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Liu X, Kümmel S, Wu L, Richnow HH. Tracking the transformation of persistent organic pollutants in food webs using multi element isotope and enantiomer fractionation. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 469:134046. [PMID: 38513442 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2023] [Revised: 01/14/2024] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024]
Abstract
In order to track the transformation of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in food webs, field experiments were conducted at two sites using stable isotope and enantiomer fractionation concepts. The enantiomers of α-hexachlorocyclohexane (α-HCH) were selected as representative compounds for POPs. Isotope and enantiomer fractionation allowed the characterization of α-HCH enantiomer biotransformation processes along trophic levels of the food web - from soil and plants to animal livers, fat tissues and milk. The enrichment of heavy isotopes in soils, plants and sediments as well as the changes of enantiomer fractionation indicate that the biotransformation of α-HCH occurred in these compartments. Moreover, the increase of carbon and chlorine isotopic compositions as well as the changes of enantiomer fractionation of liver, fat tissues and milk demonstrated that the overall HCH exposure was much higher than estimates based on concentration levels, while the isotope and enantiomer fractionation revealed the enantiomer specific enantiomer uptake across the blood-brain barriers. Dual element isotope analysis suggested that complex transformation processes have occurred along the potential food web from the HCH sources over different environmental compartments to animal livers, fat tissues and milk. The results imply that the analyses of stable isotope compositions and concentrations has potential to reconstruct the exposure of higher organisms to POPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Liu
- Department of Isotope Biogeochemistry, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Permoserstraße 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Steffen Kümmel
- Department of Isotope Biogeochemistry, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Permoserstraße 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Langping Wu
- Department of Isotope Biogeochemistry, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Permoserstraße 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany; Ecometrix Incorporated, 6800 Campobello Road, Mississauga, ON L5N 2L8, Canada; Isodetect GmbH, Deutscher Platz 5b, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Hans H Richnow
- Department of Isotope Biogeochemistry, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Permoserstraße 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany; Isodetect GmbH, Deutscher Platz 5b, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
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Giugliano R, Crescio MI, Cosma V, Ciccotelli V, Vivaldi B, Razzuoli E. Mortality and heavy metals environmental exposure: a study in dogs. Front Vet Sci 2024; 10:1297311. [PMID: 38249551 PMCID: PMC10796622 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1297311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Dogs are human companions and share environmental conditions with their owners. Epidemiological studies have shown that dogs seem to be good sentinel animals for the association of diseases and/or mortality provoked by chronic exposure to heavy metals (Cd, Pb). Methods In the present work, we analyze the registered death cases and population from the National Canine Registry from 2020 to 2022, involving a dog population of 582,564 and 17,507 deaths. The mortality rate in male and not-purebred dogs is higher than in female and purebred dogs, respectively. The mortality cases were cross-referenced with the environmental pollution data relating to the concentration of Cd and Pb detected, between 2012 and 2022, in the various municipalities of the Liguria region. We then calculated SMR (Standardized Mortality Rate) throughout the region and found that mortality increases from the eastern to the western Ligurian coast. Results and discussion We observed that the most polluted areas present the highest SMRs (IRR = 1.36, 95%CI: from 1.31 to 1.41). Considering dog ages, we found that mortality in young dogs is not affected by pollution, while mortality in old dogs (10-20 years old) is heavily affected by it (IRR = 8.97, 95%CI from 8.09 to 9.93). In conclusion, the data suggest the importance of canine health and biomonitor studies and provide a basis for future research involving both animal and human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Giugliano
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta, National Reference Center of Veterinary and Comparative Oncology (CEROVEC), Genova, Italy
| | - Maria Ines Crescio
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta, National Reference Center of Veterinary and Comparative Oncology (CEROVEC), Genova, Italy
| | | | - Valentina Ciccotelli
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta, National Reference Center of Veterinary and Comparative Oncology (CEROVEC), Genova, Italy
| | - Barbara Vivaldi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta, National Reference Center of Veterinary and Comparative Oncology (CEROVEC), Genova, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Razzuoli
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta, National Reference Center of Veterinary and Comparative Oncology (CEROVEC), Genova, Italy
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Lazarus M, Orct T, Sekovanić A, Skoko B, Petrinec B, Zgorelec Ž, Kisić I, Prevendar Crnić A, Jurasović J, Srebočan E. Spatio-temporal monitoring of mercury and other stable metal(loid)s and radionuclides in a Croatian terrestrial ecosystem around a natural gas treatment plant. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2022; 194:481. [PMID: 35668141 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-022-10140-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The natural gas industry bears a certain contamination risk to human and biota due to, among others, mercury, arsenic, and naturally occurring radioactive material content in gas. We tracked multiple stabile metal(loid)s and radionuclides within the natural gas treatment plant Molve, Croatia, ecosystem during the last decade through a comprehensive monitoring of soil, earthworms, moss, livestock (blood, milk, hair, urine, and feces from cows), and wildlife animals (brain, muscle, liver, and kidney of European hare and pheasant). The level of mercury and other stable metal(loid)s has shown temporal variation, but without an obvious trend. The found spatial differences in soil and earthworms were based on the differing soil characteristics of the sampled locations and exceeded the maximal allowable concentration of arsenic and zinc for agricultural soil. The status of essential copper, selenium, and zinc in cows, hares, and pheasants inclined towards deficiency. The measured stable metal(loid) levels in soil and animal samples were generally in the same range of values reported in earlier decades from the same area or non-polluted areas across Europe. The consumption of local cow and game products (e.g., milk, meat) can be considered safe for human health, although game offal is advised to be avoided as a food item due to the low risk of lead and cadmium's adverse effects. Although the activity concentrations of some radionuclides in moss were higher than reported for pristine areas, transfer from soil to moss was assessed as average (except for lead-210). Radiological risk to human and biota around the gas treatment plant Molve was estimated as negligible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maja Lazarus
- Analytical Toxicology and Mineral Metabolism Unit, Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Ksaverska c. 2, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia.
