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Weiss SJ, Xu L. Postpartum symptoms of anxiety, depression and stress: differential relationships to women's cortisol profiles. Arch Womens Ment Health 2024; 27:435-445. [PMID: 38214755 PMCID: PMC11116185 DOI: 10.1007/s00737-024-01421-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/13/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE Women are at high risk of stress, anxiety, and depression during the postpartum but the ways in which these different types of psychological distress are related to cortisol regulation is not clear. We examined the distinct association of each type of distress with women's average cortisol level, cortisol awakening response (CAR), cortisol decline across the day (diurnal slope), and overall amount of cortisol secretion across the day (AUCG). METHODS At 6 months postpartum, a diverse group of 58 women completed measures of depression, anxiety, perceived stress, and life stressors. Each woman provided 4 salivary samples for cortisol assay from waking to bedtime on each of 2 consecutive days. Linear regressions were used to examine associations of stress, anxiety and depression to each of the 4 cortisol measures, controlling for number of stressful life events. RESULTS Depressive symptoms were associated with less of a rise in the CAR (β = -.46, p = 0.01), steeper diurnal slope (β = .51, p = 0.006), and higher average cortisol level (β = .42, p = .01). Women who met the clinical cutoff for an anxiety disorder had lower overall cortisol output (β = -.29, p = 0.03). Stress was not related to any cortisol metric. CONCLUSIONS Findings suggest that stress is less associated with cortisol alterations in the postpartum than are more severe types of psychological distress. Anxiety and depression may have distinct and opposite profiles of cortisol dysregulation. Results indicate that mental health assessment is critical even in the later postpartum so that interventions can be initiated to reduce emotional suffering and the risk of impaired cortisol regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra J Weiss
- Department of Community Health Systems, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA.
| | - Ling Xu
- Department of Community Health Systems, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
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Rinne GR, Hartstein J, Guardino CM, Dunkel Schetter C. Stress before conception and during pregnancy and maternal cortisol during pregnancy: A scoping review. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2023; 153:106115. [PMID: 37119659 PMCID: PMC10936734 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2023.106115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Revised: 04/10/2023] [Accepted: 04/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Stress before conception and during pregnancy is associated with less favorable maternal and child health. Alterations in prenatal cortisol levels may serve as a central biological pathway linking stress to adverse maternal and child health. Research examining associations between maternal stress from childhood through pregnancy and prenatal cortisol has not been comprehensively reviewed. METHOD The current scoping review of 48 papers synthesizes studies reporting on associations between stress before conception and during pregnancy with maternal cortisol in pregnancy. Eligible studies measured childhood, the proximal preconception period, pregnancy, or lifetime stress based on stress exposures or appraisals and measured cortisol in saliva or hair during pregnancy. RESULTS Higher maternal childhood stress was associated with higher cortisol awakening responses and alterations in typical pregnancy-specific changes in diurnal cortisol patterns across studies. In contrast, most studies of preconception and prenatal stress reported null associations with cortisol and those reporting significant effects were inconsistent in direction. A few studies found that the associations between stress and cortisol during pregnancy varied as a function of several moderators including social support and environmental pollution. CONCLUSIONS Although many studies have evaluated effects of maternal stress on prenatal cortisol, this scoping review is the first to synthesize existing literature on this topic. The association between stress before conception and during pregnancy and prenatal cortisol may depend on the developmental timing of stress and several moderators. Maternal childhood stress was more consistently associated with prenatal cortisol than proximal preconception or pregnancy stress. We discuss methodological and analytic factors that may contribute to mixed findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabrielle R Rinne
