Protection against Metabolic Associated Fatty Liver Disease by Protocatechuic Acid

Gynostemma pentaphyllum Extract Alleviates NASH in Mice: Exploration of Inflammation and Gut Microbiota

NASH (non-alcoholic steatohepatitis) is a severe liver disease characterized by hepatic chronic inflammation that can be associated with the gut microbiota. In this study, we explored the therapeutic effect of Gynostemma pentaphyllum extract (GPE), a Chinese herbal extract, on methionine- and choline-deficient (MCD) diet-induced NASH mice. Based on the peak area, the top ten compounds in GPE were hydroxylinolenic acid, rutin, hydroxylinoleic acid, vanillic acid, methyl vanillate, quercetin, pheophorbide A, protocatechuic acid, aurantiamide acetate, and iso-rhamnetin. We found that four weeks of GPE treatment alleviated hepatic confluent zone inflammation, hepatocyte lipid accumulation, and lipid peroxidation in the mouse model. According to the 16S rRNA gene V3-V4 region sequencing of the colonic contents, the gut microbiota structure of the mice was significantly changed after GPE supplementation. Especially, GPE enriched the abundance of potentially beneficial bacteria such as Akkerrmansia and decreased the abundance of opportunistic pathogens such as Klebsiella. Moreover, RNA sequencing revealed that the GPE group showed an anti-inflammatory liver characterized by the repression of the NF-kappa B signaling pathway compared with the MCD group. Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) also showed that GPE downregulated the pathogen-induced cytokine storm pathway, which was associated with inflammation. A high dose of GPE (HGPE) significantly downregulated the expression levels of the tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), myeloid differentiation factor 88 (Myd88), cluster of differentiation 14 (CD14), and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) genes, as verified by real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR). Our results suggested that the therapeutic potential of GPE for NASH mice may be related to improvements in the intestinal microenvironment and a reduction in liver inflammation.

The ameliorative mechanism of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum NJAU-01 against D-galactose induced oxidative stress: a hepatic proteomics and gut microbiota analysis

Probiotic intervention is an effective strategy to alleviate oxidative stress-related diseases. Our previous studies found that Lactiplantibacillus plantarum NJAU-01 (NJAU-01) exhibited antioxidant effects in a D-galactose (D-gal)-induced aging mouse model. However, the underlying mechanism remains to be unveiled. This study was aimed to investigate the ameliorative effect and mechanism of NJAU-01 against oxidative stress induced by D-gal. The results showed that NJAU-01 could reverse the tendency of a slow body weight gain induced by D-gal. NJAU-01 relieved hepatic oxidative stress via increasing the hepatic total antioxidant capacity and antioxidant enzyme activities including superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and catalase (CAT). Moreover, the malondialdehyde (MDA) level was reversed after NJAU-01 supplementation. The proteomic results showed that there were 201 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) between NJAU-01 and D-gal groups. NJAU-01 regulated the expressions of glutathione S-transferase Mu 5 (Gstm5), glutathione S-transferase P2 (Gstp2) and NADH dehydrogenase 1α subcomplex subunit 7 (Ndufa7) related to oxidative stress, and autophagy protein 5 (Atg5) and plasma alpha-L-fucosidase (Fuca2) involved in autophagy, etc. 16S rDNA sequencing results showed that NJAU-01 supplementation could regulate the gut microbiota dysbiosis induced by D-gal via increasing the relative abundances of the phylum Firmicutes and the genus Lactobacillus and reducing the relative abundances of the phylum Bacteroidetes and the genera Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group as well as Prevotellaceae_UCG-001, etc.. Spearman correlation analysis results showed that the altered gut microbiota composition had a significant correlation with antioxidant enzyme activities and the DEPs related to oxidative stress. Overall, NJAU-01 alleviated hepatic oxidative stress induced by D-gal via manipulating the gut microbiota composition and hepatic protein expression profile.