| | - Tatjana Orct
- Analytical Toxicology and Mineral Metabolism Unit, Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Ksaverska c. 2, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ankica Sekovanić
- Radiation Protection Unit, Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Ksaverska c. 2, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Božena Skoko
- Radiation Protection Unit, Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Ksaverska c. 2, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Branko Petrinec
- Radiation Protection Unit, Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Ksaverska c. 2, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Željka Zgorelec
- Department of General Agronomy, Division of Agroecology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb, Svetošimunska cesta 25, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ivica Kisić
- Department of General Agronomy, Division of Agroecology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb, Svetošimunska cesta 25, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Andreja Prevendar Crnić
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Heinzelova 55, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Jasna Jurasović
- Analytical Toxicology and Mineral Metabolism Unit, Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Ksaverska c. 2, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Emil Srebočan
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Heinzelova 55, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
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Evaluation of the Presence and Viability of Mycobacterium bovis in Wild Boar Meat and Meat-Based Preparations. Foods 2021; 10:foods10102410. [PMID: 34681459 PMCID: PMC8535965 DOI: 10.3390/foods10102410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Revised: 10/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of the present study is to provide information about the ability of Mycobacterium bovis to survive within wild boar (Sus scrofae) meat and meat-based preparations and the duration of this survival, and to consider the preservation of its infectious potential toward humans and animals. Meat samples were artificially contaminated with an M. bovis field strain and then stored at −20 °C, while two sausages batches were contaminated with the same field strain at two different concentrations, 105 CFU/g and 103 CFU/g, before storing them in proper conditions to allow for their ripening. A third sausage batch was contaminated by adding 2 g of wild boar lymph nodal tissue with active tuberculous lesions to the meat mixture. Bacteriological and biomolecular (PCR) methods were used to test the meat and sausage samples every 60 days and every 7–10 days, respectively. M. bovis was detected as still alive and viable on the frozen meat for the last test on the 342nd day, while from the sausage samples, M. bovis was isolated until 23 days after contamination. Our results indicate that M. bovis can stay alive and be viable for 23 days within sausages prepared with contaminated meat from infected wild boars. These products are usually eaten as fresh food after grilling, often cooking at a temperature that does not ensure complete inactivation of the pathogenic microorganisms present, which can pose a risk for humans to develop zoonotic tuberculosis.
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Lenti A, Menozzi A, Fedrizzi G, Menotta S, Iemmi T, Galletti G, Serventi P, Bertini S. Lead Levels in Wild Boar Meat Sauce (Ragù) Sold on the Italian Market. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18083989. [PMID: 33920128 PMCID: PMC8069738 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18083989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Revised: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Game meat is endowed with excellent nutritional value, but it may also be a possible source of harmful substances, such as mycotoxins and heavy metals. In particular, several studies showed that lead fragments from hunting ammunition are able to represent a residual contaminant in the meat of wild boars or deer, representing a possible source of lead absorption. Even though wild boar meat consumption in Italy is rather limited, this meat could also be present in very popular Italian recipes, such as the typical meat sauce called ragù. We evaluated the lead levels in 48 samples (three different batches for each of the 16 brands) of ready-to-eat wild boar meat ragù sold on the Italian market in food stores and online distribution with the inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) technique. A high variability was found in the lead levels detected in the samples, with a median lead level of 0.10 mg/kg (0.01–18.3 mg/kg) and some of the samples showing very high lead concentrations. Since no intake level of lead is considered completely safe, and maximum levels for game meat have so far not been established, a greater attention on the risks to consumers’ health related to the presence of this heavy metal in game meat is recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Lenti
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Parma, Strada Del Taglio 10, 43126 Parma, Italy; (A.L.); (T.I.); (P.S.); (S.B.)