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Jenna Hartstein
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Varela P, Lykeridou A, Zervas I, Deltsidou A. Psychometric properties of the Greek Version of the Traumatic Event Scale (TES) (Version A) among low-risk pregnant women. BMC Psychol 2023; 11:105. [PMID: 37029446 PMCID: PMC10082481 DOI: 10.1186/s40359-023-01152-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 04/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Traumatic Event Scale (TES) is one of the most often used instruments for the assessment of the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptomatology during pregnancy which is linked with adverse effects. The aim of the study was to assess the psychometric properties of the TES (version A) in a sample of Greek pregnant women. METHODS Two hundred one low risk pregnant women in their second or third trimester were invited to participate in the study. Participants completed a number of questionnaires including the Greek versions of TES-A, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), Coping Orientations to Problems Experienced (Brief COPE), Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10) and Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted in order to test how well the already TES-A five-factor model fits the data from Greece. RESULTS Participants' average age was 34.2 years (SD = 4.3 years). Through CFA the already five-factor structure of the TES-A (Anticipation of trauma, Intrusion, Avoidance, Resignation, Hyperstimulation) was applied to our sample. All five factors were significantly and positively correlated with each other. All Cronbach's alpha were over 0.7, indicating acceptable reliability of the factors. Relatively convergent validity, all factors of the Greek version of the TES-A were significantly associated with stress, anxiety, depression and coping strategies. CONCLUSION The Greek version of TES-A is detected to be a valid and reliable instrument of prenatal Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptomatology among low-risk Greek pregnant women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pinelopi Varela
- General Hospital of Athens "Alexandra", Department of Midwifery, University of West Attica, Athens, Greece.
| | | | - Ioannis Zervas
- Professor of Psychiatry and Psychosomatic Medicine, Head of the Women's mental health and reproductive psychiatric clinic, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens Medical School, Eginition University Hospital, Athens, Greece
| | - Anna Deltsidou
- Department of Midwifery, University of West Attica, Athens, Greece
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Cumulative trauma predicts hair cortisol concentrations and symptoms of depression and anxiety in pregnant women-an investigation of community samples from Greece, Spain and Perú. Sci Rep 2023; 13:1434. [PMID: 36697477 PMCID: PMC9876917 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-28151-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Exposure to traumatic experiences across lifespan shapes the functioning of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis and sets individuals at risk to develop symptoms of depression and anxiety. Particularly, HPA axis regulation and the psychological health of the expectant mother have been of interest, as the health of the unborn child may be affected through changes in gestational biology. The present study investigated the potential associations between lifetime trauma, current symptoms (depression and anxiety) and hair cortisol concentrations (HCC) in pregnant women. A total of 149 pregnant women were interviewed in public outpatient clinics with varying gestational age in Greece, Spain and Perú. Lifetime trauma exposure and current symptoms of depression and anxiety were assessed. HCC was measured in scalp-near hair segments (2 cm length) reflecting cumulative cortisol secretion of the past two months. Results showed that trauma load is negatively associated with HCC and higher symptoms of depression and anxiety. There was a negative association between HCC and symptoms. The present findings support the notion that cumulative trauma exposure exerts long-lasting effects on the expectant mother's HPA axis activity functioning and mental health and may thereby potentially create risk trajectories for the unborn child via changes in gestational biology.
