Interaction between genetic factors, Porphyromonas gingivalis and microglia to promote Alzheimer's disease

Potential correlation between chronic periodontitis and Parkinson's disease

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to investigate possible hub genes, associated pathways, and transcription factors between chronic periodontitis (CP) and Parkinson's disease (PD).

METHODS

Gene expression profiles of CP (GSE16134, GSE23586, and GSE10334) and PD (GSE20141 and GSE49036) were downloaded from the gene expression omnibus (GEO) database for differential expression analysis and functional clustering analysis. The protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed, and hub genes were screened by four topological analysis algorithms and modular segmentation. Functional clustering analysis was performed. The hub genes were validated by external datasets of CP and PD, and causal relation was further assessed by Mendelian randomization (MR).

RESULTS

After merging the data, 1 211 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were screened in the CP datasets; of which, 551 were upregulated and 660 were downregulated. A total of 2 407 DEGs were screened in the PD dataset, of which, 1 438 were upregulated and 969 were downregulated. The PPI network included 145 nodes and 126 edges. Four hub genes (FCGR3B, PRF1, IL18, and CD33) and three transcription factors (HSF1, HSF2, and HSF4) were finally screened. The relevant pathway was predominantly natural killer (NK) cell-mediated toxic effects. The MR results suggest a possible positive causal relationship between CP and the risk of developing PD.

CONCLUSIONS

This study indicated the probably shared pathophysiology and possible causal relationship between CP and PD and may offer novel concepts and therapeutic targets for future mechanistic investigations.

Distinctive subgingival microbial signatures in older adults with different levels of cognitive function

AIM

To examine association between subgingival microbial signatures and levels of cognitive impairment in older adults.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We analysed subgingival plaque samples and 16S ribosomal RNA sequences for microbiota among 165 participants (normal controls [NCs]: 40, subjective cognitive decline [SCD]: 40, mild cognitive impairment [MCI]: 49 and dementia: 36).

RESULTS

The bacterial richness was lower among individuals with worse cognitive function, and subgingival microbial communities differed significantly among the four groups. Declining cognitive function was associated with decreasing relative abundance of genera Capnocytophaga, Saccharibacteria_genera_incertae_sedis, Lautropia and Granulicatella, and increasing abundance of genus Porphyromonas. Moreover, there were differentially abundant genera among the groups. Random forest model based on subgingival microbiota could distinguish between cognitive impairment and NC (AUC = 0.933, 95% confidence interval 0.873-0.992). Significant correlations were observed between oral microbiota and sex, Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) score and Mini-Mental State Examination score. Partial correlation analysis showed that Leptotrichia and Burkholderia were closely negatively associated with the MoCA score after adjusting for multiple covariates. Gene function was not significantly different between SCD and NC groups, whereas three homozygous genes were altered in MCI patients and two in dementia patients.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study to demonstrate an association between the composition, function and metabolic pathways of subgingival microbiota and different levels of cognitive function among older individuals. Future cohort studies should assess its diagnostic usefulness for cognitive impairment.

Role of Tau Protein in Neurodegenerative Diseases and Development of Its Targeted Drugs: A Literature Review

Tau protein is a microtubule-associated protein that is widely distributed in the central nervous system and maintains and regulates neuronal morphology and function. Tau protein aggregates abnormally and forms neurofibrillary tangles in neurodegenerative diseases, disrupting the structure and function of neurons and leading to neuronal death, which triggers the initiation and progression of neurological disorders. The aggregation of tau protein in neurodegenerative diseases is associated with post-translational modifications, which may affect the hydrophilicity, spatial conformation, and stability of tau protein, promoting tau protein aggregation and the formation of neurofibrillary tangles. Therefore, studying the role of tau protein in neurodegenerative diseases and the mechanism of aberrant aggregation is important for understanding the mechanism of neurodegenerative diseases and finding therapeutic approaches. This review describes the possible mechanisms by which tau protein promotes neurodegenerative diseases, the post-translational modifications of tau protein and associated influencing factors, and the current status of drug discovery and development related to tau protein, which may contribute to the development of new therapeutic approaches to alleviate or treat neurodegenerative diseases.

