-up characterization of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and next-generation variants by online reduction liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Proteins were trapped on-column and subjected to online desalting, denaturation and reduction prior to reversed phase elution of the created subunits in the MS. The evaluation of more than 20 different therapeutic proteins including full length mAbs (subclasses IgG1, IgG2 and IgG4), bispecific antibodies, antibody fragments, fusion proteins and antibody-drug conjugates (ADC) revealed that the online reduction method is as powerful as the widely applied offline sample preparation with dithiothreitol (DTT) as reducing agent and guanidine hydrochloride (Gnd.HCl) as denaturant and tackles some major disadvantages associated with the latter method, i.e. corrosion of stainless steel components, adduct formation impacting spectral quality and sample stability. The value of the online reduction LC-MS method is also enforced by its ability to reveal unstable antibody variants such as succinimide intermediates of asparagine deamidation and aspartic acid isomerization which are often lost when using the offline sample preparation method. The performance of the online reduction LC-MS set-up was verified and it was revealed that the method is precise with RSD values below 0.25% and 3.0% for retention time and area, respectively. Carry-over is within acceptable limits (< 0.5%) and the reducing buffer is stable up to 24 hours.

Improved N- and C-Terminal Sequencing of Proteins by Combining Positive and Negative Ion MALDI In-Source Decay Mass Spectrometry

The development of various ionization and fragmentation techniques has been of key importance for establishing mass spectrometry (MS) as a powerful tool for protein characterization. One example of this is matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) combined with in-source decay (ISD) fragmentation that allows mapping of N- and C-terminal regions of large proteins without the need for proteolysis. Positive ion mode ISD fragments are commonly assigned in the mass region above m/z 1000, while MALDI matrix ions generally hamper the detection of smaller singly charged fragments. The ultrahigh resolving power provided by Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR) MS partially overcomes this limitation, but to further increase the detection of smaller fragments we have revisited the application of negative ion mode MALDI-ISD and found good coverage of the peptide chain termini starting from c'2 and z'2 fragment ions. For the first time, we demonstrate that the combination of negative and positive ion MALDI FT-ICR MS is a useful tool to improve the characterization of mAbs. The different specificities of the two ion modes allowed us to selectively cover the sequence of the light and heavy chains of mAbs at increased sensitivity. A comprehensive evaluation of positive and negative ion mode MALDI-ISD FT-ICR MS in the m/z range 46-13 500 showed an increased sequence coverage for three standard proteins, namely, myoglobin, SiLuLite mAb, and NIST mAb. The data obtained in the two ion modes were, in part, complementary.

A Simple Strategy to Eliminate Hexosylation Bias in the Relative Quantification of N-Glycosylation in Biopharmaceuticals

N‐glycosylation may affect the safety and efficacy of biopharmaceuticals and is thus monitored during manufacturing. Mass spectrometry of the intact protein is increasingly used to reveal co‐existing glycosylation variants. However, quantification of N‐glycoforms via this approach may be biased by single hexose residues as introduced by glycation or O‐glycosylation. Herein, we describe a simple strategy to reveal actual N‐glycoform abundances of therapeutic antibodies, involving experimental determination of glycation levels followed by computational elimination of the “hexosylation bias”. We show that actual N‐glycoform abundances may significantly deviate from initially determined values. Indeed, glycation may even obscure considerable differences in N‐glycosylation patterns of drug product batches. Our observations may thus have implications for biopharmaceutical quality control. Moreover, we solve an instance of the problem of isobaricity, which is fundamental to mass spectrometry.

Interlaboratory Study for Characterizing Monoclonal Antibodies by Top-Down and Middle-Down Mass Spectrometry

The Consortium for Top-Down Proteomics (www.topdownproteomics.org) launched the present study to assess the current state of top-down mass spectrometry (TD MS) and middle-down mass spectrometry (MD MS) for characterizing monoclonal antibody (mAb) primary structures, including their modifications. To meet the needs of the rapidly growing therapeutic antibody market, it is important to develop analytical strategies to characterize the heterogeneity of a therapeutic product's primary structure accurately and reproducibly. The major objective of the present study is to determine whether current TD/MD MS technologies and protocols can add value to the more commonly employed bottom-up (BU) approaches with regard to confirming protein integrity, sequencing variable domains, avoiding artifacts, and revealing modifications and their locations. We also aim to gather information on the common TD/MD MS methods and practices in the field. A panel of three mAbs was selected and centrally provided to 20 laboratories worldwide for the analysis: Sigma mAb standard (SiLuLite), NIST mAb standard, and the therapeutic mAb Herceptin (trastuzumab). Various MS instrument platforms and ion dissociation techniques were employed. The present study confirms that TD/MD MS tools are available in laboratories worldwide and provide complementary information to the BU approach that can be crucial for comprehensive mAb characterization. The current limitations, as well as possible solutions to overcome them, are also outlined. A primary limitation revealed by the results of the present study is that the expert knowledge in both experiment and data analysis is indispensable to practice TD/MD MS.

