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Sheikhlary S, Lopez DH, Moghimi S, Sun B. Recent Findings on Therapeutic Cancer Vaccines: An Updated Review. Biomolecules 2024; 14:503. [PMID: 38672519 PMCID: PMC11048403 DOI: 10.3390/biom14040503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Revised: 04/06/2024] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Cancer remains one of the global leading causes of death and various vaccines have been developed over the years against it, including cell-based, nucleic acid-based, and viral-based cancer vaccines. Although many vaccines have been effective in in vivo and clinical studies and some have been FDA-approved, there are major limitations to overcome: (1) developing one universal vaccine for a specific cancer is difficult, as tumors with different antigens are different for different individuals, (2) the tumor antigens may be similar to the body's own antigens, and (3) there is the possibility of cancer recurrence. Therefore, developing personalized cancer vaccines with the ability to distinguish between the tumor and the body's antigens is indispensable. This paper provides a comprehensive review of different types of cancer vaccines and highlights important factors necessary for developing efficient cancer vaccines. Moreover, the application of other technologies in cancer therapy is discussed. Finally, several insights and conclusions are presented, such as the possibility of using cold plasma and cancer stem cells in developing future cancer vaccines, to tackle the major limitations in the cancer vaccine developmental process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Sheikhlary
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - David Humberto Lopez
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; (D.H.L.); (S.M.)
| | - Sophia Moghimi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; (D.H.L.); (S.M.)
| | - Bo Sun
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; (D.H.L.); (S.M.)
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2
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Zhang S, Yang R, Ouyang Y, Shen Y, Hu L, Xu C. Cancer stem cells: a target for overcoming therapeutic resistance and relapse. Cancer Biol Med 2023; 20:j.issn.2095-3941.2023.0333. [PMID: 38164743 PMCID: PMC10845928 DOI: 10.20892/j.issn.2095-3941.2023.0333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are a small subset of cells in cancers that are thought to initiate tumorous transformation and promote metastasis, recurrence, and resistance to treatment. Growing evidence has revealed the existence of CSCs in various types of cancers and suggested that CSCs differentiate into diverse lineage cells that contribute to tumor progression. We may be able to overcome the limitations of cancer treatment with a comprehensive understanding of the biological features and mechanisms underlying therapeutic resistance in CSCs. This review provides an overview of the properties, biomarkers, and mechanisms of resistance shown by CSCs. Recent findings on metabolic features, especially fatty acid metabolism and ferroptosis in CSCs, are highlighted, along with promising targeting strategies. Targeting CSCs is a potential treatment plan to conquer cancer and prevent resistance and relapse in cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Zhang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Radiation Oncology Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Sichuan Cancer Hospital & Institute, Sichuan Cancer Center, Affiliated Cancer Hospital of University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 610042, China
| | - Rui Yang
- Department of Ultrasound in Medicine, Chengdu Wenjiang District People’s Hospital, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Yujie Ouyang
- Acupuncture and Massage College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu 611137, China
| | - Yang Shen
- Department of Oncology & Cancer Institute, Sichuan Academy of Medical Sciences and Sichuan Provincial People’s Hospital, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 610072, China
- Sichuan Provincial Key Laboratory for Human Disease Gene Study, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Sichuan Academy of Medical Sciences and Sichuan Provincial People’s Hospital, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 610072, China
- School of Pharmacy, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau SAR 999078, China
| | - Lanlin Hu
- Department of Oncology & Cancer Institute, Sichuan Academy of Medical Sciences and Sichuan Provincial People’s Hospital, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 610072, China
- Sichuan Provincial Key Laboratory for Human Disease Gene Study, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Sichuan Academy of Medical Sciences and Sichuan Provincial People’s Hospital, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 610072, China
- Yu-Yue Pathology Scientific Research Center, Chongqing 400039, China
- Jinfeng Laboratory, Chongqing 401329, China
| | - Chuan Xu
- Department of Oncology & Cancer Institute, Sichuan Academy of Medical Sciences and Sichuan Provincial People’s Hospital, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 610072, China
- Sichuan Provincial Key Laboratory for Human Disease Gene Study, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Sichuan Academy of Medical Sciences and Sichuan Provincial People’s Hospital, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 610072, China
- Yu-Yue Pathology Scientific Research Center, Chongqing 400039, China
- Jinfeng Laboratory, Chongqing 401329, China
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3
