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Yuan L, Zhao Z, Yuan Y, Kang C, Xiao Q, Wei X, Hao W. Immunotoxicity of 2-Acetyl-4-tetrahydroxybutylimidazole in BALB/c mice with different vitamin B6 nutritional statuses. Toxicology 2024; 505:153836. [PMID: 38768702 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2024.153836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2024] [Revised: 05/03/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Caramel color is a widely used food pigment, and 2-Acetyl-4-tetrahydroxybutylimidazole (THI) is a by-products of Class III caramel color. Some studies have shown that THI can reduce the number of peripheral blood lymphocytes. However, the comprehensive mechanism of THI immunotoxicity requires further study. In this study, the effects of THI on lymphocyte count, humoral immunity, cellular immunity and nonspecific immunity were determined and the effect of the nutritional status of VB6 on THI immunotoxicity was evaluated. Female BALB/c mice were divided into 3 groups and fed chow containing different doses of VB6: VB6-normal (6 mg/kg VB6), VB6-deprived (0.5 mg/kg VB6) or VB6-enhanced (12 mg/kg VB6) feed. Each group was further divided into 4 subgroups and treated with THI (0.5, 2.5 or 12.5 mg/kg bw) or the solvent control by gavage for 30 days. The thymic cortical thickness was measured with ViewPoint; the proportions of major immune cells and T cells in peripheral blood and tissues were detected via flow cytometry; the transformation and proliferation abilities of T and B cells were detected via T and B lymphocyte proliferation assays; NK cell activity was assessed via lactate dehydrogenase assays; humoral immune function was assessed via plaque-forming cell assays; and the immune function of T lymphocytes was assessed via delayed type hypersensitivity assays. The results showed that compared with those in the corresponding control group, the white blood cell count and lymphocyte count decreased significantly in all the VB6-deprived groups, in the 2.5 and 12.5 mg/kg VB6 groups, and in the 12.5 mg/kg VB6-enhanced group. With increasing THI dose, the thymic cortical layer became thinner. In the thymus, THI increased the proportions of CD3+ T cells and mature CD8+ T cells and decreased the proportions of immature double-positive, double-negative T cells and CD69-expressing lymphocytes. The proportions of naïve T cells and Tcm (central memory T) cells related to homing decreased. The proportion of mature T cells in the spleen decreased significantly. The proliferation of T cells stimulated by ConA decreased after THI exposure. VB6-deficient mice were more sensitive to THI immunotoxicity, and supplementation with VB6 had a certain protective effect on these mice. The results of the PFC and NK cell activity assays indicated that THI exposure might not affect humoral immune or innate immune function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilan Yuan
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, PR China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, Beijing 100191, PR China
| | - Zhe Zhao
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, PR China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, Beijing 100191, PR China
| | - Yue Yuan
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, PR China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, Beijing 100191, PR China
| | - Chenping Kang
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, PR China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, Beijing 100191, PR China
| | - Qianqian Xiao
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, PR China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, Beijing 100191, PR China
| | - Xuetao Wei
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, PR China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, Beijing 100191, PR China
| | - Weidong Hao
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, PR China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, Beijing 100191, PR China.
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Li S, Wang L, Chen D, Li H. The Application of Cold-Induced Liquid-Liquid Extraction for the Determination of 4-Methylimidazole in Tea and Associated Risk Assessment for Chinese Tea Consumers. TOXICS 2023; 11:916. [PMID: 37999568 PMCID: PMC10674203 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11110916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2023] [Revised: 11/04/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
4-Methylimidazole (4-MEI), as a Maillard reaction product, often occurs in heat-processed food. Due to its widespread occurrence and strong carcinogenicity in food and beverages, 4-MEI has received attention from regulatory organizations and consumers. Some studies have reported the occurrence and exposure of 4-MEI in food, but few studies have involved traditional tea beverages, which is related to the limited analytical methods currently being influenced by complex tea matrices. For this issue, this study presents a simple, reliable, and highly sensitive analytical method for the determination of 4-MEI in tea using liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. By means of this method, a total of 570 tea samples from typical tea-producing regions in China were monitored for contamination of 4-MEI. The results showed that the average 4-MEI level (136 μg/kg) in oolong tea was significantly higher than that in other types of tea samples. Based on contamination levels and tea consumption data in China, the daily intake doses (0.04-1.16 μg/day) of 4-MEI among tea consumers were obtained. As a result, the health risk of Chinese tea consumers consuming 4-MEI alone through tea consumption is relatively low, but the overall intake level of 4-MEI in other foods cannot be ignored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaohua Li
- Tea Science Research Institute, Wuyi University, Wuyishan 354300, China;
| | - Lian Wang
- Chengdu Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Chengdu 610044, China;
| | - Dawei Chen
- School of Public Health, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou 121001, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science Research Unit (No. 2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China
