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Mesterhazy A. Food Safety Aspects of Breeding Maize to Multi-Resistance against the Major (Fusarium graminearum, F. verticillioides, Aspergillus flavus) and Minor Toxigenic Fungi ( Fusarium spp.) as Well as to Toxin Accumulation, Trends, and Solutions-A Review. J Fungi (Basel) 2024; 10:40. [PMID: 38248949 PMCID: PMC10817526 DOI: 10.3390/jof10010040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Revised: 12/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Maize is the crop which is most commonly exposed to toxigenic fungi that produce many toxins that are harmful to humans and animals alike. Preharvest grain yield loss, preharvest toxin contamination (at harvest), and storage loss are estimated to be between 220 and 265 million metric tons. In the past ten years, the preharvest mycotoxin damage was stable or increased mainly in aflatoxin and fumonisins. The presence of multiple toxins is characteristic. The few breeding programs concentrate on one of the three main toxigenic fungi. About 90% of the experiments except AFB1 rarely test toxin contamination. As disease resistance and resistance to toxin contamination often differ in regard to F. graminearum, F. verticillioides, and A. flavus and their toxins, it is not possible to make a food safety evaluation according to symptom severity alone. The inheritance of the resistance is polygenic, often mixed with epistatic and additive effects, but only a minor part of their phenotypic variation can be explained. All tests are made by a single inoculum (pure isolate or mixture). Genotype ranking differs between isolates and according to aggressiveness level; therefore, the reliability of such resistance data is often problematic. Silk channel inoculation often causes lower ear rot severity than we find in kernel resistance tests. These explain the slow progress and raise skepticism towards resistance breeding. On the other hand, during genetic research, several effective putative resistance genes were identified, and some overlapped with known QTLs. QTLs were identified as securing specific or general resistance to different toxicogenic species. Hybrids were identified with good disease and toxin resistance to the three toxigenic species. Resistance and toxin differences were often tenfold or higher, allowing for the introduction of the resistance and resistance to toxin accumulation tests in the variety testing and the evaluation of the food safety risks of the hybrids within 2-3 years. Beyond this, resistance breeding programs and genetic investigations (QTL-analyses, GWAM tests, etc.) can be improved. All other research may use it with success, where artificial inoculation is necessary. The multi-toxin data reveal more toxins than we can treat now. Their control is not solved. As limits for nonregulated toxins can be introduced, or the existing regulations can be made to be stricter, the research should start. We should mention that a higher resistance to F. verticillioides and A. flavus can be very useful to balance the detrimental effect of hotter and dryer seasons on aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination. This is a new aspect to secure food and feed safety under otherwise damaging climatic conditions. The more resistant hybrids are to the three main agents, the more likely we are to reduce the toxin losses mentioned by about 50% or higher.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akos Mesterhazy
- Cereal Research Non-Profit Ltd., Alsokikotosor 9, 6726 Szeged, Hungary
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2
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Csenki Z, Bartók T, Bock I, Horváth L, Lemli B, Zsidó BZ, Angeli C, Hetényi C, Szabó I, Urbányi B, Kovács M, Poór M. Interaction of Fumonisin B1, N-Palmitoyl-Fumonisin B1, 5- O-Palmitoyl-Fumonisin B1, and Fumonisin B4 Mycotoxins with Human Serum Albumin and Their Toxic Impacts on Zebrafish Embryos. Biomolecules 2023; 13:biom13050755. [PMID: 37238625 DOI: 10.3390/biom13050755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/25/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Fumonisins are frequent food contaminants. The high exposure to fumonisins can cause harmful effects in humans and animals. Fumonisin B1 (FB1) is the most typical member of this group; however, the occurrence of several other derivatives has been reported. Acylated metabolites of FB1 have also been described as possible food contaminants, and the very limited data available suggest their significantly higher toxicity compared to FB1. Furthermore, the physicochemical and toxicokinetic properties (e.g., albumin binding) of acyl-FB1 derivatives may show large differences compared to the parent mycotoxin. Therefore, we tested the interactions of FB1, N-palmitoyl-FB1 (N-pal-FB1), 5-O-palmitoyl-FB1 (5-O-pal-FB1), and fumonisin B4 (FB4) with human serum albumin as well as the toxic effects of these mycotoxins on zebrafish embryos were examined. Based on our results, the most important observations and conclusions are the following: (1) FB1 and FB4 bind to albumin with low affinity, while palmitoyl-FB1 derivatives form highly stable complexes with the protein. (2) N-pal-FB1 and 5-O-pal-FB1 likely occupy more high-affinity binding sites on albumin. (3) Among the mycotoxins tested, N-pal-FB1 showed the most toxic effects on zebrafish, followed by 5-O-pal-FB1, FB4, and FB1. (4) Our study provides the first in vivo toxicity data regarding N-pal-FB1, 5-O-pal-FB1, and FB4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zsolt Csenki
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Institute of Aquaculture and Environmental Safety, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Páter Károly u. 1, H-2100 Gödöllő, Hungary
| | - Tibor Bartók
- Fumizol Ltd., Kisfaludy u. 6/B, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Illés Bock