Abnormal amyloid precursor protein processing in periodontal tissue in a murine model of periodontitis induced by Porphyromonas gingivalis

OBJECTIVE

The study aimed to investigate the change of amyloid precursor protein (APP) processing and amyloid β (Aβ) metabolites in linking periodontitis to Alzheimer's disease (AD).

BACKGROUND

Aβ is one of the main pathological features of AD, and few studies have discussed changes in its expression in peripheral tissues or analyzed the relationship between the peripheral imbalance of Aβ production and clearance.

METHODS

A murine model of periodontitis was established by oral infection with Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis). Micro-computed tomography (Micro-CT) was used to observe the destruction of the alveolar bone. Nested quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) was used to measure small quantities of P.gingivalis DNA in different tissues. Behavioral experiments were performed to measure cognitive function in the mice. The mRNA levels of TNF-α, IL-6, IL-8, RANKL, OPG, APP695, APP751, APP770, and BACE1 in the gingival tissues or cortex were detected by RT-PCR. The levels of Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42 in gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) and plasma were tested by ELISA.

RESULTS

P. gingivalis oral infection was found to cause alveolar bone resorption and impaired learning and memory. P.gingivalis DNA was detected in the gingiva, blood and cortex of the P.gingivalis group by nested qPCR (p < .05). The mRNA expression of TNF-α, IL-6, IL-8, RANKL/OPG, and BACE1 in the gingival tissue was significantly higher than that in the control group (p < .05). Similarly, upregulated mRNA levels of APP695 and APP770 were observed in the gingival tissuses and cortex of the P. gingivalis group (p < .05). The levels of Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42 in the GCF and plasma of the P. gingivalis group were significantly higher than those in the control group (p < .05).

CONCLUSION

P. gingivalis can directly invade the brain via hematogenous infection. The invasion of P. gingivalis could trigger an immune response and lead to an imbalance between Aβ production and clearance in peripheral tissues, which may trigger an abnormal Aβ metabolite in the brain, resulting in the occurrence and development of AD.

Porphyromonas gingivalis outer membrane vesicles in cerebral ventricles activate microglia in mice

OBJECTIVE

Porphyromonas gingivalis (Pg) is thought to be involved in the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Whether Pg or its contents can reach the brain and directly affect neuropathology is, however, unknown. Here, we investigated whether outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) of Pg translocate to the brain and induce the pathogenic features of AD.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Pg OMVs were injected into the abdominal cavity of mice for 12 weeks. Pg OMV translocation to the brain was detected by immunohistochemistry using an anti-gingipain antibody. Tau protein and microglial activation in the mouse brain were examined by western blotting and immunohistochemistry. The effect of gingipains on inflammation was assessed by real-time polymerase chain reaction using human microglial HMC3 cells.

RESULTS

Gingipains were detected in the region around cerebral ventricles, choroid plexus, and ventricular ependymal cells in Pg OMV-administered mice. Tau and phosphorylated Tau protein increased and microglia were activated. Pg OMVs also increased the gene expression of proinflammatory cytokines in HMC3 cells in a gingipain-dependent manner.

CONCLUSION

Pg OMVs, including gingipains, can reach the cerebral ventricle and induce neuroinflammation by activating microglia. Pg OMVs may provide a better understanding of the implications of periodontal diseases in neurodegenerative conditions such as AD.

