Efficacy of co-immunization with the DNA and peptide vaccines containing SYCP1 and ACRBP epitopes in a murine triple-negative breast cancer model

Bioinformatics design of a peptide vaccine containing sarcoma antigen NY-SAR-35 epitopes against breast cancer and evaluation of its immunological function in BALB/c mouse model

The development of a cancer vaccine has become an essential focus in the field of medical biotechnology and immunology. In our study, the NY-SAR-35 cancer/testis antigen was targeted to design a novel peptide vaccine using bioinformatics tools, and BALB/c mice were used to evaluate the vaccine's immunological function. This evaluation involved assessing peptide-specific IgG levels in the serum via ELISA and measuring the levels of IFN-γ, IL-4, and granzyme B in the supernatant of cultured splenocytes. The final vaccine construct consisted of two T lymphocyte epitopes linked by the AAY linker. This construct displayed high antigenicity, non-allergenicity, non-toxicity, stability, and ability to induce IFN-γ and IL-4. It showed stable dynamics with both human MHC-I and II molecules, as well as mouse MHC-II molecules, and revealed strong Van der Waals and electrostatic energies. Emulsifying our peptide vaccine in incomplete Freund's adjuvant resulted in a remarkable increase in the levels of IgG. The splenocytes of mice that received the combination of peptide and adjuvant displayed a noteworthy increase in IFN-γ, IL-4, and granzyme B secretion. Additionally, their lymphocytes exhibited higher proliferation rates compared to the control group. Our data demonstrated that our vaccine could stimulate a robust immune response, making it a promising candidate for cancer prevention. However, clinical trials are necessary to assess its efficacy in humans.

Systems approach to design multi-epitopic peptide vaccine candidate against fowl adenovirus structural proteins for Gallus gallus domesticus

Introduction

Fowl adenovirus (FAdV) is a significant pathogen in poultry, causing various diseases such as hepatitis-hydropericardium, inclusion body hepatitis, and gizzard erosion. Different serotypes of FAdV are associated with specific conditions, highlighting the need for targeted prevention strategies. Given the rising prevalence of FAdV-related diseases globally, effective vaccination and biosecurity measures are crucial. In this study, we explore the potential of structural proteins to design a multi-epitope vaccine targeting FAdV.

Methods

We employed an in silico approach to design the multi-epitope vaccine. Essential viral structural proteins, including hexon, penton, and fiber protein, were selected as vaccine targets. T-cell and B-cell epitopes binding to MHC-I and MHC-II molecules were predicted using computational methods. Molecular docking studies were conducted to validate the interaction of the multi-epitope vaccine candidate with chicken Toll-like receptors 2 and 5.

Results

Our in silico methodology successfully identified potential T-cell and B-cell epitopes within the selected viral structural proteins. Molecular docking studies revealed strong interactions between the multi-epitope vaccine candidate and chicken Toll-like receptors 2 and 5, indicating the structural integrity and immunogenic potential of the designed vaccine.

Discussion

The designed multi-epitope vaccine presents a promising approach for combating FAdV infections in chickens. By targeting essential viral structural proteins, the vaccine is expected to induce a robust immunological response. The in silico methodology utilized in this study provides a rapid and cost-effective means of vaccine design, offering insights into potential vaccine candidates before experimental validation. Future studies should focus on in vitro and in vivo evaluations to further assess the efficacy and safety of the proposed vaccine.

Nucleic acid vaccines-based therapy for triple-negative breast cancer: A new paradigm in tumor immunotherapy arena

Nucleic acid vaccines (NAVs) have the potential to be economical, safe, and efficacious. Furthermore, just the chosen antigen in the pathogen is the target of the immune responses brought on by NAVs. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) treatment shows great promise for nucleic acid-based vaccines, such as DNA (as plasmids) and RNA (as messenger RNA [mRNA]). Moreover, cancer vaccines offer a compelling approach that can elicit targeted and long-lasting immune responses against tumor antigens. Bacterial plasmids that encode antigens and immunostimulatory molecules serve as the foundation for DNA vaccines. In the 1990s, plasmid DNA encoding the influenza A nucleoprotein triggered a protective and targeted cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) response, marking the first instance of DNA vaccine-mediated immunity. Similarly, in vitro transcribed mRNA was first successfully used in animals in 1990. At that point, mice were given an injection of the gene encoding the mRNA sequence, and the researchers saw the production of a protein. We begin this review by summarizing our existing knowledge of NAVs. Next, we addressed NAV delivery, emphasizing the need to increase efficacy in TNBC.