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Institute of Aquaculture and Environmental Safety, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Páter Károly u. 1, H-2100 Gödöllő, Hungary
| | - Levente Horváth
- Fumizol Ltd., Kisfaludy u. 6/B, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary
- Institute of Physiology and Nutrition, Agriobiotechnology and Precision Breeding for Food Security National Laboratory, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Guba Sándor út 40, H-7400 Kaposvár, Hungary
| | - Beáta Lemli
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Rókus u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
- Green Chemistry Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Balázs Zoltán Zsidó
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Pharmacoinformatics Unit, Medical School, University of Pécs, Szigeti út 12, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Cserne Angeli
- Institute of Physiology and Nutrition, Agriobiotechnology and Precision Breeding for Food Security National Laboratory, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Guba Sándor út 40, H-7400 Kaposvár, Hungary
| | - Csaba Hetényi
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Pharmacoinformatics Unit, Medical School, University of Pécs, Szigeti út 12, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - István Szabó
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Institute of Aquaculture and Environmental Safety, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Páter Károly u. 1, H-2100 Gödöllő, Hungary
| | - Béla Urbányi
- Department of Aquaculture, Institute of Aquaculture and Environmental Safety, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Páter Károly u. 1, H-2100 Gödöllő, Hungary
| | - Melinda Kovács
- Institute of Physiology and Nutrition, Agriobiotechnology and Precision Breeding for Food Security National Laboratory, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Guba Sándor út 40, H-7400 Kaposvár, Hungary
- ELKH-MATE Mycotoxins in the Food Chain Research Group, Guba Sándor út 40, H-7400 Kaposvár, Hungary
| | - Miklós Poór
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Rókus u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
- Food Biotechnology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
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Yang D, Ye Y, Sun J, Wang JS, Huang C, Sun X. Occurrence, transformation, and toxicity of fumonisins and their covert products during food processing. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2022; 64:3660-3673. [PMID: 36239314 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2134290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Fumonisins comprise structurally related metabolites mainly produced by Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium proliferatum. Contamination with fumonisins causes incalculable damage to the economy and poses a great risk to animal and human health. Fumonisins and their covert products are found in cereals and cereal products. Food processing significantly affects the degradation of toxins and the formation of covert toxins. However, studies on fumonisins and their covert mycotoxins remain inadequate. This review aims to summarize changes in fumonisins and the generation of covert fumonisins during processing. It also investigates the toxicity and determination methods of fumonisins and covert fumonisins, and elucidates the factors affecting fumonisins and their covert forms during processing. In addition to the metabolic production by plants and fungi, covert fumonisins are mainly produced by covalent or noncovalent binding, complexation, or physical entrapment of fumonisins with other substances. The toxicity of covert fumonisins is similar to that of free fumonisins and is a non-negligible hazard. Covert fumonisins are commonly found in food matrices, and methods to analyze them have yet to be improved. Food processing significantly affects the conversion of fumonisins to their covert toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diaodiao Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yongli Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jiadi Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jia-Sheng Wang
- Department of Environmental Health Science, College of Public Health, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Caihong Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiulan Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
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Angeli C, Nagy TM, Horváth L, Varga M, Szekeres A, Tóth GK, Janáky T, Szolomájer J, Kovács M, Kövér KE, Bartók T. Preparation of 3- O-, 5- O- and N-palmitoyl derivatives of fumonisin B 1 toxin and their characterisation with NMR and LC-HRMS methods. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2022; 39:1759-1771. [PMID: 36048499 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2022.2116112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