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Salimi Y, Hoeboer C, Motevalli Haghi SA, Williamson RE, Rahimi MD, Rajabi-Gilan N, Almasi A, Olff M. Trauma and its consequences in Iran: cross-cultural adaption and validation of the Global Psychotrauma Screen in a representative sample. BMC Psychiatry 2023; 23:65. [PMID: 36694179 PMCID: PMC9873548 DOI: 10.1186/s12888-023-04564-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2022] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Potentially traumatic events may lead to the development of a wide range of adverse psychological responses, including symptoms of anxiety, depression, and (complex) posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Despite the high prevalence of potentially traumatic events in Iran, there is no population data nor evidence-based instrument to screen for cross-diagnostic psychological responses to trauma. The Global Psychotrauma Screen (GPS) is a transdiagnostic self-report instrument for the detection of trauma-related symptoms, as well as risk and protective factors related to the impact of potentially traumatic events. OBJECTIVE The present study seeks to 1) translate and cross-culturally adapt the GPS in the Persian (Farsi) language and 2) examine the psychometric properties of the Persian GPS. METHOD The translation and adaptation were performed using the Sousa and Rojjanasrirat (2011) method. A pilot study (n = 30) was carried out to test the content validity and test-retest reliability of the GPS. Next, in a representative sample (n = 800) of residents of Kermanshah City, the GPS, the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) and the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) were administered. Construct validity of the Persian GPS was assessed using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Additionally, we evaluated the convergent validity and internal consistency of the GPS. RESULTS Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses indicated a three-factor model as the best solution with factors representing 1) Negative Affect, 2) Core PTSD symptoms and 3) Dissociative symptoms. The GPS total symptom score had high internal consistency and high convergent validity with related measures. A GPS total symptom cut-off score of nine was optimal for indicating a probable PTSD diagnosis based on the PCL-5. About half (52%) of the current sample met criteria for probable PTSD. CONCLUSIONS The current findings suggest that the GPS can be effectively adapted for use in a non-Western society and, specifically, that the Persian GPS represents a useful, reliable and valid tool for screening of trauma-related symptoms in Iran.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yahya Salimi
- Social Development & Health Promotion Research Center, Health Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran.
| | - C. Hoeboer
- grid.7177.60000000084992262Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Public Health, Amsterdam UMC Location University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Seyed Ali Motevalli Haghi
- grid.5608.b0000 0004 1757 3470Cognitive Neuroscience and Clinical Neuropsychology, Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
| | - R. E. Williamson
- grid.253613.00000 0001 2192 5772Department of Psychology, University of Montana, Missoula, MT USA
| | - Mohammad Dawood Rahimi
- grid.411301.60000 0001 0666 1211Cognitive Psychology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Nader Rajabi-Gilan
- grid.412112.50000 0001 2012 5829Social Development & Health Promotion Research Center, Health Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran ,grid.411189.40000 0000 9352 9878Sociology Department, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Kurdistan, Sanandaj, Iran
| | - Ali Almasi
- grid.412112.50000 0001 2012 5829Social Development & Health Promotion Research Center, Health Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - M. Olff
- grid.7177.60000000084992262Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Public Health, Amsterdam UMC Location University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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Cumulative life stressors and stress response to threatened preterm labour as birth date predictors. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2021; 305:1421-1429. [PMID: 34549310 DOI: 10.1007/s00404-021-06251-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Preterm birth represents one of the main causes of neonatal morbimortality and a risk factor for neurodevelopmental disorders. Appropriate predictive methods for preterm birth outcome, which consequently would facilitate prevention programs, are needed. We aim to predict birth date in women with a threatened preterm labour (TPL) based on stress response to TPL diagnosis, cumulative life stressors, and relevant obstetric variables. METHODS A prospective cohort of 157 pregnant women with TPL diagnosis between 24 and 31 weeks gestation formed the study sample. To estimate the stress response to TPL, maternal salivary cortisol, α-amylase levels, along with anxiety and depression symptoms were measured. To determine cumulative life stressors, previous traumas, social support, and family functioning were registered. Then, linear regression models were used to examine the effect of potential predictors of birth date. RESULTS Lower family adaptation, higher Body Mass Index (BMI), higher cortisol levels and TPL diagnosis week were the main predictors of birth date. Gestational week at TPL diagnosis showed a non-linear interaction with cortisol levels: TPL women with middle- and high-cortisol levels before 29 weeks of gestation went into imminent labour. CONCLUSION A combination of stress response to TPL diagnosis (salivary cortisol) and cumulative life stressors (family adaptation) together with obstetric factors (TPL gestational week and BMI) was the best birth date predictor. Therefore, a psychosocial therapeutic intervention program aimed to increase family adaptation and decrease cortisol levels at TPL diagnosis as well as losing weight, may prevent preterm birth in symptomatic women.