Immunoinformatics-based potential multi-peptide vaccine designing against Jamestown Canyon Virus (JCV) capable of eliciting cellular and humoral immune responses

Jamestown Canyon virus (JCV) is a deadly viral infection transmitted by various mosquito species. This mosquito-borne virus belongs to Bunyaviridae family, posing a high public health threat in the in tropical regions of the United States causing encephalitis in humans. Common symptoms of JCV include fever, headache, stiff neck, photophobia, nausea, vomiting, and seizures. Despite the availability of resources, there is currently no vaccine or drug available to combat JCV. The purpose of this study was to develop an epitope-based vaccine using immunoinformatics approaches. The vaccine aimed to be secure, efficient, bio-compatible, and capable of stimulating both innate and adaptive immune responses. In this study, the protein sequence of JCV was obtained from the NCBI database. Various bioinformatics methods, including toxicity evaluation, antigenicity testing, conservancy analysis, and allergenicity assessment were utilized to identify the most promising epitopes. Suitable linkers and adjuvant sequences were used in the design of vaccine construct. 50s ribosomal protein sequence was used as an adjuvant at the N-terminus of the construct. A total of 5 CTL, 5 HTL, and 5 linear B cell epitopes were selected based on non-allergenicity, immunological potential, and antigenicity scores to design a highly immunogenic multi-peptide vaccine construct. Strong interactions between the proposed vaccine and human immune receptors, i.e., TLR-2 and TLR-4, were revealed in a docking study using ClusPro software, suggesting their possible relevance in the immunological response to the vaccine. Immunological and physicochemical properties assessment ensured that the proposed vaccine demonstrated high immunogenicity, solubility and thermostability. Molecular dynamics simulations confirmed the strong binding affinities, as well as dynamic and structural stability of the proposed vaccine. Immune simulation suggest that the vaccine has the potential to effectively stimulate cellular and humoral immune responses to combat JCV infection. Experimental and clinical assays are required to validate the results of this study.

Prediction and identification of HLA-A*0201-restricted epitopes from cancer testis antigen CT23

Cancer-testis antigen CT23 is a class of tumor-associated antigens (TAA) characterized by restricted expression in male germ cells and a variety of tumor tissues. Numerous studies have shown that CT23 is closely related to tumor cell viability, proliferation, metastasis and invasion. CT23 is immunogenic and can cause specific immune response in tumor patients. Therefore, it is considered to be one of the best target antigens for designing therapeutic tumor vaccines and T-cell-mediated tumor immunotherapy. In this study, we initially obtained seven HLA-A*0201-restricted CT23 epitope candidate peptides through the T cell epitope prediction program. Subsequently, a T2 cell binding assay revealed the potential binding of all candidate peptides with HLA-A2 molecules. Notably, peptide P7 (ALLVLCYSI) exhibited the highest affinity, as evidenced by a fluorescence index (FI) of 2.19. Dendritic cells (DCs) loaded with CT23 candidate peptide can stimulate CD8+T cell activation and proliferation, and compared with other candidate peptides, candidate peptide P7 is superior. The cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) stimulated by the peptide P7 had killing effect on tumor cells (HLA-A*0201+, CT23+), but no killing effect on tumor cells (HLA-A*0201-, CT23+). The CTLs induced by the peptide P7 also had a specific killing effect on T2 cells bearing the peptide P7. In summary, our findings suggest that the CT23 peptide P7 (ALLVLCYSI) can induce immune responses and holds potential for tumor-specific CTL therapy.