Mass Spectrometric (MS) Analysis of Proteins and Peptides

The human genome is sequenced and comprised of ~30,000 genes, making humans just a little bit more complicated than worms or flies. However, complexity of humans is given by proteins that these genes code for because one gene can produce many proteins mostly through alternative splicing and tissue-dependent expression of particular proteins. In addition, post-translational modifications (PTMs) in proteins greatly increase the number of gene products or protein isoforms. Furthermore, stable and transient interactions between proteins, protein isoforms/proteoforms and PTM-ed proteins (protein-protein interactions, PPI) add yet another level of complexity in humans and other organisms. In the past, all of these proteins were analyzed one at the time. Currently, they are analyzed by a less tedious method: mass spectrometry (MS) for two reasons: 1) because of the complexity of proteins, protein PTMs and PPIs and 2) because MS is the only method that can keep up with such a complex array of features. Here, we discuss the applications of mass spectrometry in protein analysis.

High-throughput antibody screening from complex matrices using intact protein electrospray mass spectrometry

While electrospray ionization–mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) provides higher resolution for larger proteins, the conventional liquid chromatography (LC)-MS method suffers from low throughput. Our described RapidFire-MS workflow demonstrated unprecedented screening throughput as fast as 15 s/sample, a 10-fold improvement over conventional LC-MS approaches. The screening enabled selection of clones with the highest purity of bispecific antibody production with intact masses as accurate as 7 ppm with baseline resolution at the glycoform level in samples as complex as plasma sample. The utility of the method can be expanded to many other applications that can exploit the advantages of high-throughput intact protein MS analyses including but not limited to pharmacokinetic analyses, enzymatic screening, biotransformation characterization, and quality control screening.

Toward the goal of increasing the throughput of high-resolution mass characterization of intact antibodies, we developed a RapidFire–mass spectrometry (MS) assay using electrospray ionization. We achieved unprecedented screening throughput as fast as 15 s/sample, which is an order of magnitude improvement over conventional liquid chromatography (LC)-MS approaches. The screening enabled intact mass determination as accurate as 7 ppm with baseline resolution at the glycoform level for intact antibodies. We utilized this assay to characterize and perform relative quantitation of antibody species from 248 samples of 62 different cell line clones at four time points in 2 h using RapidFire–time-of-flight MS screening. The screening enabled selection of clones with the highest purity of bispecific antibody production and the results significantly correlated with conventional LC-MS results. In addition, analyzing antibodies from a complex plasma sample using affinity-RapidFire-MS was also demonstrated and qualified. In summary, the platform affords high-throughput analyses of antibodies, including bispecific antibodies and potential mispaired side products, in cell culture media, or other complex matrices.

Evaluation of Sibling and Twin Fragment Ions Improves the Structural Characterization of Proteins by Top-Down MALDI In-Source Decay Mass Spectrometry

Comprehensive determination of primary sequence and identification of post-translational modifications (PTMs) are key elements in protein structural analysis. Various mass spectrometry (MS) based fragmentation techniques are powerful approaches for mapping both the amino acid sequence and PTMs; one of these techniques is matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI), combined with in-source decay (ISD) fragmentation and Fourier-transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR) MS. MALDI-ISD MS protein analysis involves only minimal sample preparation and does not require spectral deconvolution. The resulting MALDI-ISD MS data is complementary to electrospray ionization-based MS/MS sequencing readouts, providing knowledge on the types of fragment ions is available. In this study, we evaluate the isotopic distributions of z′ ions in protein top-down MALDI-ISD FT-ICR mass spectra and show why these distributions can deviate from theoretical profiles as a result of co-occurring and isomeric z and y-NH₃ ions. Two synthetic peptides, containing either normal or deuterated alanine residues, were used to confirm the presence and unravel the identity of isomeric z and y-NH₃ fragment ions (“twins”). Furthermore, two reducing MALDI matrices, namely 1,5-diaminonaphthalene and N-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine were applied that yield ISD mass spectra with different fragment ion distributions. This study demonstrates that the relative abundance of isomeric z and y-NH₃ ions requires consideration for accurate and confident assignments of z′ ions in MALDI-ISD FT-ICR mass spectra.