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Hendrix YMGA, van Dongen KSM, de Jongh A, van Pampus MG. Postpartum Early EMDR therapy Intervention (PERCEIVE) study for women after a traumatic birth experience: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials 2021; 22:599. [PMID: 34488847 PMCID: PMC8419663 DOI: 10.1186/s13063-021-05545-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Up to 33% of women develop symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after a traumatic birth experience. Negative and traumatic childbirth experiences can also lead to fear of childbirth, avoiding or negatively influencing a subsequent pregnancy, mother-infant bonding problems, problems with breastfeeding, depression and reduced quality of life. For PTSD in general, eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy has proven to be effective. However, little is known about the preventive effects of early intervention EMDR therapy in women after a traumatic birth experience. The purpose of this study is to determine the effectiveness of early intervention EMDR therapy in preventing PTSD and reducing PTSD symptoms in women with a traumatic birth experience. METHODS The PERCEIVE study is a randomized controlled trial. Women suffering from the consequences of a traumatic birth experience will be randomly allocated at maximum 14 days postpartum to either EMDR therapy or 'care-as-usual'. Patients in the EMDR group receive two sessions of therapy between 14 (T0) and 35 days postpartum. All participants will be assessed at T0 and at 9 weeks postpartum (T1). At T1, all participants will undergo a CAPS-5 interview about the presence and severity of PTSD symptoms. The primary outcome measure is the severity of PTSD symptoms, whereas the secondary outcomes pertain to fear of childbirth, mother-infant bonding, breastfeeding, depression and quality of life. The study will be conducted at a large city hospital and at multiple midwifery practices in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. DISCUSSION It is to be expected that the results of this study will provide more insight about the safety and effectiveness of early intervention EMDR therapy in the prevention and reduction of PTSD (symptoms) in women with a traumatic birth experience. TRIAL REGISTRATION Netherlands Trial Register NL73231.000.20 . Registered on 21 August 2020.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y M G A Hendrix
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, OLVG, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - K S M van Dongen
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, OLVG, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - A de Jongh
- Academic Centre for Dentistry Amsterdam (ACTA), University of Amsterdam and VU Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.,Research Department, PSYTREC, Bilthoven, the Netherlands.,School of Health Sciences, Salford University, Manchester, UK.,Institute of Health and Society, University of Worcester, Worcester, UK.,School of Psychology, Queen's University, Belfast, Northern Ireland
| | - M G van Pampus
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, OLVG, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Trajectories of Depressive Symptoms and Anxiety during Pregnancy and Associations with Pregnancy Stress. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18052733. [PMID: 33800371 PMCID: PMC7967460 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18052733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The purposes of this study were to investigate the trajectory groups of depressive symptoms and anxiety in women during pregnancy and to identify the factors associated with those groups. Participants were recruited from the outpatient clinic of a women's health hospital in Seoul, Korea. Pregnant women (n = 136) completed a survey questionnaire that included questions on depressive symptoms, anxiety, and pregnancy stress; additionally, their saliva was tested for cortisol hormone levels three times during their pregnancies. The group-based trajectory modeling approach was used to identify latent trajectory groups. Ordinal logistic regressions were used to explore the association of latent trajectory groups with sociodemographic factors and pregnancy stress. Three trajectory groups of depressive symptoms were identified: low-stable (70%), moderate-stable (25%), and increased (5%). Four trajectory groups of anxiety were identified: very low-stable (10%), low-stable (67%), moderate-stable (18%), and high-stable (5%). The only factor associated with both the depressive symptoms and anxiety trajectory groups was pregnancy stress (p < 0.001). Most participants showed stable emotional status; however, some participants experienced higher levels of depressive symptoms and anxiety related to higher pregnancy stress. These pregnant women may need additional care from healthcare providers to promote their wellbeing during pregnancy.