Predicting Key Genes and Therapeutic Molecular Modelling to Explain the Association between Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis) and Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)

The association between Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis) and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) remains unclear. The major aim of this study was to elucidate the role of genes and molecular targets in P. gingivalis-associated AD. Two Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) datasets, GSE5281 for AD (n = 84 Alzheimer’s, n = 74 control) and GSE9723 (n = 4 P. gingivalis, n = 4 control), were downloaded from the GEO database. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were obtained, and genes common to both diseases were drawn. Additionally, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) and Gene Ontology (GO) analysis was performed from the top 100 genes (50 upregulated and 50 downregulated genes). We then proceeded with CMap analysis to screen for possible small drug molecules targeting these genes. Subsequently, we performed molecular dynamics simulations. A total of 10 common genes (CALD1, HES1, ID3, PLK2, PPP2R2D, RASGRF1, SUN1, VPS33B, WTH3DI/RAB6A, and ZFP36L1) were identified with a p-value < 0.05. The PPI network of the top 100 genes showed UCHL1, SST, CHGB, CALY, and INA to be common in the MCC, DMNC, and MNC domains. Out of the 10 common genes identified, only 1 was mapped in CMap. We found three candidate small drug molecules to be a fit for PLK2, namely PubChem ID: 24971422, 11364421, and 49792852. We then performed molecular docking of PLK2 with PubChem ID: 24971422, 11364421, and 49792852. The best target, 11364421, was used to conduct the molecular dynamics simulations. The results of this study unravel novel genes to P. gingivalis-associated AD that warrant further validation.

Alzheimer's disease as an innate autoimmune disease (AD2): A new molecular paradigm

A new model of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is presented: Alzheimer's disease as an autoimmune disease (AD2).  In response to pathogen-/damage-associated molecular pattern-stimulating events (e.g., infection, trauma, ischemia, pollution), amyloid beta (Aβ) is released as an early responder cytokine triggering an innate immunity cascade in which Aβ exhibits immunomodulatory/antimicrobial duality.  However, Aβ's antimicrobial properties result in a misdirected attack upon "self" neurons, arising from the electrophysiological similarities between neurons and bacteria in terms of transmembrane potential gradients and anionic charges on outer membrane macromolecules. The subsequent breakdown products of necrotic neurons elicit further release of Aβ leading to a chronic, self-perpetuating cycle. In AD2, amino acid (trp, arg) metabolism is a central control player in modulating AD autoimmunity.  AD2 includes Aβ as an important molecular player, but rejects the "amyloid hypothesis," recognizing Aβ as a physiologically oligomerizing cytokine and part of a larger immunopathic conceptualization of AD.

Human β-Defensin 3 Inhibits Porphyromonas Gingivalis Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Oxidative and Inflammatory Responses of Microglia by Suppression of Cathepsins B and L

Recently, the effects of antibacterial peptides are suggested to have therapeutic potential in Alzheimer's disease. Furthermore, systemic treatment of Porphyromonas gingivalis (Pg) lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced Alzheimer's disease-like neuropathological changes in middle-aged mice. Then, we examined whether human β-defensins (hBDs), antimicrobial peptides produced by the oral mucosa and salivary glands, can suppress Pg LPS-induced oxidative and inflammatory responses by microglia. hBD3 (1 μM) significantly suppressed Pg LPS-induced production of nitric oxide and interleukin-6 (IL-6) by MG6 cells, a mouse microglial cell line. hBD3 (1 μM) also significantly inhibited Pg LPS-induced expression of IL-6 by HMC3 cells, a human microglial cell line. In contrast, neither hBD1, hBD2 nor hBD4 failed to inhibit their productions. Furthermore, hBD3 suppressed Pg LPS-induced p65 nuclear translocation through the IκBα degradation. Pg LPS-induced expression of IL-6 was significantly suppressed by E64d, a cysteine protease inhibitor, and CA-074Me, a known specific inhibitor for cathepsin B, but not by pepstatin A, an aspartic protease inhibitor. Interestingly, hBD3 significantly inhibited enzymatic activities of recombinant human cathepsins B and L, lysosomal cysteine proteases, and their intracellular activities in MG6 cells. Therefore, hBD3 suppressed oxidative and inflammatory responses of microglia through the inhibition of cathepsins B and L, which enzymatic activities are necessary for the NF-κB activation.