We have previously published six esterified O-acyl (EFB1) and three N-acyl fumonisin B1 derivatives extracted from rice cultures inoculated with Fusarium verticillioides, amongst these the identification of N-palmitoyl-FB1 has been clearly established in a spiking experiment. At that time, it was assumed that as in the case of O-acyl-FB1 derivatives, linoleic-, oleic- or palmitic acid esterify through the OH group on the 3C or 5C atom of the carbon chain of the fumonisins. In our most recent experiments, we have synthetically acylated the FB1 toxin and subsequently purified 3-O-palmitoyl- and 5-O-palmitoyl-FB1 toxins in addition to the N-palmitoyl-FB1 toxin. They were identified and characterised using 1H and 13C NMR as well as LC-HRMS. Our aim was the identification of the previously detected O-acyl-FB1 derivatives over the course of a spiking experiment, which were obtained through the solid-phase fermentation of Fusarium verticillioides. By spiking the three synthesized and identified components one-by-one into the fungal culture extract and analysing these cultures using LC-MS, it was clearly demonstrated that the F. verticillioides strain produced both the 5-O-palmitoyl-FB1 and N-palmitoyl-FB1 toxins, but did not produce 3-O-palmitoyl-FB1. Thus, it is highly probable that the components thought to be 3-O-acyl-(linoleoyl-, oleoyl-, palmitoyl-) FB1 derivatives in our previous communication are presumably 10-O-acyl-FB1 derivatives. Since these acylated FB1 derivatives can occur naturally in e.g. maize, the use of these synthesized components as reference materials is of great importance in order to obtain accurate qualitative and quantitative data on the occurrence of acylated fumonisins in different matrices including maize based feed samples. The production of these substances has also made it possible to test their toxicity in cell culture and small animal experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cserne Angeli
- Fumizol Ltd., Szeged, Hungary.,Department of Physiology and Animal Health, Institute of Physiology and Nutrition, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kaposvár Campus, Kaposvár, Hungary
| | - Tamás Milán Nagy
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary.,MTA-DE Molecular Recognition and Interaction Research Group, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Levente Horváth
- Fumizol Ltd., Szeged, Hungary.,Department of Physiology and Animal Health, Institute of Physiology and Nutrition, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kaposvár Campus, Kaposvár, Hungary
| | - Mónika Varga
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - András Szekeres
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Gábor K Tóth
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Albert Szent-Györgyi Medical School, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Tamás Janáky
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Albert Szent-Györgyi Medical School, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - János Szolomájer
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Albert Szent-Györgyi Medical School, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Melinda Kovács
- Department of Physiology and Animal Health, Institute of Physiology and Nutrition, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kaposvár Campus, Kaposvár, Hungary
| | - Katalin E Kövér
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary.,MTA-DE Molecular Recognition and Interaction Research Group, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
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Battilani P, Palumbo R, Giorni P, Dall’Asta C, Dellafiora L, Gkrillas A, Toscano P, Crisci A, Brera C, De Santis B, Rosanna Cammarano R, Della Seta M, Campbell K, Elliot C, Venancio A, Lima N, Gonçalves A, Terciolo C, Oswald IP. Mycotoxin mixtures in food and feed: holistic, innovative, flexible risk assessment modelling approach:. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020. [DOI: 10.2903/sp.efsa.2020.en-1757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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6
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Knutsen HK, Alexander J, Barregård L, Bignami M, Brüschweiler B, Ceccatelli S, Cottrill B, Dinovi M, Edler L, Grasl-Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom LR, Nebbia CS, Petersen A, Rose M, Roudot AC, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Vollmer G, Wallace H, Dall'Asta C, Eriksen GS, Taranu I, Altieri A, Roldán-Torres R, Oswald IP. Risks for animal health related to the presence of fumonisins, their modified forms and hidden forms in feed. EFSA J 2018; 16:e05242. [PMID: 32625894 PMCID: PMC7009563 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2018.5242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Fumonisins, mycotoxins primarily produced by Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium proliferatum, occur predominantly in cereal grains, especially in maize. The European Commission asked EFSA for a scientific opinion on the risk to animal health related to fumonisins and their modified and hidden forms in feed. Fumonisin B1 (FB 1), FB 2 and FB 3 are the most common forms of fumonisins in feedstuffs and thus were included in the assessment. FB 1, FB 2 and FB 3 have the same mode of action and were considered as having similar toxicological profile and potencies. For fumonisins, the EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) identified no-observed-adverse-effect levels (NOAELs) for cattle, pig, poultry (chicken, ducks and turkeys), horse, and lowest-observed-adverse-effect levels (LOAELs) for fish (extrapolated from carp) and rabbits. No reference points could be identified for sheep, goats, dogs, cats and mink. The dietary exposure was estimated on 18,140 feed samples on FB 1-3 representing most of the feed commodities with potential presence of fumonisins. Samples were collected between 2003 and 2016 from 19 different European countries, but most of them from four Member States. To take into account the possible occurrence of hidden forms, an additional factor of 1.6, derived from the literature, was applied to the occurrence data. Modified forms of fumonisins, for which no data were identified concerning both the occurrence and the toxicity, were not included in the assessment. Based on mean exposure estimates, the risk of adverse health effects of feeds containing FB 1-3 was considered very low for ruminants, low for poultry, horse, rabbits, fish and of potential concern for pigs. The same conclusions apply to the sum of FB 1-3 and their hidden forms, except for pigs for which the risk of adverse health effect was considered of concern.