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Witteveen AB, Henrichs J, Walker AL, Bohlmeijer ET, Burger H, Fontein-Kuipers Y, Schellevis FG, Stramrood CAI, Olff M, Verhoeven CJ, de Jonge A. Effectiveness of a guided ACT-based self-help resilience training for depressive symptoms during pregnancy: Study protocol of a randomized controlled trial embedded in a prospective cohort. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2020; 20:705. [PMID: 33213400 PMCID: PMC7676420 DOI: 10.1186/s12884-020-03395-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Background During pregnancy, about 10 to 20% of women experience depressive symptoms. Subclinical depression increases the risk of peripartum depression, maternal neuro-endocrine dysregulations, and adverse birth and infant outcomes. Current treatments often comprise face-to-face psychological or pharmacological treatments that may be too intensive for women with subclinical depression leading to drop-out and moderate effectiveness. Therefore, easily accessible, resilience enhancing and less stigmatizing interventions are needed to prevent the development of clinical depression. This paper describes the protocol of a prospective cohort study with an embedded randomized controlled trial (RCT) that aims to improve mental resilience in a sample of pregnant women through a self-help program based on the principles of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT). Maternal and offspring correlates of the trajectories of peripartum depressive symptoms will also be studied. Methods Pregnant women (≥ 18 years) receiving care in Dutch midwifery practices will participate in a prospective cohort study (n ~ 3500). Between 12 and 18 weeks of pregnancy, all women will be screened for depression with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). Women with an EPDS score ≥ 11 will be evaluated with a structured clinical interview. Participants with subclinical depression (n = 290) will be randomized to a 9-week guided self-help ACT-training or to care as usual (CAU). Primary outcomes (depressive symptoms and resilience) and secondary outcomes (e.g. anxiety and PTSD, bonding, infant development) will be collected via online questionnaires at four prospective assessments around 20 weeks and 30 weeks gestation and at 6 weeks and 4 months postpartum. Maternal hair cortisol concentrations will be assessed in a subsample of women with a range of depressive symptoms (n = 300). The intervention’s feasibility will be assessed through qualitative interviews in a subsample of participants (n = 20). Discussion This is the first study to assess the effectiveness of an easy to administer intervention strategy to prevent adverse mental health effects through enhancing resilience in pregnant women with antepartum depressive symptomatology. This longitudinal study will provide insights into trajectories of peripartum depressive symptoms in relation to resilience, maternal cortisol, psychological outcomes, and infant developmental milestones. Trial registration Netherlands Trial Register (NTR), NL7499. Registered 5 February 2019.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anke B Witteveen
- Department of Midwifery Science, AVAG/Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam UMC, location VU University Medical Center, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081 BT, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Jens Henrichs
- Department of Midwifery Science, AVAG/Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam UMC, location VU University Medical Center, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081 BT, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Annika L Walker
- Department of Midwifery Science, AVAG/Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam UMC, location VU University Medical Center, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081 BT, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ernst T Bohlmeijer
- Department of Psychology, Health and Technology , University of Twente , Drienerlolaan 5, 7522 NB, Enschede, Netherlands
| | - Huibert Burger
- Department of General Practice and Elderly Care Medicine, University Medical Centre Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, Groningen, 9713GZ, Netherlands
| | - Yvonne Fontein-Kuipers
- Institute for Healthcare - School of Midwifery , Rotterdam University of Applied Sciences , Rochussenstraat 198, 3015 EK, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Francois G Schellevis
- Department of General Practice , Amsterdam UMC Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute , Van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081 BT, Amsterdam, Netherlands.,NIVEL Netherlands Institute for Health Services Research , Otterstraat 118, 3513 CR, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Claire A I Stramrood
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, OLVG, Oosterpark 9, 1091 AC, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Miranda Olff
- Department of Psychiatry UMC, location AMC, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, Netherlands.,ARQ National Psychotrauma Centre , Nienoord 5, 1112 XE, Diemen, Netherlands
| | - Corine J Verhoeven
- Department of Midwifery Science, AVAG/Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam UMC, location VU University Medical Center, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081 BT, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology Maxima Medical Centre , Veldhoven, Netherlands.,Division of Midwifery School of Health Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Ank de Jonge
- Department of Midwifery Science, AVAG/Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam UMC, location VU University Medical Center, Van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081 BT, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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