| | - Alessandro Menozzi
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Parma, Strada Del Taglio 10, 43126 Parma, Italy; (A.L.); (T.I.); (P.S.); (S.B.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Giorgio Fedrizzi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna, Reparto Chimico degli Alimenti–Via Pietro Fiorini 5, 40127 Bologna, Italy; (G.F.); (S.M.); (G.G.)
| | - Simonetta Menotta
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna, Reparto Chimico degli Alimenti–Via Pietro Fiorini 5, 40127 Bologna, Italy; (G.F.); (S.M.); (G.G.)
| | - Tiziano Iemmi
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Parma, Strada Del Taglio 10, 43126 Parma, Italy; (A.L.); (T.I.); (P.S.); (S.B.)
| | - Giorgio Galletti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna, Reparto Chimico degli Alimenti–Via Pietro Fiorini 5, 40127 Bologna, Italy; (G.F.); (S.M.); (G.G.)
| | - Paolo Serventi
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Parma, Strada Del Taglio 10, 43126 Parma, Italy; (A.L.); (T.I.); (P.S.); (S.B.)
| | - Simone Bertini
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Parma, Strada Del Taglio 10, 43126 Parma, Italy; (A.L.); (T.I.); (P.S.); (S.B.)
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Thomas VG, Pain DJ, Kanstrup N, Green RE. Setting maximum levels for lead in game meat in EC regulations: An adjunct to replacement of lead ammunition. AMBIO 2020; 49:2026-2037. [PMID: 32451970 PMCID: PMC7568734 DOI: 10.1007/s13280-020-01336-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 12/11/2019] [Accepted: 02/29/2020] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Each year, hunters from 12 of the 27 European Union (EU) countries and the UK shoot over 6 million large game mammals, 12 million rabbits and hares and over 80 million birds. They support an international game meat market worth over 1.1 thousand million Euros. Animals shot with lead ammunition frequently contain lead fragments in the carcass which contaminate meals made from game meat with concentrations of lead substantially above the maximum allowable level (ML) set by European Commission Regulation EC1881/2006 for meat from domesticated animals. This poses a health risk to frequent consumers of wild-shot game meat, with children and pregnant women being particularly vulnerable. Total replacement of lead rifle and shotgun ammunition with available non-toxic alternatives is needed for all hunting in EU nations to prevent exposure of humans and wildlife to ammunition-derived lead and to allow the depletion of the long-term environmental legacy of lead from spent ammunition. We propose that EC1881/2006 is amended to incorporate an ML for game meats as a supplementary measure to the replacement of lead ammunition. This would harmonise food safety standards for lead in meats traded across and imported into the EU.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vernon G. Thomas
- Department of Integrative Biology, College of Biological Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1 Canada
| | - Deborah J. Pain
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, David Attenborough Building, Pembroke Street, Cambridge, CB2 3QZ UK
| | - Niels Kanstrup
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Grenåvej 14, Rønde, 8410 Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Rhys E. Green
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, David Attenborough Building, Pembroke Street, Cambridge, CB2 3QZ UK
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Carpenè E, Andreani G, Ferlizza E, Menotta S, Fedrizzi G, Isani G. Trace Elements in Home-Processed Food Obtained from Unconventional Animals. Life (Basel) 2020; 10:E75. [PMID: 32456182 PMCID: PMC7281459 DOI: 10.3390/life10050075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Wild animals have been used as food since ancient times and, currently, the consumption of unconventional animals is increasing worldwide. The process of cooking meat using traditional recipes includes a variety of ingredients, which can influence the total metal intake from the diet. In this study, the concentrations of eight essential (Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, Se, Ni, Mo, and Co) and six non-essential (Pb, Cd, Hg, Al, As, and Cr) trace elements were determined in home-processed food obtained from snails and from three common species of game animals (woodcock, pheasant, and hare), seasoned with anchovies, mushrooms, and different vegetables using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). In general, Fe was the most abundant trace element, ranging from 18 ± 8 µg/g in pheasant to 99 ± 76 µg/g in snail, and Co was the least abundant, ranging from 0.007 ± 0.003 µg/g in hare to 0.093 ± 0.048 µg/g in snail. Regarding the non-essential trace elements, Pb concentrations showed wide variations, reaching a concentration of 17.30 µg/g in hare, while Cd concentrations were higher in snail, ranging from 0.18 to 0.46 µg/g. These alternative food sources can offer an important contribution to the human nutritional requirements of essential trace elements, in particular of Fe. The high concentrations of Pb and Cd present in some samples should be considered as potentially dangerous for the consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilio Carpenè
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, via Tolara di sopra 50, 40064 Ozzano Emilia (BO), Italy; (E.C.); (G.I.)