Litchi pulp-derived gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) extract counteracts liver inflammation induced by litchi thaumatin-like protein

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the predominant amino acid in litchi pulp, known for its neuroregulatory effects and anti-inflammatory properties. Although previous research has highlighted the pro-inflammatory characteristics of litchi thaumatin-like protein (LcTLP), interplay between GABA and LcTLP in relation to inflammation remains unclear. This study aims to explore the hepatoprotective effects of the litchi pulp-derived GABA extract (LGE) against LcTLP-induced liver inflammation in mice and LO2 cells. In vivo experiments demonstrated that LGE significantly reduced the levels of aspartate transaminase and alanine transaminase, and protected the liver against infiltration of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and histological injury induced by LcTLP. Pro-inflammatory cytokines including interleukin-6, interleukin-1β, and tumor necrosis factor-α were also diminished by LGE. The LGE appeared to modulate the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway to exert its anti-inflammatory effects, as evidenced by a reduction of 47%, 35%, and 31% in phosphorylated p38, JNK, and ERK expressions, respectively, in the liver of the high-dose LGE group. Additionally, LGE effectively improved the translocation of gut microbiota by modulating its microbiological composition and abundance. In vitro studies have shown that LGE effectively counteracts the increase in reactive oxygen species, calcium ions, and pro-inflammatory cytokines induced by LcTLP. These findings may offer new perspectives on the health benefits and safety of litchi consumption.

Enterococcus faecalis: implications for host health

The microbiota represents a crucial area of research in maintaining human health due to its potential for uncovering novel biomarkers, therapies, and molecular mechanisms relevant to population identification and experimental model characterization. Among these microorganisms, Enterococcus faecalis, a Gram-positive bacterium found in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and animals, holds particular significance. Strains of this bacterial species have sparked considerable debate in the literature due to their dual nature; they can either be utilized as probiotics in the food industry or demonstrate resistance to antibiotics, potentially leading to severe illness, disability, and death. Given the diverse characteristics of Enterococcus faecalis strains, this review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of their impact on various systems within the host, including the immunological, cardiovascular, metabolic, and nervous systems. Furthermore, we summarize the bacterium-host interaction characteristics and molecular effects to highlight their targets, features, and overall impact on microbial communities and host health.

Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus HF01 fermented yogurt alleviated high-fat diet-induced obesity and hepatic steatosis via the gut microbiota-butyric acid-hepatic lipid metabolism axis

The objective of this study was to investigate the anti-obesity effects and underlying mechanism of Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus HF01 fermented yogurt (HF01-Y). Herein, obesity was induced in mice through a high-fat diet and the changes in the gut microbiota were evaluated using 16S rRNA gene sequencing, combined with the expression levels of the liver AMPK signaling pathway to analyze the potential relationship between HF01-Y-mediated gut microbiota and obesity. The results showed that supplementation with HF01-Y improved obesity-related phenotypes in mice, including reduced body weight, improved serum lipid profiles, and decreased hepatic lipid droplet formation. In addition, HF01-Y altered the composition of the gut microbiota in obese mice, significantly upregulated norank_f__Muribaculaceae, unclassified_c__Clostridia, Blautia, unclassified_o__Bacteroidales, and Rikenellaceae_RC9_gut_group, while downregulating unclassified_f__Desulfovibrionaceae, Colidextribacter, and unclassified_f__Oscillospiraceae. These alterations led to an increase of the cecum butyric acid content, which in turn indirectly promoted the activation of the AMPK signaling pathway, subsequently, inhibited fat synthesis, and promoted fatty acid oxidation related gene expression. Therefore, HF01-Y was likely to alleviate hepatic fat and relieve obesity by modulating the gut microbiota-butyric acid-hepatic lipid metabolism axis, ultimately promoting host health.

High-protein high-konjac glucomannan diets changed glucose and lipid metabolism by modulating colonic microflora and bile acid profiles in healthy mouse models