Macrophages: A communication network linking Porphyromonas gingivalis infection and associated systemic diseases

Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis) is a Gram-negative anaerobic pathogen that is involved in the pathogenesis of periodontitis and systemic diseases. P. gingivalis has recently been detected in rheumatoid arthritis (RA), cardiovascular disease, and tumors, as well as Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and the presence of P. gingivalis in these diseases are correlated with poor prognosis. Macrophages are major innate immune cells which modulate immune responses against pathogens, however, multiple bacteria have evolved abilities to evade or even subvert the macrophages’ immune response, in which subsequently promote the diseases’ initiation and progression. P. gingivalis as a keystone pathogen of periodontitis has received increasing attention for the onset and development of systemic diseases. P. gingivalis induces macrophage polarization and inflammasome activation. It also causes immune response evasion which plays important roles in promoting inflammatory diseases, autoimmune diseases, and tumor development. In this review, we summarize recent discoveries on the interaction of P. gingivalis and macrophages in relevant disease development and progression, such as periodontitis, atherosclerosis, RA, AD, and cancers, aiming to provide an in-depth mechanistic understanding of this interaction and potential therapeutic strategies.

Periodontitis as a Risk Factor for Alzheimer's Disease: The Experimental Journey So Far, with Hope of Therapy

Periodontitis and Alzheimer's disease (AD) exist globally within the adult population. Given that the risk of AD incidence doubles within 10 years from the time of periodontal disease diagnosis, there is a window of opportunity for slowing down or preventing AD by risk-reduction-based intervention. Literature appraisal on the shared risk factors of these diseases suggests a shift to a healthy lifestyle would be beneficial. Generalised (chronic) periodontitis with an established dysbiotic polymicrobial aetiology affects the tooth supporting tissues with eventual tooth loss. The cause of AD remains unknown, however two neurohistopathological lesions - amyloid-beta plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, together with the clinical history, provide AD diagnosis at autopsy. Historically, prominence was given to the two hallmark lesions but now emphasis is placed on cerebral inflammation and what triggers it. Low socioeconomic status promotes poor lifestyles that compromise oral and personal hygiene along with reliance on poor dietary intake. Taken together with advancing age and a declining immune protection, these risk factors may negatively impact on periodontitis and AD. These factors also provide a tangible solution to controlling pathogenic bacteria indigenous to the oral and gastrointestinal tract microbioes in vulnerable subjects. The focus here is on Porphyromonas gingivalis, one of several important bacterial pathogens associated with both periodontitis and AD. Recent research has enabled advances in our knowledge of the armoury of P. gingivalis via reproduction of all clinical and neuropathological hallmark lesions of AD and chronic periodontal disease in vitro and in vivo experimental models, thus paving the way for better future management.

[Relationship between Oral Microbiota and Alzheimer's Disease]

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common neurodegenerative disease. In an aging society, the high prevalence of AD and the low quality of life of AD patients create serious problems for individuals, families and the society. However, the etiology and pathogenesis of AD are still not fully understood. Age, genetics, environment and other factors are all relevant to AD, and treatment has not achieved satisfactory results. Recent studies have found that oral dysbiosis is closely related to the pathogenesis of AD, and that oral bacterial infection may be one of the causes of AD. Oral cavity is the largest microbial ecosystem of human body, and its homeostasis is critical to health. Bacterial infections caused by oral dysbiosis can directly and indirectly induce the metabolic imbalance of amyloid β-protein (Aβ) in the brain and the hyperphosphorylation of Tau protein. Then, the precipitation forms senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) that damage neurons. Based on the latest research findings, we herein discussed the correlation between oral microbiota and the pathogenesis of AD and the mechanisms involved, as well as the pathogenic mechanism of main oral bacteria. In addition, we explored the potential application prospects of oral microbiota-targeted therapy.