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Ritter A, Koirala N, Wieland A, Kaumaya PTP, Mitchell DL. Therapeutic Cancer Vaccines for the Management of Recurrent and Metastatic Head and Neck Cancer: A Review. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2023; 149:168-176. [PMID: 36580281 DOI: 10.1001/jamaoto.2022.4264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Importance Squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (HNSCC) is prevalent globally and in the US. Management, particularly after disease recurrence, can be challenging, and exploring additional treatment modalities, such as therapeutic cancer vaccines, may offer an opportunity to improve outcomes in this setting. Observations This review provides an overview of the clinical efficacy of different treatment modalities that are currently available for the treatment of recurrent and metastatic HNSCC, including checkpoint inhibitors and targeted therapies, with a detailed summary of the numerous T-cell vaccines that have been studied in the setting of HNSCC, as well as a detailed summary of B-cell therapeutic vaccines being investigated for various malignant tumors. Conclusions and Relevance The findings of this review suggest that several therapeutic T-cell and B-cell vaccines, which have been recently developed and evaluated in a clinical setting, offer a promising treatment modality with the potential to improve outcomes for patients with recurrent and metastatic HNSCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex Ritter
- Department of Radiation Oncology, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, The James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, Columbus
| | - Nischal Koirala
- Department of Radiation Oncology, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, The James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, Columbus
| | - Andreas Wieland
- Department of Otolaryngology, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, The James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, Columbus.,Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, The James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, Columbus.,Pelotonia Institute for Immuno-Oncology, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, The James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, Columbus
| | - Pravin T P Kaumaya
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, The James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, Columbus
| | - Darrion L Mitchell
- Department of Radiation Oncology, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, The James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, Columbus
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4
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Guo L, Overholser J, Darby H, Ede NJ, Kaumaya PT. A newly discovered PD-L1 B-cell epitope peptide vaccine (PDL1-Vaxx) exhibits potent immune responses and effective anti-tumor immunity in multiple syngeneic mice models and (synergizes) in combination with a dual HER-2 B-cell vaccine (B-Vaxx). Oncoimmunology 2022; 11:2127691. [PMID: 36211807 PMCID: PMC9542669 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2022.2127691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Blockade of checkpoint receptors with monoclonal antibodies against CTLA-4, PD-1 and PD-L1 has shown great clinical success in several cancer subtypes, yielding unprecedented responses albeit a significant number of patients develop resistance and remain refractory. Both PD-1/PD-L1 and HER-2 signaling pathway inhibitors have limited efficacy and exhibits significant toxicities that limit their use. Ongoing clinical studies support the need for rationale combination of immuno-oncology agents to make a significant impact in the lives of cancer patients. We introduce the development of a novel chimeric PD-L1 B-cell peptide epitope vaccine (amino acid 130–147) linked to a “promiscuous” T cell measles virus fusion (MVF) peptide (MVF-PD-L1(130); PDL1-Vaxx) or linked to tetanus toxoid (TT3) TT3-PD-L1 (130) via a linker (GPSL). These vaccine constructs are highly immunogenic and antigenic in several syngeneic animal models. The PD-L1 vaccines elicited high titers of polyclonal antibodies that inhibit tumor growth in multiple syngeneic cancer models, eliciting antibodies of different subtypes IgG1, IgG2a, IgG2b and IgG3, induced PD-1/PD-L1 blockade, decreased proliferation, induced apoptosis and caused ADCC of tumor cells. The PDL1-Vaxx induces similar inhibition of tumor growth versus the standard anti-mouse PD-L1 antibody in both syngeneic BALB/c and C57BL/6J mouse models. The combination of PDL1-Vaxx with HER-2 vaccine B-Vaxx demonstrated synergistic tumor inhibition in D2F2/E2 carcinoma cell line. The anti-PDL1-Vaxx block PD-1/PD-L1 interaction and significantly prolonged anti-tumor responses in multiple syngeneic tumor models. The combination of HER-2 vaccine (B-Vaxx) with either PDL1-Vaxx or PD1-Vaxx demonstrated synergistic tumor inhibition. PDL1-Vaxx is a promising novel safe checkpoint inhibitor vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linlin Guo
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, USA
| | - Jay Overholser
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, USA
| | - Heather Darby
- Licensing Technology, Luminex Corp, Austin Texas, USA
| | | | - Pravin T.P Kaumaya
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, USA
- The James Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, OH, USA
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Karjula T, Elomaa H, Niskakangas A, Mustonen O, Puro I, Kuopio T, Ahtiainen M, Mecklin JP, Seppälä TT, Wirta EV, Sihvo E, Väyrynen JP, Yannopoulos F, Helminen O. CD3 + and CD8 + T-Cell-Based Immune Cell Score and PD-(L)1 Expression in Pulmonary Metastases of Microsatellite Stable Colorectal Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 15:cancers15010206. [PMID: 36612204 PMCID: PMC9818882 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15010206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 12/27/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The objective of this study was to evaluate the prognostic value of CD3+ and CD8+ based immune cell score (ICS), programmed death -1 (PD-1) and programmed death ligand -1 (PD-L1) in pulmonary metastases of proficient mismatch repair colorectal cancer (CRC) patients. A total of 101 pulmonary metastases and 62 primary CRC tumours were stained for CD3+, CD8+, PD-1 and PD-L1 expression. The prognostic value of ICS, PD-1/PD-L1 expression in 67 first