High protein and fiber diets are becoming increasingly popular for weight loss; however, the benefits or risks of high protein and fiber diets with a normal calorie level for healthy individuals still need to be elucidated. In this study, we explored the role and mechanisms of long-term high protein and/or konjac glucomannan diets on the metabolic health of healthy mouse models. We found that high konjac glucomannan contents improved the glucose tolerance of mice and both high protein and high konjac glucomannan contents improved the serum lipid profile but increased the TNF-α levels. In the liver, high dietary protein contents reduced the expression of the FASN gene related to fatty acid synthesis. Interactions of dietary protein and fiber were shown in the signaling pathways related to lipid and glucose metabolism of the liver and the inflammatory status of the colon, wherein the high protein and high konjac glucomannan diet downregulated the expression of the SREBF1 and FXR genes in the liver and downregulated the expression of TNF-α genes in the colon compared to the high protein diet. High konjac glucomannan contents reduced the colonic secondary bile acid levels including DCA and LCA; this was largely associated with the changed microbiota profile and also contributed to improved lipid and glucose homeostasis. In conclusion, high protein diets improved lipid homeostasis and were not a risk to metabolic health, while high fiber diets improved glucose and lipid homeostasis by modulating colonic microbiota and bile acid profiles, and a high protein diet supplemented with konjac glucomannan might improve hepatic lipid homeostasis and colonic inflammation in healthy mouse models through long-term intervention.

MAFLD as part of systemic metabolic dysregulation

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is one of the most common chronic liver diseases worldwide. In recent years, a new terminology and definition of metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) has been proposed. Compared to the NAFLD definition, MAFLD better emphasizes the pathogenic role of metabolic dysfunction in the development and progression of this highly prevalent condition. Metabolic disorders, including overweight/obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), atherogenic dyslipidemia and hypertension, are often associated with systemic organ dysfunctions, thereby suggesting that multiple organ damage can occur in MAFLD. Substantial epidemiological evidence indicates that MAFLD is not only associated with an increased risk of liver-related complications, but also increases the risk of developing several extra-hepatic diseases, including new-onset T2DM, adverse cardiovascular and renal outcomes, and some common endocrine diseases. We have summarized the current literature on the adverse effect of MAFLD on the development of multiple extrahepatic (cardiometabolic and endocrine) complications and examined the role of different metabolic pathways and organ systems in the progression of MAFLD, thus providing new insights into the role of MAFLD as a multisystem metabolic disorder. Our narrative review aimed to provide insights into potential mechanisms underlying the known associations between MAFLD and extrahepatic diseases, as part of MAFLD as a multisystem disease, in order to help focus areas for future drug development targeting not only liver disease but also the risk of extrahepatic complications.

Melatonin-mediated corrective changes in gut microbiota of experimentally chronodisrupted C57BL/6J mice

Chronic consumption of a high-calorie diet coupled with an altered sleep-wake cycle causes disruption of circadian clock that can impact the gut microbiome leading to metabolic syndrome and associated diseases. Herein, we investigate the effects of a high fat high fructose diet (H) alone or in combination with photoperiodic shifts induced chronodisruption (CD) on gut microbiota of C57BL/6J male mice. Further, the merits of daily evening intraperitoneal administration of melatonin in restoring gut microbiota are studied herein. Experimental groups viz. H, CD and HCD mice recorded higher levels of serum pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6) and lower levels of the anti-inflammatory cytokine, IL-10. These findings correlate with a concomitant increase in the transcripts of TLR4, TNF-α, and IL-6 in small intestine of the said groups. A decrement in mRNA levels of Ocln, ZO-1 and Vdr in these groups implied towards an altered gut permeability. These results were in agreement with the observed decrement in percentage abundance of total gut microflora and Firmicutes: Bacteroidetes (F/B) ratio. Melatonin administration accounted for lower-level inflammation (serum and gut) along with an improvement in gut permeability markers. The total abundance of gut microflora and F/B ratio showed an improvement in all the melatonin-treated groups and the same is the highlight of this study. Taken together, our study is the first to report perturbations in gut microbiota resulting due to a combination of photoperiodic shifts induced CD and a high fat high calorie diet-induced lifestyle disorder. Further, melatonin-mediated rejuvenation of gut microbiome provides prima facie evidence of its role in improving gut dysbiosis that needs a detailed scrutiny.