Bioinformatics analysis of Muscovy duck parvovirus REP and VP1 proteins

This article was aimed at analyzing the sequence, structure, and function of the two Muscovy duck parvovirus proteins, including REP and VP1. The antigenicity, physical and chemical properties, transmembrane regions, phosphorylation sites, glycosylation sites, three-dimensional structure, and linear epitope of VP1 and REP were predicted and analyzed through bioinformatics methods. A multi-epitope vaccine was also constructed based on the screened epitopes, and the vaccine was characterized, modeled, molecularly docked and molecularly cloned. The epitopes were screened according to the criteria of antigenicity, non-allergenicity and non-toxicity, and 12 epitope fragments were obtained. The B cell epitopes were analyzed according to four scales: β-turn, hydrophilicity, surface accessibility and antigenicity. Combined with the epitope prediction results based on structure, the final epitope prediction results were obtained. The multi-epitope vaccine used an EAAAK-linked adjuvant, a GPGPG-linked T-cell epitope, and a KK-linked B-cell epitope. The analysis showed that the vaccine was stable hydrophilic, antigenic, conserved and non-allergenic. Based on molecular docking it was shown that good interactions between the vaccine and the immune receptor were generated and were essential to generate an immune response. The final vaccine was reverse translated into cDNA and the DNA vaccine was designed by codon optimization and molecular cloning. Further trials are still needed to demonstrate the immunogenicity and other aspects of vaccine efficacy.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

In silico analysis of the conserved surface-exposed epitopes to design novel multiepitope peptide vaccine for all variants of the SARS-CoV-2

Recently the prevalence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has become a pervasive threat to generic health. The SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) glycoprotein plays a fundamental role in binds and fusion to the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). The multi-epitope peptide vaccines would be able to elicit both long-lasting humoral and cellular immune responses, resulting the eliminating SARS-CoV-2 infections as asymptomatic patients are in large numbers. Recently, the omicron variant of the SARS-CoV-2 became a variant of concern that contained just 15-point mutations in the receptor-binding domain of the spike protein. In order to eliminate new evidence on coronavirus variants of concern detected through epidemic intelligence, the conserved epitopes of the receptor-binding domain (RBD) and spike cleavage site is the most probable target for vaccine development to inducing binds and fusion inhibitors neutralizing antibodies respectively. In this study, we utilized bioinformatics tools for identifying and analyzing the spike (S) glycoprotein sequence, e.g. the prediction of the potential linear B-cell epitopes, B-cell multi‑epitope design, secondary and tertiary structures, physicochemical properties, solubility, antigenicity, allergenicity, the molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation for the promising vaccine candidate against all variant of concern of SARS-CoV-2. Among the epitopes of the RBD region are surface-exposed epitopes SVYAWNRKRISNCV and ATRFASVYAWNRKR as the conserved sequences in all variants of concern can be a good candidate to induce an immune response.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Bioinformatics analysis of Omp19 and Omp25 proteins for designing multi-epitope vaccines against Brucella

Brucellosis is a zoonotic disease caused by Brucella. There is no effective vaccine against human brucellosis. Omp19 and Omp25 are the outer membrane proteins of Brucella. They are widely expressed and highly conserved in Brucella and have high immunogenicity. Herein, we aim to identify multi-epitope vaccine candidates based on Omp19 and Omp25. We analyzed the physicochemical properties and protein structure of Omp19 and Omp25, and predicted the corresponding B cell and T cell epitopes using bioinformatics analysis. Omp19 and Omp25 were composed of 177 amino acids and 213 amino acids, respectively. They were both stable hydrophilic proteins. The instability indices were 44.8 and 23, respectively. The hydrophilicity was -0.1 and -0.317, respectively. In the secondary structure of Omp19 and Omp25 proteins, the α-helix accounted for 12.43% and 23.94%, the β-sheet was 18.64% and 23.47%, the β-turn was 6.78% and 4.23%, and the random coil was 62.15% and 48.36%. Finally, 5 B cell epitopes, 3 Th-cell epitopes and 5 CTL cell epitopes of Omp19 protein, and 4 B cell epitopes, 3 Th-cell epitopes, and 5 CTL cell epitopes of Omp25 protein were selected as vaccine candidates. In conclusion, we obtained potential B cell and T cell epitopes of the Brucella outer membrane Omp19 and Omp25 proteins. This lays the foundation for the further design of multi-epitope vaccine of Brucella.