pulmonary metastases and 61 primary CRC tumour was analysed. Comparative analysis was also performed between primary tumours and pulmonary metastases, as well as between T-cell densities and PD-1/PD-L1 expression. The 5-year overall survival rates of low, intermediate, and high ICS in pulmonary metastases were 10.0%, 25.5% and 47.0% (p = 0.046), respectively. Patients with high vs. low ICS in pulmonary metastases had a significantly better 5-year survival (adjusted HR 0.25, 95% CI 0.09-0.75, p = 0.013). High tumour cell PD-L1 expression in the pulmonary metastases was associated with improved survival (p = 0.024). Primary tumour CD8+ expression was significantly correlated with all T-cell densities in pulmonary metastases. Conclusion: The ICS evaluated from the resected pulmonary metastases of CRC showed significant prognostic value. High PD-L1 expression in pulmonary metastases is associated with favourable prognosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Topias Karjula
- Surgery Research Unit, Medical Research Center Oulu, Oulu University Hospital and University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
- Cancer and Translational Medicine Research Unit, Medical Research Center Oulu, Oulu University Hospital and University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
- Correspondence:
| | - Hanna Elomaa
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, 40014 Jyväskylä, Finland
- Department of Education and Research, Central Finland Health Care District, 40620 Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Anne Niskakangas
- Surgery Research Unit, Medical Research Center Oulu, Oulu University Hospital and University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
- Cancer and Translational Medicine Research Unit, Medical Research Center Oulu, Oulu University Hospital and University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
| | - Olli Mustonen
- Surgery Research Unit, Medical Research Center Oulu, Oulu University Hospital and University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
- Cancer and Translational Medicine Research Unit, Medical Research Center Oulu, Oulu University Hospital and University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
| | - Iiris Puro
- Surgery Research Unit, Medical Research Center Oulu, Oulu University Hospital and University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
- Cancer and Translational Medicine Research Unit, Medical Research Center Oulu, Oulu University Hospital and University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
| | - Teijo Kuopio
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, 40014 Jyväskylä, Finland
- Department of Pathology, Central Finland Health Care District, 40620 Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Maarit Ahtiainen
- Department of Pathology, Central Finland Health Care District, 40620 Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Jukka-Pekka Mecklin
- Department of Education and Research, Central Finland Health Care District, 40620 Jyväskylä, Finland
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, 40014 Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Toni T. Seppälä
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University and TAYS Cancer Center, Tampere University Hospital, 33520 Tampere, Finland
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Helsinki University Central Hospital, University of Helsinki, 00290 Helsinki, Finland
- Applied Tumour Genomics, Research Program Unit, University of Helsinki, 00290 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Erkki-Ville Wirta
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University and TAYS Cancer Center, Tampere University Hospital, 33520 Tampere, Finland
- Department of Gastroenterology and Alimentary Tract Surgery, Tampere University Hospital, 33520 Tampere, Finland
| | - Eero Sihvo
- Central Hospital of Central Finland, 40014 Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Juha P. Väyrynen
- Cancer and Translational Medicine Research Unit, Medical Research Center Oulu, Oulu University Hospital and University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
| | - Fredrik Yannopoulos
- Surgery Research Unit, Medical Research Center Oulu, Oulu University Hospital and University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Oulu University Hospital, 90014 Oulu, Finland
| | - Olli Helminen
- Surgery Research Unit, Medical Research Center Oulu, Oulu University Hospital and University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
- Cancer and Translational Medicine Research Unit, Medical Research Center Oulu, Oulu University Hospital and University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland
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6
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Alrhmoun S, Sennikov S. The Role of Tumor-Associated Antigen HER2/neu in Tumor Development and the Different Approaches for Using It in Treatment: Many Choices and Future Directions. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14246173. [PMID: 36551661 PMCID: PMC9776683 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14246173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Revised: 12/10/2022] [Accepted: 12/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The treatment of HER2-positive cancers has changed significantly over the past ten years thanks to a significant number of promising new approaches that have been added to our arsenal in the fight against cancer, including monoclonal antibodies, inhibitors of tyrosine kinase, antibody-drug conjugates, vaccination, and particularly, adoptive-T-cell therapy after its great success in hematological malignancies. Equally important is the new methodology for determining patients eligible for targeted HER2 therapy, which has doubled the number of patients who can benefit from these treatments. However, despite the initial enthusiasm, there are still several problems in this field represented by drug resistance and tumor recurrence that require the further development of new more efficient drugs. In this review, we discuss various approaches for targeting the HER2 molecule in cancer treatment, highlighting their benefits and drawbacks, along with the different mechanisms responsible for resistance to HER2-targeted therapies and how to overcome them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saleh Alrhmoun