Relationships between Habitual Polyphenol Consumption and Gut Microbiota in the INCLD Health Cohort

While polyphenol consumption is often associated with an increased abundance of beneficial microbes and decreased opportunistic pathogens, these relationships are not completely described for polyphenols consumed via habitual diet, including culinary herb and spice consumption. This analysis of the International Cohort on Lifestyle Determinants of Health (INCLD Health) cohort uses a dietary questionnaire and 16s microbiome data to examine relationships between habitual polyphenol consumption and gut microbiota in healthy adults (n = 96). In this exploratory analysis, microbial taxa, but not diversity measures, differed by levels of dietary polyphenol consumption. Taxa identified as exploratory biomarkers of daily polyphenol consumption (mg/day) included Lactobacillus, Bacteroides, Enterococcus, Eubacterium ventriosum group, Ruminococcus torques group, and Sutterella. Taxa identified as exploratory biomarkers of the frequency of polyphenol-weighted herb and spice use included Lachnospiraceae UCG-001, Lachnospiraceae UCG-004, Methanobrevibacter, Lachnoclostridium, and Lachnotalea. Several of the differentiating taxa carry out activities important for human health, although out of these taxa, those with previously described pro-inflammatory qualities in certain contexts displayed inverse relationships with polyphenol consumption. Our results suggest that higher quantities of habitual polyphenol consumption may support an intestinal environment where opportunistic and pro-inflammatory bacteria are represented in a lower relative abundance compared to those with less potentially virulent qualities.

Shedding light on the impacts of Spirulina platensis on gut microbiota and related health benefits

Spirulina (S.) platensis is a blue-green algae with reported nutritional and health-promoting properties, such as immunomodulating, antioxidant, cholesterol-lowering properties, and beneficial effects on inflammatory diseases. Spirulina platensis can improve the function and composition of the gut microbiota and exert systemic beneficial effects. Gut dysbiosis is characterized by an imbalance in the composition and function of gut microbiota and is associated with several diseases. Some dietary bioactive compounds can restore the composition, diversity, and function of the gut microbiota and improve health-related parameters. This review proposes to gather relevant information on the effects of S. platensis supplementation on the modulation of the function and composition of gut microbiota and local and systemic measures related to gut health, such as inflammation, oxidative stress, and glucose and lipid metabolism. The body of evidence conducted with animals and clinical studies shows that S. platensis supplementation increased gut microbiota diversity and improved gut microbiota composition, as reported by a decrease in the Firmicutes/Bacteroides ratio, increase in the relative abundance of Prevotella and Lactobacillaceae, increase in short-chain fatty acid production and decrease of gut permeability. Improvements in gut microbiota have been associated with host health benefits such as anti-obesity, anti-diabetic, anti-hypertensive, anti-lipemic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects.

Cyanidin-3-O-Glucoside Alleviates Alcoholic Liver Injury via Modulating Gut Microbiota and Metabolites in Mice

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is primarily caused by long-term excessive alcohol consumption. Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G) is a widely occurring natural anthocyanin with multiple biological activities. This study aims to investigate the effects of C3G isolated from black rice on ALD and explore the potential mechanism. C57BL/6J mice (male) were fed with standard diet (CON) and Lieber-DeCarli liquid-fed (Eth) or supplemented with a 100 mg/kg/d C3G Diet (Eth-C3G), respectively. Our results showed that C3G could effectively ameliorate the pathological structure and liver function, and also inhibited the accumulation of liver lipids. C3G supplementation could partially alleviate the injury of intestinal barrier in the alcohol-induced mice. C3G supplementation could increase the abundance of Norank_f_Muribaculaceae, meanwhile, the abundances of Bacteroides, Blautia, Collinsella, Escherichia-Shigella, Enterococcus, Prevotella, [Ruminococcus]_gnavus_group, Methylobacterium-Methylorubrum, Romboutsia, Streptococcus, Bilophila, were decreased. Spearman's correlation analysis showed that 12 distinct genera were correlated with blood lipid levels. Non-targeted metabolic analyses of cecal contents showed that C3G supplementation could affect the composition of intestinal metabolites, particularly bile acids. In conclusion, C3G can attenuate alcohol-induced liver injury by modulating the gut microbiota and metabolites, suggesting its potential as a functional food ingredient against alcoholic liver disease.