| | - Giulia Andreani
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, via Tolara di sopra 50, 40064 Ozzano Emilia (BO), Italy; (E.C.); (G.I.)
| | - Enea Ferlizza
- Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, via Belmeloro 8, 40126 Bologna, Italy;
| | - Simonetta Menotta
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna, Chemical Department, via P. Fiorini 5, 40127 Bologna, Italy; (S.M.); (G.F.)
| | - Giorgio Fedrizzi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna, Chemical Department, via P. Fiorini 5, 40127 Bologna, Italy; (S.M.); (G.F.)
| | - Gloria Isani
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, via Tolara di sopra 50, 40064 Ozzano Emilia (BO), Italy; (E.C.); (G.I.)
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Green RE, Pain DJ. Risks to human health from ammunition-derived lead in Europe. AMBIO 2019; 48:954-968. [PMID: 31098877 PMCID: PMC6675757 DOI: 10.1007/s13280-019-01194-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2019] [Revised: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 04/19/2019] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
It has been known for centuries that lead is toxic to humans. Chronic exposure to lead, even at low levels, is associated with an elevated risk of cardiovascular and chronic kidney disease in adults and of impaired neurodevelopment and subsequent cognitive and behavioural development in the foetus and young children. Health agencies throughout the world have moved from assuming that there are tolerable levels of exposure to lead to a recognition that valid 'no-effect' thresholds cannot currently be defined. Formerly, the most important exposure pathways were occupational exposure, water from lead plumbing, paints, petrol additives and foods. Regulation of products and improved health and safety procedures at work have left dietary lead as the main remaining pathway of exposure in European countries. Ammunition-derived lead is now a significant cause of dietary lead exposure in groups of people who eat wild game meat frequently. These are mostly hunters, shoot employees and their families, but also some people who choose to eat game for ethical, health or other reasons, and their children. Extrapolation from surveys conducted in the UK and a review of studies of game consumption in other countries suggest that approximately 5 million people in the EU may be high-level consumers of lead-shot game meat and that tens of thousands of children in the EU may be consuming game contaminated with ammunition-derived lead frequently enough to cause significant effects on their cognitive development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhys E. Green
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, David Attenborough Building, Pembroke Street, Cambridge, CB2 3QZ UK
| | - Deborah J. Pain
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, David Attenborough Building, Pembroke Street, Cambridge, CB2 3QZ UK
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Pain DJ, Dickie I, Green RE, Kanstrup N, Cromie R. Wildlife, human and environmental costs of using lead ammunition: An economic review and analysis. AMBIO 2019; 48:969-988. [PMID: 30879269 PMCID: PMC6675822 DOI: 10.1007/s13280-019-01157-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2018] [Revised: 01/29/2019] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
A proposed European Union (EU)-wide restriction on the use of lead gunshot for shooting in and over wetlands estimated that the societal benefits of a restriction outweighed costs, despite few identified benefits being quantified economically. A subsequent Annex XV Investigation Report on the evidence of impacts of lead ammunition in terrestrial environments concluded that additional measures to control its use are warranted, although to date this has not been further evaluated. To help inform this process, we review the literature and undertake new analyses to estimate the costs of continued use of lead ammunition associated with impacts on wildlife, people and the environment. We estimate minimum annual direct costs across the EU and Europe of c. €383 million-€960 million and €444 million-€1.3 thousand million respectively. The value that society places on being able to avoid these losses, estimated using a 'willingness to pay' approach, was c. €2.2 thousand million for wildfowl alone. Our estimated costs of the continued use of lead ammunition across the EU appear to be considerably greater than the likely costs of switching to non-toxic alternative ammunition types, although these have not been formally estimated in full.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah J. Pain
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, David Attenborough Building, Pembroke Street, Cambridge, CB2 3QZ UK
- Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust, Slimbridge, Gloucestershire GL2 7BT UK
| | - Ian Dickie
- eftec - economics for the environment, 4 City Road, London, EC1Y 2AA UK
| | - Rhys E. Green
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, David Attenborough Building, Pembroke Street, Cambridge, CB2 3QZ UK
| | - Niels Kanstrup
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Grenåvej 14, 8410 Rønde, Denmark
| | - Ruth Cromie
- Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust, Slimbridge, Gloucestershire GL2 7BT UK
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