Novel multi-epitope vaccine against bovine brucellosis: approach from immunoinformatics to expression

Brucellosis is a zoonotic caused by the Brucella which is a well-known infectious disease agent in domestic animals and if transmitted, it can cause infection in humans. Because brucellosis is contagious, its control depends on the eradication of the animal disease in farms. There are two vaccines based on the killed and/or weakened bacteria against B. melitensis and B. abortus, but no recombinant vaccine is available for preventing the disease. The present study was designed to develop a multi-epitope vaccine against of B. melitensis and B. abortus using virB10, Omp31 and Omp16 antigens by the prediction of T lymphocytes, T cell cytotoxicity and IFN-γ epitopes. 50S L7/L12 Ribosomal protein from Mycobacterium tuberculosis was used as a bovine TLR4 and TLR9 agonist. GPGPG, AAY and KK linkers were used as a linker. Brucella construct was well-integrated in the pET-32a Shuttle vector with BamHI and HindIII restriction enzymes. The final construct contained 769 amino acids, that it was soluble protein of about ∼82 kDa after expression in the Escherichia coli SHuffle host. Modeled protein analysis based on the tertiary structure validation, molecular docking studies, molecular dynamics simulations results like RMSD, Gyration and RMSF as well as MM/PBSA analysis showed that this protein has a stable construct and is capable being in interaction with bovine TLR4 and TLR9. Analysis of the data obtained suggests that the proposed vaccine can induce the immune response by stimulating T- and B-cells, and may be used for prevention and remedial purposes, against B. melitensis and B. abortus.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Computational design of candidate multi-epitope vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 targeting structural (S and N) and non-structural (NSP3 and NSP12) proteins

The COVID-19 pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 virus has created a global damage and has exposed the vulnerable side of scientific research towards novel diseases. The intensity of the pandemic is huge, with mortality rates of more than 6 million people worldwide in a span of 2 years. Considering the gravity of the situation, scientists all across the world are continuously attempting to create successful therapeutic solutions to combat the virus. Various vaccination strategies are being devised to ensure effective immunization against SARS-CoV-2 infection. SARS-CoV-2 spreads very rapidly, and the infection rate is remarkably high than other respiratory tract viruses. The viral entry and recognition of the host cell is facilitated by S protein of the virus. N protein along with NSP3 is majorly responsible for viral genome assembly and NSP12 performs polymerase activity for RNA synthesis. In this study, we have designed a multi-epitope, chimeric vaccine considering the two structural (S and N protein) and two non-structural proteins (NSP3 and NSP12) of SARS-CoV-2 virus. The aim is to induce immune response by generating antibodies against these proteins to target the viral entry and viral replication in the host cell. In this study, computational tools were used, and the reliability of the vaccine was verified using molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulation and immune simulation studies in silico. These studies demonstrate that the vaccine designed shows steady interaction with Toll like receptors with good stability and will be effective in inducing a strong and specific immune response in the body.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Developing a multiepitope vaccine for the prevention of SARS-CoV-2 and monkeypox virus co-infection: A reverse vaccinology analysis

BACKGROUND

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and monkeypox virus (MPXV) severely threaten human health; however, currently, no vaccine can prevent a co-infection with both viruses.

METHODS

Five antigens were selected to predict dominant T and B cell epitopes screened for immunogenicity, antigenicity, toxicity, and sensitization. After screening, all antigens joined in the construction of a novel multiepitope vaccine. The physicochemical and immunological characteristics, and secondary and tertiary structures of the vaccine were predicted and analyzed using bio- and immunoinformatics. Finally, codon optimization and cloning in-silico were performed.