Preventive effect of low-carbohydrate high-fat dietary pattern on liver disease caused by alcohol consumption via a 6pgd-involved mechanism in mice

A low-carbohydrate high-fat (LCHF) dietary pattern has been reported to improve chronic metabolic diseases. However, whether and how the LCHF diet affects the pathological progression in patients with alcohol-related liver diseases (ALD) is largely unknown. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of the LCHF diet on ALD and clarify its potential mechanism(s). The ALD model was established by feeding C57BL/6N mice with a Lieber-DeCarli liquid alcohol diet with a modified carbohydrate/fat ratio under an isoenergetic pattern. After an eight-week intervention, we observed that the LCHF diet significantly reduced alcohol-induced hepatic steatosis and liver injury, along with improved lipid metabolic-related gene disorders and redox imbalance. The alcohol-stimulated increase in pro-inflammatory cytokine cytokines expression, including TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, was markedly reversed by the LCHF diet. Liver transcriptome sequencing and qPCR validation showed that twenty-four alcohol-disturbed genes were significantly reversed by LCHF-diet intervention. The top differentially expressed genes were selected for further investigation. Among them, 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGD) was significantly up-regulated by alcohol treatment in both the liver and cultured hepatocytes. Spearman correlation analysis revealed that 6PGD was positively associated with hepatic steatosis, liver injury, and oxidative stress indexes. In vitro, the 6PGD knockdown ameliorated alcohol-induced hepatotoxicity and intracellular lipid accumulation, as well as lipid metabolic-related gene disorders, implying the involvement of 6PGD in LCHF-protected ALD. In conclusion, LCHF diet intervention alleviated chronic alcohol consumption-induced liver dysfunction in mice. 6PGD is a potential novel target for ALD prevention that contributes to LCHF-improved ALD. A LCHF diet might be a promising choice for ALD management.

The dysfunction in intestinal microorganisms and enzyme activity as significant contributors to diarrhea with kidney-yang deficiency syndrome

Object

To investigate the pathogenesis of diarrhea with kidney-yang deficiency syndrome by examining characteristic changes in intestinal microorganisms, enzyme activities, oxidative stress, and metabolism indices.

Methods

Twenty mice were randomly and equally divided into control group (NC) and model group (NM). Mice in NM group received adenine suspension at a dosage of 50 mg/(kg⋅day) by gavage, 0.4 mL/time, once a day for 14 days, and Folium sennae decoction at a dosage of 10 g/(kg⋅day) by gavage, 0.4 mL/time, once a day for 7 days, starting on 8th day. Mice in NC group were administered an equivalent amount of sterile water by gavage once a day for 7 days, and twice a day from the 8th day. After modeling, assessments encompassed microbial culture, organ index calculation, microbial and enzyme activity detection, malondialdehyde (MDA) content determination, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, blood biochemical tests, and observation of kidney tissue pathological changes.

Results

The results showed that in NM group, a reduction in the number of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacteria was noted, accompanied by an increase in the number of bacteria and E. coli. Xylanase activity in the intestinal contents and mucosa, protease activity in the intestinal mucosa, and intestinal mucosa microbial activity were diminished. Conversely, the activities of amylase, sucrase, and lactase increased in intestinal mucosa. Additionally, there was an elevation in the level of MDA. Renal tubular dilatation and inflammatory cell infiltration were observed in the renal interstitium.

Conclusion

These dysfunctions in intestinal microorganisms and enzyme activities suggest potential involvement in diarrhea with kidney-yang deficiency syndrome.

Lactobacillus rhamnosus Probio-M9 alleviates OVA-sensitized food allergy through modulating gut microbiota and its metabolism