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution Research Institute of Fundamental and Clinical Immunology, 630099 Novosibirsk, Russia
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Novosibirsk State University, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Sergey Sennikov
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution Research Institute of Fundamental and Clinical Immunology, 630099 Novosibirsk, Russia
- Department of Immunology, V. Zelman Institute for Medicine and Psychology, Novosibirsk State University, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
- Correspondence:
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7
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Phares TW, Huang J, Kotraiah V, Hauser MJ, Domi A, Oruganti S, Browne CD, Buontempo P, Mansour M, Pannucci J, Tsuji M, Gutierrez GM. Viral delivery of a peptide-based immunomodulator enhances T cell priming during vaccination. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:1029636. [PMID: 36582528 PMCID: PMC9792674 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.1029636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Modern, subunit-based vaccines have so far failed to induce significant T cell responses, contributing to ineffective vaccination against many pathogens. Importantly, while today's adjuvants are designed to trigger innate and non-specific immune responses, they fail to directly stimulate the adaptive immune compartment. Programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) partly regulates naïve-to-antigen-specific effector T cell transition and differentiation by suppressing the magnitude of activation. Indeed, we previously reported on a microbial-derived, peptide-based PD-1 checkpoint inhibitor, LD01, which showed potent T cell-stimulating activity when combined with a vaccine. Here we sought to improve the potency of LD01 by designing and testing new LD01 derivatives. Accordingly, we found that a modified version of an 18-amino acid metabolite of LD01, LD10da, improved T cell activation capability in a malaria vaccine model. Specifically, LD10da demonstrates improved antigen-specific CD8+ T cell expansion when combined prophylactically with an adenovirus-based malaria vaccine. A single dose of LD10da at the time of vaccination is sufficient to increase antigen-specific CD8+ T cell expansion in wild-type mice. Further, we show that LD10 can be encoded and delivered by a Modified Vaccinia Ankara viral vector and can enhance antigen-specific CD8+ T cell expansion comparable to that of synthetic peptide administration. Therefore, LD10da represents a promising biologic-based immunomodulator that can be genetically encoded and delivered, along with the antigen, by viral or other nucleic acid vectors to improve the efficacy and delivery of vaccines for ineradicable and emerging infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jing Huang
- The Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Center, New York, NY, United States,Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Marc Mansour
- MM Scientific Consultants Inc., Halifax, NS, Canada
| | | | - Moriya Tsuji
- The Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Center, New York, NY, United States,Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
| | - Gabriel M. Gutierrez
- Hibiscus Biotechnology, LLC, Rockville, MD, United States,*Correspondence: Gabriel M. Gutierrez,
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8
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Ede NJ, Good AJ, Tobias J, Garner-Spitzer E, Zielinski CC, Wiedermann U. Development of the B cell cancer vaccine HER-vaxx for the treatment of her-2 expressing cancers. Front Oncol 2022; 12:939356. [PMID: 36578947 PMCID: PMC9791928 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.939356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Her-2/neu is a tumor-associated protein that is overexpressed in a number of malignancies, including advanced cancer of the stomach, and has been proposed as a human cancer vaccine target. Overexpression of Her-2/neu in human breast and gastric carcinomas correlates with a more aggressive course of disease that results in poorer overall survival rates and shorter times to disease progression than in patients with tumors without overexpression of Her-2/neu. Cancer vaccines have the ability to stimulate the native immune system and in particular engineered B cell epitopes can elicit high affinity polyclonal antibodies with similar efficacy to Her-2 monoclonal antibodies such as trastuzumab (Roche). HER-Vaxx is under development as a therapeutic B cell vaccine for the treatment of gastric cancer in patients with Her-2/neu overexpressing metastatic or advanced adenocarcinoma of the stomach or gastroesophageal junction, referred to as advanced cancer of the stomach. P467-CRM197, the vaccine's immunogenic component, contains a single peptide antigen composed of 3 individual linear B cell epitope peptide sequences selected from the oncoprotein Her-2/neu that induce the patient's own B cells to produce endogenous anti-Her-2/neu antibodies. This review provides results from comprehensive preclinical studies encompassing primary and secondary pharmacodynamics, biodistribution and safety studies. These studies were performed to support clinical development of HER-Vaxx. Results from the GLP toxicology study in rodents showed that the vaccine did not produce any observable adverse effects suggesting that the doses proposed for the clinical trial should be well tolerated in patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J. Ede
- Immunotherapy R&D Department, Imugene Limited, Sydney, NSW, Australia,*Correspondence: Nicholas J. Ede,
| | - Anthony J. Good
- Immunotherapy R&D Department, Imugene Limited, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Joshua Tobias
- Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Erika Garner-Spitzer
- Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Christoph C. Zielinski
- Central European Cancer Center, Wiener Privatklinik, and Central European Cooperative Oncology Group (CECOG), Vienna, Austria
| | - Ursula Wiedermann
- Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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9
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Combined Vaccination with B Cell Peptides Targeting Her-2/neu and Immune Checkpoints as Emerging Treatment Option in Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14225678. [PMID: 36428769 PMCID: PMC9688220 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14225678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The application of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), targeting tumor-associated (TAAs) or tumor-specific antigens or immune checkpoints (ICs), has shown tremendous success in cancer therapy. However, the application of mAbs suffers from a series of limitations, including the necessity of frequent administration, the limited duration of clinical response and the emergence of frequently pronounced immune-related adverse events. However, the introduction of mAbs has also resulted in a multitude of novel developments for the treatment of cancers, including vaccinations against various tumor cell-associated epitopes. Here, we reviewed recent clinical trials involving combination therapies with mAbs targeting the PD-1/PD-L1 axis and Her-2/neu, which was chosen as a paradigm for a clinically highly relevant TAA. Our recent findings from murine immunizations against the PD-1 pathway and Her-2/neu with peptides representing the mimotopes/B cell peptides of therapeutic antibodies targeting these molecules are an important focus of the present review. Moreover, concerns regarding the safety of vaccination approaches targeting PD-1, in the context of the continuing immune response, as a result of induced immunological memory, are also addressed. Hence, we describe a new frontier of cancer treatment by active immunization using combined mimotopes/B cell peptides aimed at various targets relevant to cancer biology.
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10
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Aisa A, Weng S, Li X, Zhang D, Yuan Y. Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors combined with HER-2 targeted therapy in HER-2 positive Gastroesophageal cancer. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2022; 180:103864. [DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2022.103864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Revised: 10/25/2022] [Accepted: 10/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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11
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Sobhani N, Scaggiante B, Morris R, Chai D, Catalano M, Tardiel-Cyril DR, Neeli P, Roviello G, Mondani G, Li Y. Therapeutic cancer vaccines: From biological mechanisms and engineering to ongoing clinical trials. Cancer Treat Rev 2022; 109:102429. [PMID: 35759856 PMCID: PMC9217071 DOI: 10.1016/j.ctrv.2022.102429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2022] [Revised: 06/12/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Therapeutic vaccines are currently at the forefront of medical innovation. Various endeavors have been made to develop more consolidated approaches to producing nucleic acid-based vaccines, both DNA and mRNA vaccines. These innovations have continued to propel therapeutic platforms forward, especially for mRNA vaccines, after the successes that drove emergency FDA approval of two mRNA vaccines against SARS-CoV-2. These vaccines use modified mRNAs and lipid nanoparticles to improve stability, antigen translation, and delivery by evading innate immune activation. Simple alterations of mRNA structure- such as non-replicating, modified, or self-amplifying mRNAs- can provide flexibility for future vaccine development. For protein vaccines, the use of long synthetic peptides of tumor antigens instead of short peptides has further enhanced antigen delivery success and peptide stability. Efforts to identify and target neoantigens instead of antigens shared between tumor cells and normal cells have also improved protein-based vaccines. Other approaches use inactivated patient-derived tumor cells to elicit immune responses, or purified tumor antigens are given to patient-derived dendritic cells that are activated in vitro prior to reinjection. This review will discuss recent developments in therapeutic cancer vaccines such as, mode of action and engineering new types of anticancer vaccines, in order to summarize the latest preclinical and clinical data for further discussion of ongoing clinical endeavors in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Navid Sobhani
- Department of Medicine, Section of Epidemiology and Population Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
| | - Bruna Scaggiante
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste 34127, Italy.
| | - Rachel Morris
- Thunder Biotech, 395 Cougar Blvd, Provo, UT 84604, USA.
| | - Dafei Chai
- Department of Medicine, Section of Epidemiology and Population Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Cancer Institute, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221002, PR China.
| | - Martina Catalano
- School of Human Health Sciences, University of Florence, Largo Brambilla 3, Florence 50134, Italy.
| | - Dana Rae Tardiel-Cyril
- Department of Medicine, Section of Epidemiology and Population Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
| | - Praveen Neeli
- Department of Medicine, Section of Epidemiology and Population Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
| | - Giandomenico Roviello
- Department of Health Sciences, Section of Clinical Pharmacology and Oncology, University of Florence, Viale Pieraccini 6, Florence 50139, Italy.
| | - Giuseppina Mondani
- Royal Infirmary Hospital, Foresterhill Health Campus, Foresterhill Rd, Aberdeen AB25 2ZN, United Kingdom.