Porphyromonas gingivalis-Induced Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's Disease

"Chronic" periodontitis and its keystone pathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis have repeatedly been associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Pathological hallmarks in AD are brain accumulations of amyloid-beta and neurofibrillary tangles consisting of aggregated and hyperphosphorylated tau. In addition, neuroinflammation induced by P. gingivalis has increasingly been recognized as a factor in the pathogenesis of AD. The present mini-review discusses possible mechanisms for the induction of neuroinflammation by P. gingivalis in AD, involving factors such as pro-inflammatory mediators, amyloid-beta, tau, microglia, cathepsin B, and protein kinase R. Inflammagens of P. gingivalis such as lipopolysaccharide and gingipains are also discussed.

Elevated C-Reactive Protein in Alzheimer's Disease without Depression in Older Adults: Findings from the Health and Retirement Study

We examined the association between differential diagnoses of major stroke and probable Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Mixed AD on c-reactive protein (CRP) in older adults with and without depression. Secondary data analyses examined associations between blood-based measures of probable peripheral inflammation using CRP collected from dried blood spots in the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), a nationally representative sample of individuals aged 50 and older. A validated pattern recognition algorithm was utilized to identify cognitive decline indicative of probable AD, Mixed AD, and major stroke. Negative binomial regressions were utilized to model concentrations of serologic CRP. On average, participants (N=4,601) were 70 years old, female, and non-Hispanic white. Mixed AD participants had 0.26 mg/dL increase in CRP compared to unimpaired participants, controlling for demographics, health behaviors and comorbidities. Those with Mixed AD had 2.14 times increased odds of having high CRP (OR=2.14; [1.19-3.85]). In analyses stratified by depression, adults with Mixed AD and without depression had an additional 0.37 mg/dL increase in CRP (SE=0.06; p<0.001) compared to unimpaired adults. Those with AD without depression had an 0.20 mg/dL increase in CRP (SE=0.07; p<0.01). Age was not associated with increased CRP in non-depressed older adults. Depressed adults with major stroke had a -0.26 mg/dL decrease in CRP (SE=0.11; p=0.02), controlling for hypertension, alcoholic drinks/beverages per week and smoking status. Concentration modeling revealed that participants with major stroke, probable AD and probable mixed AD without depression had significantly higher CRP concentrations when compared to unimpaired older adults.

Can Porphyromonas gingivalis Contribute to Alzheimer's Disease Already at the Stage of Gingivitis?

Alzheimer's disease (AD) has been associated with periodontitis, which starts as gingivitis. Similar to periodontitis, gingivitis bacteria, bacterial products, and inflammatory mediators can travel to the brain via the blood stream and promote brain inflammation. Periodontal pathogens such as Porphyromonas gingivalis and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, both associated with AD, have been found in dental plaque of children already at the age of 3. It is suggested that these bacteria during long-term exposure may drive microglia (brain resident macrophage cells) into a pro-inflammatory M1 phase where they contribute to AD rather than protect against it. This notion comes from studies in mice showing that microglia actually can "remember" previous inflammatory challenge and become "trained" or "tolerant" to toxins like lipopolysaccharide. If gingivitis has an impact on AD, which should be verified, AD prophylaxis should start already at this pre-periodontitis stage with removal of supragingival plaque.

Porphyromonas Gingivalis May Seek the Alzheimer's Disease Brain to Acquire Iron from Its Surplus

Iron accumulates in the brain of subjects with Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Here it promotes the aggregation of amyloid-β plaques in which it is abundant. Iron induces amyloid-β neurotoxicity by damaging free radicals and causing oxidative stress in brain areas with neurodegeneration. It can also bind to tau in AD and enhance the toxicity of tau through co-localization with neurofibrillary tangles and induce accumulation of these tangles. Porphyromonas gingivalis is a key oral pathogen in the widespread biofilm-induced disease “chronic” periodontitis, and recently, has been suggested to have an important role in the pathogenesis of AD. P. gingivalis has an obligate requirement for iron. The current paper suggests that P. gingivalis seeks the AD brain, where it has been identified, to satisfy this need. If this is correct, iron chelators binding iron could have beneficial effects in the treatment of AD. Indeed, studies from both animal AD models and humans with AD have indicated that iron chelators, e.g., lactoferrin, can have such effects. Lactoferrin can also inhibit P. gingivalis growth and proteinases and its ability to form biofilm.