Over the past few decades, food allergy has continued to rise, significantly affecting our health, economy, and quality of life. However, current therapeutic strategies have limited efficacy and need to be improved. One alternative to prevent or reduce allergies is to modulate immunity and microbiota. Human milk (HM) could be considered a protective factor against food allergy, but how probiotics in human milk impact the susceptibility to food allergy remains unknown. Therefore, we studied the preventive impact of human milk Lactobacillus rhamnosus Probio-M9 on food allergy in ovalbumin (OVA)-sensitized mice. We studied the effects of oral administration of Probio-M9 on allergic signatures, immune response, gut microbiota, and metabolism. Oral therapeutic administration of live Probio-M9, but not heat-killed Probio-M9, significantly reduces OVA-specific IgE (OVA-sIgE), histamine, and mMCP-1 (mouse mast cell protease-1) levels in OVA-sensitized mice. Moreover, Probio-M9 supplementation reduced allergic inflammation and changes in the Th2/Th1 balance toward a dampened Th2 response. 16S rDNA sequencing analysis revealed an increased ratio of Firmicutes/Bacteroidota (F/B) and the relative abundance of short-chain fatty acid (SCFA)-producing Clostridia in the feces after Probio-M9 intake. Simultaneously, Probio-M9 significantly increased the levels of SCFAs and promoted the phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), thereby inducing the expression of the antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) Reg3b and Reg3g. Our findings suggest that the use of Probio-M9 can be a potent strategy in food allergy prevention.

Indole-3-acetamide from gut microbiota activated hepatic AhR and mediated the remission effect of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum P101 on alcoholic liver injury in mice

Alcoholic liver disease is a prevalent condition resulting from excessive alcohol consumption, characterized by hepatic lipid accumulation and inflammation. This study delved into the protective effects and mechanisms of L. plantarum P101 on alcoholic liver injury in mice. As a result, L. plantarum P101 intervention reduced ALT and AST release, indicative of hepatocyte injury alleviation, while enhancing the activity of the antioxidant enzymes SOD and CAT. A reduction in pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α and an increase in anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 levels were observed in the L. plantarum P101-intervened mouse liver, signifying reduced inflammation within the mice. Furthermore, L. plantarum P101 intervention altered the gut microbial composition, primarily marked by an increase in Bacteroidota abundance, along with significant enrichment of beneficial bacteria, including Coprostanoligenes, Blautia and Lactiplantibacillus. Correlation analysis unveiled connections between serum tryptophan metabolites and the altered gut microbiota genera, suggesting that gut microbiota-driven effects may extend to extraintestinal organs through their metabolites. Intriguingly, serum indole-3-acetamide (IAM) was elevated by L. plantarum P101-regulated gut microbiota. Subsequently, the role of IAM in ameliorating alcoholic injury was explored using HepG2 cells, where it bolstered cell viability and attenuated EtOH-induced oxidative damage. Concomitantly, IAM activated the gene and protein expression of AhR in cells. Likewise, hepatic AhR expression in mice subjected to L. plantarum P101 significantly up-regulated, possibly instigated by gut microbiota-mediated IAM. Collectively, L. plantarum P101 orchestrates a modulation of gut microbiota and its metabolites, particularly IAM, to activate AhR, thereby alleviating alcoholic liver injury.

Aqueous Extract of Brassica rapa L.'s Impact on Modulating Exercise-Induced Fatigue via Gut-Muscle Axis

Exercise-induced fatigue is a common physiological response to prolonged physical activity, often associated with changes in gut microbiota and metabolic responses. This study investigates the potential role of Brassica rapa L. in modulating these responses. Using an animal model subjected to chronic exercise-induced stress, we explored the effects of Brassica rapa L. on fatigue-related biomarkers, energy metabolism genes, inflammatory responses, intestinal integrity, and gut microbiota composition. Our findings revealed that Brassica rapa L. exhibits significant antioxidant activity and effectively modulates physiological responses to fatigue. It influences gene expression related to the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle in muscle tissue through the AMPK/PGC-1α/TFAM signaling pathway. Furthermore, Brassica rapa L. has been found to alleviate inflammation by inhibiting lipopolysaccharide (LPS) infection and suppressing the activation of the NF-κB pathway. It also maintains intestinal integrity and controls Gram-negative bacterial growth. A correlation analysis identified several pathogenic bacteria linked with inflammation and energy metabolism, as well as beneficial probiotic bacteria associated with improved energy metabolism and reduced inflammation. These findings underscore Brassica rapa L.'s potential for managing prolonged exercise-induced fatigue, paving the way for future therapeutic applications. The results highlight its impact on gut microbiota modulation and its role in nutrition science and sports medicine.