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Knutsen HK, Barregård L, Bignami M, Brüschweiler B, Ceccatelli S, Cottrill B, Dinovi M, Edler L, Grasl-Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom LR, Nebbia CS, Petersen A, Rose M, Roudot AC, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Vollmer G, Wallace H, Dall'Asta C, Gutleb AC, Humpf HU, Galli C, Metzler M, Oswald IP, Parent-Massin D, Binaglia M, Steinkellner H, Alexander J. Appropriateness to set a group health-based guidance value for fumonisins and their modified forms. EFSA J 2018; 16:e05172. [PMID: 32625807 PMCID: PMC7009576 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2018.5172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) established a tolerable daily intake (TDI) for fumonisin B1 (FB 1) of 1.0 μg/kg body weight (bw) per day based on increased incidence of megalocytic hepatocytes found in a chronic study with mice. The CONTAM Panel considered the limited data available on toxicity and mode of action and structural similarities of FB 2-6 and found it appropriate to include FB 2, FB 3 and FB 4 in a group TDI with FB 1. Modified forms of FBs are phase I and phase II metabolites formed in fungi, infested plants or farm animals. Modified forms also arise from food or feed processing, and include covalent adducts with matrix constituents. Non-covalently bound forms are not considered as modified forms. Modified forms of FBs identified are hydrolysed FB 1-4 (HFB 1-4), partially hydrolysed FB 1-2 (pHFB 1-2), N-(carboxymethyl)-FB 1-3 (NCM-FB 1-3), N-(1-deoxy-d-fructos-1-yl)-FB 1 (NDF-FB 1), O-fatty acyl FB 1, N-fatty acyl FB 1 and N-palmitoyl-HFB 1. HFB 1, pHFB 1, NCM-FB 1 and NDF-FB 1 show a similar toxicological profile but are less potent than FB 1. Although in vitro data shows that N-fatty acyl FBs are more toxic in vitro than FB 1, no in vivo data were available for N-fatty acyl FBs and O-fatty acyl FBs. The CONTAM Panel concluded that it was not appropriate to include modified FBs in the group TDI for FB 1-4. The uncertainty associated with the present assessment is high, but could be reduced provided more data are made available on occurrence, toxicokinetics and toxicity of FB 2-6 and modified forms of FB 1-4.
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Bryła M, Roszko M, Szymczyk K, Jędrzejczak R, Obiedziński MW. Fumonisins and their masked forms in maize products. Food Control 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.06.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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Falavigna C, Lazzaro I, Galaverna G, Dall'Asta C, Battilani P. Oleoyl and linoleoyl esters of fumonisin B1 are differently produced by Fusarium verticillioides on maize and rice based media. Int J Food Microbiol 2015; 217:79-84. [PMID: 26492388 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2015.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2015] [Revised: 10/02/2015] [Accepted: 10/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Fatty acid esters of fumonisins, namely oleoyl- and linoleoyl esters of fumonisin B1 (EFB1OA and EFB1LA, respectively), are modified forms of fumonisins whose formation and occurrence have been reported so far in naturally infected maize and in artificially inoculated rice. There is a lack of knowledge about the mechanism of formation, mainly in relation to the role played by the substrate. Therefore, in this work we studied the dynamics of accumulation of the toxin and its esters, together with their precursor, in maize and rice based media inoculated with different strains of F. verticillioides and incubated at 25 °C for 7-45 days. The production pattern of FB1 and its modified forms was significantly influenced by growth media, reaching a higher concentration in cornmeal compared to rice based medium. Similarly, cornmeal was more supportive for the conversion of FB1 by considering the esterification rate, with a prevalence of linoleoyl esters compared to oleoyl esters resembling the OA/LA rate in both media. The conversion of FB1 into fatty acid esters was also shown as strain-related. Results, thus, strongly support the hypothesis that fatty acid esters of FB1 are produced by the fungus itself at a late stage of growth, or at a certain point of FB1 accumulation in the medium, using fatty acids from the substrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Falavigna
- Department of Food Science, University of Parma, Viale delle Scienze 95/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - I Lazzaro
- Department of Sustainable Crop Production, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via Emilia Parmense 84, 29122 Piacenza, Italy
| | - G Galaverna
- Department of Food Science, University of Parma, Viale delle Scienze 95/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - C Dall'Asta
- Department of Food Science, University of Parma, Viale delle Scienze 95/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - P Battilani
- Department of Sustainable Crop Production, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via Emilia Parmense 84, 29122 Piacenza, Italy.
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Tamura M, Mochizuki N, Nagatomi Y, Harayama K, Toriba A, Hayakawa K. Identification and quantification of fumonisin A1, A2, and A3 in corn by high-resolution liquid chromatography-orbitrap mass spectrometry. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:582-92. [PMID: 25690692 PMCID: PMC4344643 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7020582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2014] [Revised: 01/08/2015] [Accepted: 02/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Three compounds, hypothesized as fumonisin A1 (FA1), fumonisin A2 (FA2), and fumonisin A3 (FA3), were detected in a corn sample contaminated with mycotoxins by high-resolution liquid chromatography-Orbitrap mass spectrometry (LC-Orbitrap MS). One of them has been identified as FA1 synthesized by the acetylation of fumonisin B1 (FB1), and established a method for its quantification. Herein, we identified the two remaining compounds as FA2 and FA3, which were acetylated fumonisin B2 (FB2) and fumonisin B3 (FB3), respectively. Moreover, we examined a method for the simultaneous analysis of FA1, FA2, FA3, FB1, FB2, and FB3. The corn samples were prepared by extraction using a QuEChERS kit and purification using a multifunctional cartridge. The linearity, recovery, repeatability, limit of detection, and limit of quantification of the method were >0.99, 82.9%-104.6%, 3.7%-9.5%, 0.02-0.60 μg/kg, and 0.05-1.98 μg/kg, respectively. The simultaneous analysis of the six fumonisins revealed that FA1, FA2, and FA3 were present in all corn samples contaminated with FB1, FB2, and FB3. The results suggested that corn marketed for consumption can be considered as being contaminated with both the fumonisin B-series and with fumonisin A-series. This report presents the first identification and quantification of FA1, FA2, and FA3 in corn samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masayoshi Tamura
- Research Laboratories for Food Safety Chemistry, Asahi Group Holdings, Ltd., 1-21, Midori 1-chome, Moriya-shi, Ibaraki 302-0106, Japan.
- Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-machi, Kanazawa-shi, Ishikawa 920-1192, Japan.
| | - Naoki Mochizuki
- Research & Development Center, Asahi Group Holdings, Ltd., 1-21, Midori 1-chome, Moriya-shi, Ibaraki 302-0106, Japan.
| | - Yasushi Nagatomi
- Research Laboratories for Food Safety Chemistry, Asahi Group Holdings, Ltd., 1-21, Midori 1-chome, Moriya-shi, Ibaraki 302-0106, Japan.
| | - Koichi Harayama
- Research Laboratories for Food Safety Chemistry, Asahi Group Holdings, Ltd., 1-21, Midori 1-chome, Moriya-shi, Ibaraki 302-0106, Japan.
| | - Akira Toriba
- Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-machi, Kanazawa-shi, Ishikawa 920-1192, Japan.
| | - Kazuichi Hayakawa
- Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-machi, Kanazawa-shi, Ishikawa 920-1192, Japan.
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Peng Q, Tian R, Li B, Hu J, Meng Y, Wang J. Determination of Luteoskyrin in Rice Wine by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography–Ion Trap Tandem Mass Spectrometry. ANAL LETT 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/00032719.2014.933433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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13
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Scientific Opinion on the risks for human and animal health related to the presence of modified forms of certain mycotoxins in food and feed. EFSA J 2014. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2014.3916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
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Bryła M, Roszko M, Szymczyk K, Jędrzejczak R, Słowik E, Obiedziński MW. Effect of baking on reduction of free and hidden fumonisins in gluten-free bread. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2014; 62:10341-10347. [PMID: 25265293 DOI: 10.1021/jf504077m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The aim of the present work was to assess the influence of the baking process on the fumonisin content in gluten-free bread. The dough was made using two methods: without sourdough and with sourdough. Fumonisins were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography with ion-trap mass spectrometry. This study showed that the bread baking process caused a statistically significant drop in the mean concentration of free fumonisins: the reduction levels were 30 and 32% for the direct and sourdough-based methods, respectively. The lower reduction after baking was observed for hidden fumonisins: 19 and 10%, respectively. The presence of some compounds (such as proteins or starch) capable of stabilizing fumonisins during the baking process might be responsible for the observed increase in the hidden-to-free ratio from an initial 0.72 in flour to 0.83 in bread made from sourdough and to 0.95 in sourdough-free bread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcin Bryła
- Department of Food Analysis and ‡Department of Grain Processing and Bakery, Prof. Wacław Dąbrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology , Rakowiecka 36, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland
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Li P, Zhang Z, Hu X, Zhang Q. Advanced hyphenated chromatographic-mass spectrometry in mycotoxin determination: current status and prospects. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2013; 32:420-452. [PMID: 23804155 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2012] [Accepted: 01/04/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Mass spectrometric techniques are essential for advanced research in food safety and environmental monitoring. These fields are important for securing the health of humans and animals, and for ensuring environmental security. Mycotoxins, toxic secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi, are major contaminants of agricultural products, food and feed, biological samples, and the environment as a whole. Mycotoxins can cause cancers, nephritic and hepatic diseases, various hemorrhagic syndromes, and immune and neurological disorders. Mycotoxin-contaminated food and feed can provoke trade conflicts, resulting in massive economic losses. Risk assessment of mycotoxin contamination for humans and animals generally depends on clear identification and reliable quantitation in diversified matrices. Pioneering work on mycotoxin quantitation using mass spectrometry (MS) was performed in the early 1970s. Now, unambiguous confirmation and quantitation of mycotoxins can be readily achieved with a variety hyphenated techniques that combine chromatographic separation with MS, including liquid chromatography (LC) or gas chromatography (GC). With the advent of atmospheric pressure ionization, LC-MS has become a routine technique. Recently, the co-occurrence of multiple mycotoxins in the same sample has drawn an increasing amount of attention. Thus, modern analyses must be able to detect and quantitate multiple mycotoxins in a single run. Improvements in tandem MS techniques have been made to achieve this purpose. This review describes the advanced research that has been done regarding mycotoxin determination using hyphenated chromatographic-MS techniques, but is not a full-circle survey of all the literature published on this topic. The present work provides an overview of the various hyphenated chromatographic-MS-based strategies that have been applied to mycotoxin analysis, with a focus on recent developments. The use of chromatographic-MS to measure levels of mycotoxins, including aflatoxins, ochratoxins, patulin, trichothecenes, zearalenone, and fumonisins, is discussed in detail. Both free and masked mycotoxins are included in this review due to different methods of sample preparation. Techniques are described in terms of sample preparation, internal standards, LC/ultra performance LC (UPLC) optimization, and applications and survey. Several future hyphenated MS techniques are discussed as well, including multidimensional chromatography-MS, capillary electrophoresis-MS, and surface plasmon resonance array-MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peiwu Li