| | - Yong Li
- Department of Medicine, Section of Epidemiology and Population Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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12
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Guo L, Overholser J, Good AJ, Ede NJ, Kaumaya PTP. Preclinical Studies of a Novel Human PD-1 B-Cell Peptide Cancer Vaccine PD1-Vaxx From BALB/c Mice to Beagle Dogs and to Non-Human Primates (Cynomolgus Monkeys). Front Oncol 2022; 12:826566. [PMID: 35646678 PMCID: PMC9137037 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.826566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapy with monoclonal antibodies to checkpoint inhibitors against the PD-1/PD-L1 signaling pathway is a landmark achievement in cancer therapy. Some anti-PD-1 inhibitors such as nivolumab and pembrolizumab have shown clinical success, in a percentage of patients with prolonged survival rates. However, adverse effects accompany these benefits. In this case, strategies with lower toxicity and increased specificity are urgently required. Cancer vaccines have the ability to stimulate the native immune system and in particular, an engineered B-cell epitope can elicit high-affinity polyclonal antibodies with similar efficacy to PD-1 monoclonal antibodies in murine animal models. We have previously designed and synthesized a unique B-cell vaccine, PD1-Vaxx [MVF-PD-1(92-110)], and we have tested the immunogenicity and antitumor properties in CT26 colon cancer BALB/c syngeneic mice model. This manuscript provides results from comprehensive preclinical pharmacology studies encompassing primary and secondary pharmacodynamics, biodistribution, and safety studies. The results from these preclinical studies support the use of PD1-Vaxx in a first-in-human clinical trial in patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). A phase I trial in patients with NSCLC has commenced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linlin Guo
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Jay Overholser
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, United States
| | | | | | - Pravin T. P. Kaumaya
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, United States
- James Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, OH, United States
- *Correspondence: Pravin T. P. Kaumaya, ; orcid.org/0000-0002-8647-3911
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Abstract
This review discusses peptide epitopes used as antigens in the development of vaccines in clinical trials as well as future vaccine candidates. It covers peptides used in potential immunotherapies for infectious diseases including SARS-CoV-2, influenza, hepatitis B and C, HIV, malaria, and others. In addition, peptides for cancer vaccines that target examples of overexpressed proteins are summarized, including human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER-2), mucin 1 (MUC1), folate receptor, and others. The uses of peptides to target cancers caused by infective agents, for example, cervical cancer caused by human papilloma virus (HPV), are also discussed. This review also provides an overview of model peptide epitopes used to stimulate non-specific immune responses, and of self-adjuvanting peptides, as well as the influence of other adjuvants on peptide formulations. As highlighted in this review, several peptide immunotherapies are in advanced clinical trials as vaccines, and there is great potential for future therapies due the specificity of the response that can be achieved using peptide epitopes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian W Hamley
- Department of Chemistry, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 6AD, U.K
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14
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Ma Y, Liu N, Wang Y, Zeng J, Hu YY, Hao W, Shi H, Zhu P, Lv J, Fan W, Wang X. Immune checkpoint blocking impact and nomogram prediction of COVID-19 inactivated vaccine seroconversion in patients with cancer: a propensity-score matched analysis. J Immunother Cancer 2021; 9:jitc-2021-003712. [PMID: 34845005 PMCID: PMC8634011 DOI: 10.1136/jitc-2021-003712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patients with cancer on active immune checkpoint inhibitors therapy were recommended to seek prophylaxis from COVID-19 by vaccination. There have been few reports to date to discuss the impact of progression cell death-1 blockers (PD-1B) on immune or vaccine-related outcomes, and what risk factors that contribute to the serological status remains to be elucidated. The study aims to find the impact of PD-1B on vaccination outcome and investigate other potential risk factors associated with the risk of seroconversion failure. METHODS Patients with active cancer treatment were retrospectively enrolled to investigate the interaction effects between PD-1B and vaccination. Through propensity score matching of demographic and clinical features, the seroconversion rates and immune/vaccination-related adverse events (irAE and vrAE) were compared in a head-to-head manner. Then, a nomogram predicting the failure risk was developed with variables significant in multivariate regression analysis and validated in an independent cohort. RESULTS Patients (n=454) receiving either PD-1B or COVID-19 vaccination, or both, were matched into three cohorts (vac+/PD-1B+, vac+/PD-1B-, and vac-/PD-1B+, respectively), with a non-concer control group of 206 participants. 