Porphyromonas gingivalis is a Strong Risk Factor for Alzheimer's Disease

Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis) is one of the several important bacterial pathogens associated with the sporadic Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Different serotypes are either capsulated or are non-capsulated. It has been demonstrated that P. gingivalis (non-capsulated) can reproduce the neurodegenerative AD-like changes in vitro, and a capsular P. gingivalis (strain W83) could reproduce the cardinal hallmark lesions of AD in a wild-type mouse model. All P. gingivalis forms express proteolytically active proteases that enable cleavage of the amyloid-β protin precursor (AβPP) and tau resulting in the formation of amyloid-β and neurofibrillary tangles. Tau is an established substrate for gingipains, which can cleave tau into various peptides. Some of the P. gingivalis fragmented tau protein peptides contain “VQIINK” and “VQIVYK” hexapeptide motifs which map to the flanking regions of the microtubule binding domains and are also found in paired helical filaments that form NFTs. P. gingivalis can induce peripheral inflammation in periodontitis and can also initiate signaling pathways that activate kinases, which in turn, phosphorylate neuronal tau. Periodontal disease related inflammation has metabolic implications for an individual’s peripheral and brain health as patients suffering from generalized periodontitis often have related co-morbidities and are “at risk” of developing AD. The aim here is to discuss the role of P. gingivalis behind such associations with the backdrop of huge efforts to test P. gingivalis virulence factors clinically (GAIN Trial: Phase 2/3 Study of COR388 in Subjects with AD) with inhibitors, which may lead to an intervention by reducing the pathogenic bacterial load.

Porphyromonas gingivalis and Its Systemic Impact: Current Status

The relationship between periodontitis and systemic diseases, notably including atherosclerosis and diabetes, has been studied for several years. Porphyromonas gingivalis, a prominent component of oral microorganism communities, is the main pathogen that causes periodontitis. As a result of the extensive analysis of this organism, the evidence of its connection to systemic diseases has become more apparent over the last decade. A significant amount of research has explored the role of Porphyromonas gingivalis in atherosclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes, and adverse pregnancy outcomes, while relatively few studies have examined its contribution to respiratory diseases, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, and depression. Here, we provide an overview of the current state of knowledge about Porphyromonas gingivalis and its systemic impact in an aim to inform readers of the existing epidemiological evidence and the most recent preclinical studies. Additionally, the possible mechanisms by which Porphyromonas gingivalis is involved in the onset or exacerbation of diseases, together with its effects on systemic health, are covered. Although a few results remain controversial, it is now evident that Porphyromonas gingivalis should be regarded as a modifiable factor for several diseases.

Low levels of salivary lactoferrin may affect oral dysbiosis and contribute to Alzheimer's disease: A hypothesis

Recently it has been reported that reduced levels of salivary lactoferrin (LF) can be a plausible biomarker for amyloid beta (Aβ) accumulation in Alzheimer's disease (AD) brains. This could mean that reduced levels of salivary LF act as a trigger for oral dysbiosis and that low LF levels could change the oral microbiota. A chemical change in the composition of saliva has not yet been considered as a cause for microbial dysbiosis but does present an opportunity to view oral dysbiosis as a plausible contributory factor in the development of AD pathophysiology. Oral dysbiosis has largely been reported as a result of inadequate oral hygiene and dry mouth in elderly subjects. Here we discuss if the deficiency of LF in saliva and gingival fluid of AD patients can facilitate proliferation of oral pathogens, and as a result their spread elsewhere in the body. Additionally, we ask if LF in the AD brain could be overexposed as a result of chronic infection. Together these outcomes will indicate if reduced levels of salivary LF can act as a trigger of oral dysbiosis.