- Oil Crops Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430062, P.R. China; Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Oil Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan 430062, P.R. China; Key Laboratory of Detection for Mycotoxins, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan 430062, P.R. China; Laboratory of Risk Assessment for Oilseeds Products (Wuhan), Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan 430062, P.R. China; Quality Inspection and Test Center for Oilseeds Products, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan 430062, P.R. China
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Falavigna C, Lazzaro I, Galaverna G, Battilani P, Dall’Asta C. Fatty acid esters of fumonisins: first evidence of their presence in maize. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2013; 30:1606-13. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2013.802839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Bryła M, Roszko M, Szymczyk K, Jędrzejczak R, Obiedziński MW, Sękul J. Fumonisins in plant-origin food and fodder – a review. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2013; 30:1626-40. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2013.809624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Bartók T, Szécsi Á, Juhász K, Bartók M, Mesterházy Á. ESI-MS and MS/MS identification of the first ceramide analogues of fumonisin B₁ mycotoxin from a Fusarium verticillioides culture following RP-HPLC separation. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2013; 30:1651-9. [PMID: 23837460 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2013.809626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Following the earlier detection of six new esterified fumonisin B₁ (EFB₁) isomers containing three acyl groups in a Fusarium verticillioides-inoculated rice culture, it was assumed that linoleic, palmitic or oleic acid esterifies one of the free OH groups on the fumonisin backbone. On the basis of the results of our recent investigations we now propose that these EFB₁ isomers are actually 3-O- and 5-O-acyl derivatives of FB₁ (3-O-linoleoyl-FB₁, 5-O-linoleoyl-FB₁, 3-O-palmitoyl-FB₁, 5-O-palmitoyl-FB₁, 3-O-oleoyl-FB₁ and 5-O-oleoyl-FB₁). A F. verticillioides strain was identified that produced not only O-acyl-FB₁ isomers, but also low amounts of three N-acyl derivatives (N-linoleoyl-FB₁, N-palmitoyl-FB₁ and N-oleoyl-FB₁), which eluted from the HPLC column after the six O-acyl compounds and in the same sequence as for the O-acyl compounds. The characteristic positive and negative ESI-MS/MS spectra obtained after solid-phase extraction of the culture extract facilitated identification of these N-acyl-FB₁ derivatives. The biosynthesis of N-palmitoyl-FB₁ by F. verticillioides was verified by spiking the culture extract with synthetic N-palmitoyl-FB₁. This is the first report of the separation and mass spectrometric identification of the six O-acyl- and three N-acyl-FB₁ derivatives extracted from a F. verticillioides culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Bartók
- a Fumizol Ltd , Moszkvai krt. 5-7, H-6725 Szeged , Hungary
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Bartok T, Tolgyesi L, Szecsi A, Mesterhazy A, Bartok M, Gyimes E, Veha A. Detection of Previously Unknown Fumonisin P Analogue Mycotoxins in a Fusarium verticillioides Culture by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Electrospray Ionization Time-of-Flight and Ion Trap Mass Spectrometry. J Chromatogr Sci 2013; 52:508-13. [DOI: 10.1093/chromsci/bmt071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Bartók T, Tölgyesi L, Szécsi Á, Varga J, Bartók M, Mesterházy Á, Gyimes E, Véha A. IDENTIFICATION OF UNKNOWN ISOMERS OF FUMONISIN B5MYCOTOXIN IN AFUSARIUM VERTICILLIOIDESCULTURE BY HIGH-PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY/ELECTROSPRAY IONIZATION TIME-OF-FLIGHT AND ION TRAP MASS SPECTROMETRY. J LIQ CHROMATOGR R T 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/10826076.2012.692151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tibor Bartók
- a Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering , University of Szeged , Szeged , Hungary
| | - László Tölgyesi
- b Eötvös Loránd University Joint Research and Training Laboratory on Separation Techniques , Budapest , Hungary
| | - Árpád Szécsi
- c Research Centre for Agriculture, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Research Institute for Plant Protection , Budapest , Hungary
| | - János Varga
- d Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Infomatics , University of Szeged , Szeged , Hungary
| | - Mihály Bartók
- e Stereochemistry Research Group of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences , Szeged , Hungary
| | | | - Ernő Gyimes
- a Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering , University of Szeged , Szeged , Hungary
| | - Antal Véha
- a Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering , University of Szeged , Szeged , Hungary
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Berthiller F, Crews C, Dall'Asta C, Saeger SD, Haesaert G, Karlovsky P, Oswald IP, Seefelder W, Speijers G, Stroka J. Masked mycotoxins: a review. Mol Nutr Food Res 2013; 57:165-86. [PMID: 23047235 PMCID: PMC3561696 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201100764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 523] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2011] [Revised: 06/13/2012] [Accepted: 06/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this review is to give a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge on plant metabolites of mycotoxins, also called masked mycotoxins. Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites, toxic to human and animals. Toxigenic fungi often grow on edible plants, thus contaminating food and feed. Plants, as living organisms, can alter the chemical structure of mycotoxins as part of their defence against xenobiotics. The extractable conjugated or non-extractable bound mycotoxins formed remain present in the plant tissue but are currently neither routinely screened for in food nor regulated by legislation, thus they may be considered masked. Fusarium mycotoxins (deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisins, nivalenol, fusarenon-X, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, fusaric acid) are prone to metabolisation or binding by plants, but transformation of other mycotoxins by plants (ochratoxin A, patulin, destruxins) has also been described. Toxicological data are scarce, but several studies highlight the potential threat to consumer safety from these substances. In particular, the possible hydrolysis of masked mycotoxins back to their toxic parents during mammalian digestion raises concerns. Dedicated chapters of this article address plant metabolism as well as the occurrence of masked mycotoxins in food, analytical aspects for their determination, toxicology and their impact on stakeholders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franz Berthiller