68.1% (94/138), 71.3% (117/164), and 80.5% (166/206) were seropositive in vac+/PD-1B+cohort, vac+/PD-1B- cohort, and non-cancer control group, respectively. None of irAE or vrAE was observed to be escalated in PD-1B treatment except for low-grade rash.The vaccinated patients with cancer had a significantly lower rate of seroconversion rates than healthy control. A nomogram was thus built that encompassed age, pathology, and chemotherapy status to predict the seroconversion failure risk, which was validated in an independent cancer cohort of 196 patients. CONCLUSION Although patients with cancer had a generally decreased rate of seroconversion as compared with the healthy population, the COVID-19 vaccine was generally well tolerated, and seroconversion was not affected in patients receiving PD-1B. A nomogram predicting failure risk was developed, including age, chemotherapy status, pathology types, and rheumatic comorbidity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yifei Ma
- Department of Orthopedics & Spine Surgery, Second Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Nianqi Liu
- Lab for Post-traumatic Stress Disorder, Faculty of Psychology and Mental Health, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
- The Emotion & Cognition Lab, Faculty of Psychology and Mental Health, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Youlong Wang
- Department of General Surgery, Hainan Hospital of PLA General Hospital, Sanya City, Hainan Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiling Zeng
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Ying-Ying Hu
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Wu Hao
- Department of Breast Oncology, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Huazheng Shi
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Shanghai Universal Medical Imaging Center, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Pengfei Zhu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Zhengzhou University First Affiliated Hospital, Zhengzhou, Henan, People's Republic of China
| | - Jun Lv
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hepatology, Zhengzhou University First Affiliated Hospital, Zhengzhou, Henan, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Fan
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Xinjia Wang
- Department of Orthopedics & Spine Surgery, Second Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
- Department of Orthopedics, Cancer Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
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15
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Emerging targets for anticancer vaccination: PD-1. ESMO Open 2021; 6:100278. [PMID: 34649221 PMCID: PMC8517287 DOI: 10.1016/j.esmoop.2021.100278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Among the mechanisms by which tumor cells escape the immune surveillance, one is the interaction between programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) and its ligand programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1). Inhibition of the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway with monoclonal antibodies as immune checkpoint inhibitors targeting PD-1 or its ligand, PD-L1, represents a milestone in cancer therapy. The application of these antibodies, however, suffers from drawbacks including failure to show a response or benefit in a majority of patients following monotherapy or combination therapy, their frequent administration, and cost intensiveness. Small peptides capable of interfering with PD-1/PD-L1 interaction represent interesting alternatives to antibody-based immune checkpoint inhibitors. Moreover, peptides representing PD-1 or PD-L1 sequences can be used in active immunization approaches to induce antibodies that enhance antitumor immunity by effectively preventing PD-1-mediated inhibition in the host. Importantly, such peptides can readily be combined with peptides derived from cancer antigens to effectively induce an antitumor immune response. In this review, we have summarized the recent developments in the use of small molecules and peptides either to directly block PD-1/PD-L1 interaction, or in vaccination approaches to induce antibody responses stimulating anticancer immunity by blocking PD-1-mediated T-cell inhibition. Blockade of the PD-1/PD-L1 interaction by antibodies as immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) is a milestone in immunotherapy. Treatment by ICIs has disadvantages, like frequent administration, low response in some patients, and cost intensiveness. Direct blockade by small compounds or vaccination by peptides are two promising alternatives to the treatments with ICIs. Such alternatives may pave the way to therapeutics which could be used as monotherapy, or in combination with ICIs.
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Doyle HA, Gee RJ, Masters TD, Gee CR, Booth CJ, Peterson-Roth E, Koski RA, Helfand SC, Price L, Bascombe D, Jackson D, Ho R, Post GR, Mamula MJ. Vaccine-induced ErbB (EGFR/HER2)-specific immunity in spontaneous canine cancer. Transl Oncol 2021; 14:101205. [PMID: 34419682 PMCID: PMC8379704 DOI: 10.1016/j.tranon.2021.101205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Revised: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Spontaneous dog cancers closely resemble human cancer. Dogs with EGFR associated tumors were immunized with an EGFR/HER2 peptide vaccine. EGFR peptide vaccinated dogs developed anti-EGFR/HER2 antibodies. Vaccinated dogs have anti-EGFR antibody and T cells infiltrating tumors. Vaccinated dogs with osteosarcoma had tumor regression and increased survival.
Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) is overexpressed on a number of human cancers, and often is indicative of a poor outcome. Treatment of EGFR/HER2 overexpressing cancers includes monoclonal antibody therapy (cetuximab/trastuzumab) either alone or in conjunction with other standard cancer therapies. While monoclonal antibody therapy has been proven to be efficacious in the treatment of EGFR/HER2 overexpressing tumors, drawbacks include the lack of long-lasting immunity and acquired resistance to monoclonal therapy. An alternative approach is to induce a polyclonal anti-EGFR/HER2 tumor antigen response by vaccine therapy. In this phase I/II open-label study, we examined anti-tumor immunity in companion dogs with spontaneous EGFR expressing tumors. Canine cancers represent an outbred population in which the initiation, progression of disease, mutations and growth factors closely resemble that of human cancers. Dogs with EGFR expressing tumors were immunized with a short peptide of the EGFR extracellular domain with sequence homology to HER2. Serial serum analyses demonstrated high titers of EGFR/HER2 binding antibodies with biological activity similar to that of cetuximab and trastuzumab. Canine antibodies bound both canine and human EGFR on tumor cell lines and tumor tissue. CD8 T cells and IgG deposition were evident in tumors from immunized dogs. The antibodies inhibited EGFR intracellular signaling and inhibited tumor growth in vitro. Additionally, we illustrate objective responses in reducing tumors at metastatic sites in host animals. The data support the approach of amplifying anti-tumor immunity that may be relevant in combination with other immune modifying therapies such as checkpoint inhibitors.
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Key Words
- Abbreviations: BSA, bovine serum albumin
- CTLA-4, cytotoxic T-lymphocyte associated protein 4
- Canine
- DAPI, 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole
- EGF, epidermal growth factor
- EGFR
- EGFR, epidermal growth factor receptor
- FBS, fetal bovine serum
- GAPDH, glyceraldehyde-3 phosphate dehydrogenase
- HER2, human epidermal growth factor receptor 2, HER3, human epidermal growth factor receptor 3
- HER4, human epidermal growth factor receptor 4
- MFI, mean fluorescence intensity
- MHC, major histocompatibility complex
- OD, optical density
- OSA, osteosarcoma
- Osteosarcoma
- PBS, phosphate buffered saline
- Peptide
- RT, room temperature
- Vaccine
- pERK, phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase
- pNPP, p-nitrophenyl phosphate
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Affiliation(s)
- Hester A Doyle
- Section of Rheumatology, Yale School of Medicine, P.O. Box 208031, New Haven, CT 06520-8031, USA
| | - Renelle J Gee
- Section of Rheumatology, Yale School of Medicine, P.O. Box 208031, New Haven, CT 06520-8031, USA
| | - Tyler D Masters
- Section of Rheumatology, Yale School of Medicine, P.O. Box 208031, New Haven, CT 06520-8031, USA
| | - Christian R Gee
- Section of Rheumatology, Yale School of Medicine, P.O. Box 208031, New Haven, CT 06520-8031, USA
| | - Carmen J Booth
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | | | | | - Stuart C Helfand
- Oregon State University (Professor, retired), Corvallis, OR 97330, USA
| | - Lauren Price
- Clinton Veterinary Hospital, Clinton, CT 06413, USA
| | | | | | - Rita Ho
- MedVet, Norwalk, CT 06850, USA
| | - Gerald R Post
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA; MedVet, Norwalk, CT 06850, USA
| | - Mark J Mamula
- Section of Rheumatology, Yale School of Medicine, P.O. Box 208031, New Haven, CT 06520-8031, USA.
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Guo L, Kaumaya PTP. First prototype checkpoint inhibitor B-cell epitope vaccine (PD1-Vaxx) en route to human Phase 1 clinical trial in Australia and USA: exploiting future novel synergistic vaccine combinations. Br J Cancer 2021; 125:152-154. [PMID: 33772155 DOI: 10.1038/s41416-021-01342-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
We developed a PD-1 B-cell epitope vaccine (PD1-Vaxx) to rival nivolumab therapy which has received ethics approvals for a Phase 1 clinical trial in Australia. The US FDA granted Investigational New Drug approval to Imugene Ltd for clinical testing in NSCLC. We demonstrated synergistic vaccine combinations with an HER-2 targeted vaccine (B-Vaxx).
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Affiliation(s)
- Linlin Guo
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Division of Vaccine Research, The Ohio State Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Pravin T P Kaumaya
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Division of Vaccine Research, The Ohio State Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA. .,Arthur G. James Cancer Hospital & Solove Research, Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, OH, USA.
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18
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Cancer vaccines: An unkept promise? Drug Discov Today 2021; 26:1347-1352. [PMID: 33601016 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2021.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Revised: 01/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Two decades ago, cancer vaccines were hailed as a prominent breakthrough for the treatment of cancer. However, the vaccines failed to show any improvement in median survival time in various clinical trials, even though they stimulated the immune response and showed exceptional safety profiles. The resistance of cancer cells to the immune response was revealed as a significant hurdle. In this review, I discuss the different types of cancer vaccines and the strategies used to design them. I also highlight how cancer cells develop resistance to the immune response, and how therapies, such as monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and small interfering (si)RNA/short hairpin (sh)RNA could be used to address some of the shortcomings of cancer vaccine treatments.
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19
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Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics: news. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2021; 17:2-3. [PMID: 33529126 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2021.1872243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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