| | - Hong Li
- School of Public Health, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou 121001, China
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Zhao Z, Yuan L, Yuan Y, Kang C, Ma Y, Liu Q, Wang X, Xiao Q, Meng Q, Wei X, Hao W. Effects of 2-acetyl-4-tetrahydroxybutylimidazole exposure during gestation and lactation on maternity and offspring immune function in Balb/c mice. Toxicology 2023; 495:153601. [PMID: 37531992 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2023.153601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Revised: 07/16/2023] [Accepted: 07/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023]
Abstract
2-Acetyl-4-tetrahydroxybutylimidazole (THI), a by-product of Class Ⅲ caramel color, is generally recognized to cause lymphopenia in mammals. However, it remains unknown whether THI exposure during gestation and lactation causes damage to the immune system of offspring. In this study, pregnant Balb/c mice were gavaged with 0, 0.5, 2.5 and 12.5 mg/kg THI from gestation day (GD) 6 to postanal day (PND) 21, after which we treated another batch of dams from GD6 to PND21 and the offspring for 3 weeks after weaning with 0, 2, 10, 50 mg/L THI in drinking water respectively, and investigated the immunological anomalies of dams and offspring. The results showed that lymphopenia was observed in dams but not in weaning pups on PND21, which were exposed to THI during gestation and lactation. 2 mg/L THI and 2.5 mg/kg THI began to cause a remarkable reduction of the numbers of white blood cells and lymphocytes in dams. Besides both the cellular and the humoral immune response was not affected in weaning pups, which were measured by plaque-forming cell (PFC) assay and delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) assay respectively. Furthermore, THI could be detected in the plasma of dams with a dose-dependent manner, but not in that of both female and male weaning pups. In both male and female offspring being treated with 10 and 50 mg/L THI for another 3 weeks after weaning, lymphocytopenia was observed and T lymphocytes including CD4+ and CD8+ cells were significantly reduced in their spleens except lymph nodes. 10 and 50 mg/L THI treatment increased CD4+ and CD8+ single positive cells in thymus of female and male weaning mice. Mitogen-induced proliferation ability of T cells in the spleen and lymph nodes was impaired in female weaning mice exposed 50 mg/L THI, while male weaning mice treated with 10 and 50 mg/L THI showed impairment in the spleen but not lymph nodes. Based on the results in this study, no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) for 3-week THI treatment in weaning mice was considered to be 2 mg/L (0.30 mg/kg bw for female mice and 0.34 mg/kg bw for male mice). And NOAEL for THI treatment in dams might be set to 0.5 mg/kg bw/day. Collectively from the perspective of NOAEL, offspring are not more sensitive than dams or adult mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Zhao
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, 100191 Beijing, PR China
| | - Lilan Yuan
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, 100191 Beijing, PR China
| | - Yue Yuan
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, 100191 Beijing, PR China
| | - Chenping Kang
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, 100191 Beijing, PR China
| | - Yuhong Ma
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, 100191 Beijing, PR China
| | - Qianyi Liu
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, 100191 Beijing, PR China
| | - Xiaoxia Wang
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, 100191 Beijing, PR China
| | - Qianqian Xiao
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, 100191 Beijing, PR China
| | - Qinghe Meng
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, 100191 Beijing, PR China
| | - Xuetao Wei
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, 100191 Beijing, PR China
| | - Weidong Hao
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, 100191 Beijing, PR China.
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Czech-Załubska K, Klich D, Jackowska-Tracz A, Didkowska A, Bogdan J, Anusz K. Dyes Used in Processed Meat Products in the Polish Market, and Their Possible Risks and Benefits for Consumer Health. Foods 2023; 12:2610. [PMID: 37444348 DOI: 10.3390/foods12132610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Revised: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Manufacturers are obliged to label processed meat products with information concerning the additives used and nutritional values. The aim of the study was to identify the dyes most frequently used in processed meat, evaluate their influence on specific food qualities, assess whether their use was correct and review their effect on health. The analysis was based on information on the labels and images of processed meat, and used a generalised linear model with a binary dependent variable. The risks and benefits for human health were defined based on the available literature. Twelve dyes were found to be used in the manufacture of processed meat. Carmine was found in 183 of 273 (67.03%) evaluated assortments containing dyes. The occurrence of water, flavourings and high fat and carbohydrate contents increased the chances that a dye would be present in a particular product. Unauthorised use of food additives was found in 20 products, with smoked meat products demonstrating the highest number of non-compliances. In general, the dyes used with food are considered safe; however, reservations are associated with the use of E150C and E150D caramels due to their potential carcinogenic effect, and carmine and annatto due to their allergic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Czech-Załubska
- Department of Food Hygiene and Public Health Protection, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW), Nowoursynowska 166, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Daniel Klich
- Institute of Animal Sciences, University of Life Sciences-SGGW, Ciszewskiego 8, 02-786 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Jackowska-Tracz