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism, Department for Agrobiotechnology IFA-Tulln, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Tulln, Austria
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Varga J, Kocsubé S, Szigeti G, Man V, Tóth B, Vágvölgyi C, Bartók T. Black Aspergilli and fumonisin contamination in onions purchased in Hungary. ACTA ALIMENTARIA 2012. [DOI: 10.1556/aalim.41.2012.4.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Falavigna C, Cirlini M, Galaverna G, Sforza S, Dossena A, Dall'Asta C. LC/ESI-MS/MS analysis outlines the different fumonisin patterns produced by F. verticillioides in culture media and in maize kernels. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2012; 47:1170-1176. [PMID: 22972785 DOI: 10.1002/jms.3008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Fumonisins are a family of food-borne mycotoxins with a wide spectrum of toxicological activities, produced by Fusarium verticillioides. Twenty-eight fumonisin analogues have been characterised so far, which can be separated into four main groups, identified as fumonisin A, B, C and P, being fumonisin B the most widely occurring in maize and corn-based food. In this work, major and minor fumonisin analogues produced by F. verticillioides have been determined by the development of a suitable tandem mass spectrometry procedure for target compound identification and quantification. The method has been applied to the determination of the major fumonisins in culture media of F. verticillioides and in mouldy maize. In addition to the main fumonisins produced by F. verticillioides, also secondary compounds such as FB4, FB5, FAs and FCs have been detected in both fungal liquid cultures and contaminated maize samples. The use of this method for quantification of major and minor fumonisins may be useful for an exhaustive evaluation of their occurrence and toxicological relevance in food; moreover, it may be applied for a better definition of the fumonisin biosynthetic pathways in different growing media as well as in maize.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Falavigna
- Dipartimento di Chimica Organica e Industriale, University of Parma, Viale delle Scienze 17/A, 43124, Parma, Italy
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Capriotti AL, Caruso G, Cavaliere C, Foglia P, Samperi R, Laganà A. Multiclass mycotoxin analysis in food, environmental and biological matrices with chromatography/mass spectrometry. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2012; 31:466-503. [PMID: 22065561 DOI: 10.1002/mas.20351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2011] [Revised: 10/11/2011] [Accepted: 10/11/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Mold metabolites that can elicit deleterious effects on other organisms are classified as mycotoxins. Human exposure to mycotoxins occurs mostly through the intake of contaminated agricultural products or residues due to carry over or metabolite products in foods of animal origin such as milk and eggs, but can also occur by dermal contact and inhalation. Mycotoxins contained in moldy foods, but also in damp interiors, can cause diseases in humans and animals. Nephropathy, various types of cancer, alimentary toxic aleukia, hepatic diseases, various hemorrhagic syndromes, and immune and neurological disorders are the most common diseases that can be related to mycotoxicosis. The absence or presence of mold infestation and its propagation are seldom correlated with mycotoxin presence. Mycotoxins must be determined directly, and suitable analytical methods are necessary. Hundreds of mycotoxins have been recognized, but only for a few of them, and in a restricted number of utilities, a maximum acceptable level has been regulated by law. However, mycotoxins seldom develop alone; more often various types and/or classes form in the same substrate. The co-occurrence might render the individual mycotoxin tolerance dose irrelevant, and therefore the mere presence of multiple mycotoxins should be considered a risk factor. The advantage of chromatography/mass spectrometry (MS) is that many compounds can be determined and confirmed in one analysis. This review illustrates the state-of-the-art of mycotoxin MS-based analytical methods for multiclass, multianalyte determination in all the matrices in which they appear. A chapter is devoted to the history of the long-standing coexistence and interaction among humans, domestic animals and mycotoxicosis, and the history of the discovery of mycotoxins. Quality assurance, although this topic relates to analytical chemistry in general, has been also examined for mycotoxin analysis as a preliminary to the systematic literature excursus. Sample handling is a crucial step to devise a multiclass analytical method; so when possible, it has been treated separately for a better comparison before tackling the instrumental part of the whole analytical method. This structure has resulted sometimes in unavoidable redundancies, because it was also important to underline the interconnection. Most reviews do not deal with all the possible mycotoxin sources, including the environmental ones. The focus of this review is the analytical methods based on MS for multimycotoxin class determination. Because the final purpose to devise multimycotoxin analysis should be the assessment of the danger to health of exposition to multitoxicants of natural origin (and possibly also the interaction with anthropogenic contaminants), therefore also the analytical methods for environmental relevant mycotoxins have been thoroughly reviewed. Finally, because the best way to shed light on actual risk assessment could be the individuation of exposure biomarkers, the review covers also the scarce literature on biological fluids.
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Dall'Asta C, Falavigna C, Galaverna G, Battilani P. Role of maize hybrids and their chemical composition in Fusarium infection and fumonisin production. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2012; 60:3800-3808. [PMID: 22409349 DOI: 10.1021/jf300250z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
This study was designed to investigate the role of hybrids in maize Fusarium section Liseola interaction and fumonisin production, with particular emphasis on the occurrence and accumulation of hidden fumonisins in maize (masking phenomenon). In this 2 year study, naturally infected field crops were chosen with 10 maize hybrids, six of them grown in both years. Maize samples collected in 2010 showed a higher incidence of fungal infection as well as higher fumonisin contamination than those obtained in 2009 but a very similar incidence of F. section Liseola. Fumonisin masking was confirmed in raw maize, with a lower amount of hidden forms as compared to free fumonisins detected in the year with higher contamination. The chemical composition of the different hybrids was determined and correlated with the contamination data: the results obtained highlight the main role of fatty acids, with a higher fumonisin contamination in hybrids showing a higher linoleic acid content and a higher masking action in hybrids with higher oleic to linoleic ratio. These results represent a good basis to explain maize hybrid susceptibility to F. section Liseola infection, fumonisin contamination, and masking not related to a specific commercial hybrid but extendable to all hybrids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Dall'Asta
- Department of Organic and Industrial Chemistry, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
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Varga J, Kocsubé S, Tóth B, Bartók T. Response to letter to the editor on ‘Fumonisin contamination and fumonisin producing black Aspergilli in dried vine fruits of different origin published in International Journal of Food Microbiology, 143:143–149’. Int J Food Microbiol 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2011.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Shephard GS, van der Westhuizen L, Sewram V, van Zyl J, Rheeder JP. Occurrence of the C-series fumonisins in maize from the former Transkei region of South Africa. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2011; 28:1712-6. [PMID: 21988139 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2011.605773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Fumonisins are a group of structurally related mycotoxins produced mainly in maize by Fusarium verticillioides and F. proliferatum. The most abundant naturally occurring analogue is fumonisin B(1) (FB(1)), with lesser amounts of fumonisin B(2) (FB(2)) and fumonisin B(3) (FB(3)) occurring. The C-series fumonisins (FCs) are structurally analogous to the B-series but lack the C-1 methyl group. Good and mouldy subsistence-grown maize samples were collected from the Centane and Bizana districts in the former Transkei region of South Africa. After extraction with methanol/water and clean-up on strong anion exchange solid phase extraction cartridges, FB(1), FB(2), FB(3), FC(1), FC(3) and FC(4) were determined by reversed-phase LC-MS/MS using positive ion electrospray ionisation. FB(1) levels in both good and mouldy maize from Centane (means (±SD) 2.75 ± 2.24 and 23.4 ± 12.5 mg kg(-1), respectively) were higher than the corresponding levels in maize samples from Bizana (means 0.056 ± 0.157 and 3.71 ± 5.01 mg kg(-1), respectively). Similarly, FC(1) levels in both good and mouldy maize from Centane (means 0.107 ± 0.099 and 0.814 ± 0.391 mg kg(-1), respectively) were higher than in Bizana, where FC(1) was detected in only one (0.018 mg kg(-1)) of 19 good maize samples and occurred in mouldy maize with a mean of 0.102 ± 0.135 mg kg(-1). A significant correlation (r=0.982, p<0.01) was observed between FB(1) and FC(1) levels in all samples, with FC(1) levels at 3.3% of the corresponding FB(1) levels. FC(4) levels were similar to FC(1), whereas only low amounts of FC(3) were detected.
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Affiliation(s)
- G S Shephard
- PROMEC Unit, Medical Research Council, PO Box 19070, Tygerberg 7505, South Africa.
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