- Department of Food Hygiene and Public Health Protection, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW), Nowoursynowska 166, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Anna Didkowska
- Department of Food Hygiene and Public Health Protection, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW), Nowoursynowska 166, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Janusz Bogdan
- Department of Food Hygiene and Public Health Protection, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW), Nowoursynowska 166, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Anusz
- Department of Food Hygiene and Public Health Protection, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW), Nowoursynowska 166, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
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Formation of biogenic amines in soy sauce and reduction via simple phytochemical addition. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2023.114542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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Lu Y, Tang H, Xu J, Sun F. Toxic effects of 4-methylimidazole on the maturation and fertilization of mouse oocytes. Food Chem Toxicol 2022; 164:113051. [PMID: 35460824 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2022.113051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Revised: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Individuals of all ages, including children and teenagers, consume 4-methylimidazole (4-MI) in their food. 4-MI is a caramel-colored waste product that has previously been linked to human carcinogenesis and has shown possible signs of reproductive toxicity. This study aimed to determine whether 4-MI is harmful to oocytes during meiosis and fertilization. Female mice were intragastrically administered 0, 50, or 100 mg/kg body weight of 4-MI daily for 10 days. We found that 4-MI affects the quality of oocytes by affecting their meiotic ability and fertility potential. Specifically, 4-MI rendered the meiotic spindles and chromosomes less stable, which halted oocyte maturation and resulted in aneuploidy. 4-MI also slowed the decrease in the levels of cortical granules and their component ovastacin; consequently, sperms could not be bound and fertilization could not occur. We also found that mitochondrial dysfunction was associated with oocytes deterioration. This led to reactive oxygen species accumulation and cell death. Altogether, our findings reveal that the poor condition of oocytes subjected to 4-MI is primarily attributable to mitochondrial malfunction and redox alterations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yajuan Lu
- Institute of Reproductive Medicine, Medical School, Nantong University, Nantong, 226019, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hanyu Tang
- Institute of Reproductive Medicine, Medical School, Nantong University, Nantong, 226019, Jiangsu, China
| | - Junjie Xu
- Institute of Reproductive Medicine, Medical School, Nantong University, Nantong, 226019, Jiangsu, China
| | - Fei Sun
- Institute of Reproductive Medicine, Medical School, Nantong University, Nantong, 226019, Jiangsu, China.
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Kelty JS, Keum C, Brown VJ, Edwards PC, Carratt SA, Van Winkle LS. Comparison of acute respiratory epithelial toxicity for 4-Methylimidazole and naphthalene administered by oral gavage in B6C3F1 mice. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2020; 116:104761. [PMID: 32768664 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2020.104761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Revised: 08/01/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
4-Methylimidazole (4MEI) is a contaminant in food and consumer products. Pulmonary toxicity and carcinogenicity following chronic dietary exposures to 4MEI is a regulatory concern based on previous rodent studies. This study examined acute pulmonary toxicity in B6C3F1 mice from 6 h to 5 days after oral gavage with a single dose of 150 mg/kg 4MEI, a double dose delivered 6 h apart, or vehicle controls. Oral gavage of 150 mg/kg naphthalene, a prototypical Club cell toxicant, was used as a positive control. Intrapulmonary conducting airway cytotoxicity was assessed in fixed-pressure inflated lungs using qualitative histopathology scoring, quantitative morphometric measurement of vacuolated and exfoliating epithelial cells, and immunohistochemistry. 4MEI treatment did not change markers of cytotoxicity including the mass of vacuolated epithelium, the thickness of the epithelium, or the distributions of epithelial proteins: secretoglobin 1A1, proliferating cell nuclear antigen, calcitonin gene-related peptide, and myeloperoxidase. 4MEI and vehicle controls caused slight cytotoxicity with rare vacuolization of the epithelium relative to the severe bronchiolar epithelial cell toxicity found in the naphthalene exposed mice at terminal bronchioles, intrapulmonary airways, or airway bifurcations. In summary, 4MEI caused minimal airway epithelial toxicity without characteristic Club Cell toxicity when compared to naphthalene, a canonical Club Cell toxicant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacklyn S Kelty
- Center for Health and Environment, University of California, Davis, Bldg 3792, Rm 129, 1250 Old Davis Road, Davis, 95616, CA, USA.
| | - Chayoung Keum
- Center for Health and Environment, University of California, Davis, Bldg 3792, Rm 129, 1250 Old Davis Road, Davis, 95616, CA, USA.
| | - Veneese J Brown
- Center for Health and Environment, University of California, Davis, Bldg 3792, Rm 129, 1250 Old Davis Road, Davis, 95616, CA, USA.
| | - Patricia C Edwards
- Center for Health and Environment, University of California, Davis, Bldg 3792, Rm 129, 1250 Old Davis Road, Davis, 95616, CA, USA.
| | - Sarah A Carratt
- Center for Health and Environment, University of California, Davis, Bldg 3792, Rm 129, 1250 Old Davis Road, Davis, 95616, CA, USA.
| | - Laura S Van Winkle
- Center for Health and Environment, University of California, Davis, Bldg 3792, Rm 129, 1250 Old Davis Road, Davis, 95616, CA, USA; Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Cell Biology School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, 95616, CA, USA.
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