RESULTS

A new multiepitope vaccine, named S7M8, was constructed based on four helper T lymphocyte (HTL) epitopes, six cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) epitopes, five B cell epitopes, as well as Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists. The antigenicity and immunogenicity scores of the S7M8 vaccine were 0.907374 and 0.6552, respectively. The S7M8 vaccine was comprised of 26.96% α-helices, the optimized Z-value of the tertiary structure was -5.92, and the favored area after majorization in the Ramachandran plot was 84.54%. Molecular docking showed that the S7M8 vaccine could tightly bind to TLR2 (-1100.6 kcal/mol) and TLR4 (-950.3 kcal/mol). In addition, the immune stimulation prediction indicated that the S7M8 vaccine could activate T and B lymphocytes to produce high levels of Th1 cytokines and antibodies.

CONCLUSION

S7M8 is a promising biomarker with good antigenicity, immunogenicity, non-toxicity, and non-sensitization. The S7M8 vaccine can trigger significantly high levels of Th1 cytokines and antibodies and may be a potentially powerful tool in preventing SARS-CoV-2 and MPXV.

Reverse vaccinology assisted design of a novel multi-epitope vaccine to target Wuchereria bancrofti cystatin: An immunoinformatics approach

Proteases are the critical mediators of immunomodulation exerted by the filarial parasites to bypass and divert host immunity. Cystatin is a small (∼15 kDa) immunomodulatory filarial protein and known to contribute in the immunomodulation strategy by inducing anti-inflammatory response through alternative activation of macrophages. Recently, Wuchereria bancrofti cystatin has been discovered as a ligand of human toll-like receptor 4 which is key behind the cystatin-induced anti-inflammatory response in major human antigen-presenting cells. Considering the pivotal role of cystatin in the immunobiology of filariasis, cystatin could be an efficacious target for developing vaccine. Herein, we present the design and in-silico analyses of a multi-epitope-based peptide vaccine to target W. bancrofti cystatin through immune-informatics approaches. The 262 amino acid long antigen construct comprises 9 MHC-I epitopes and MHC-II epitopes linked together by GPGPG peptide alongside an adjuvant (50S ribosomal protein L7/L12) at N terminus and 6 His tags at C terminus. Molecular docking study reveals that the peptide could trigger TLR4-MD2 to induce protective innate immune responses while the induced adaptive responses were found to be mediated by IgG, IgM and Th1 mediated responses. Notably, the designed vaccine exhibits high stability and no allergenicity in-silico. Furthermore, the muti epitope-vaccine was also predicted for its RNA structure and cloned in pET30ax for further experimental validation. Taken together, this study presents a novel multi-epitope peptide vaccine for triggering efficient innate and adaptive immune responses against W. bancrofti to intervene LF through immunotherapy.

Design of a multi-epitope-based vaccine consisted of immunodominant epitopes of structural proteins of SARS-CoV-2 using immunoinformatics approach

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has shown rapid global spread and has resulted in a significant death toll worldwide. In this study, we aimed to design a multi-epitope vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 based on structural proteins S, M, N, and E. We identified B- and T-cell epitopes and then the antigenicity, toxicity, allergenicity, and similarity of predicted epitopes were analyzed. T-cell epitopes were docked with corresponding HLA alleles. Consequently, the selected T- and B-cell epitopes were included in the final construct. All selected epitopes were connected with different linkers and flagellin and pan-HLA DR binding epitopes (PADRE) as an adjuvant were used in the vaccine construct. Furthermore, molecular docking was used to evaluate the complex between the final vaccine construct and two alleles, HLA-A*02:01 and HLA-DRB1*01:01. Finally, codons were optimized for in silico cloning into pET28a(+) vector using SnapGene. The final vaccine construct comprised 11 CTL, HTL, and B-cell epitopes corresponding to 394 amino acid residues. In silico evaluation showed that the designed vaccine might potentially promote an immune response. Further in vivo preclinical and clinical testing is required to determine the safety and efficacy of the designed vaccine.

Design and functional preliminary investigation of recombinant antigen EgG1Y162-EgG1Y162 against Echinococcus granulosus

In the early stage, our research group cloned Echinococcus granulosus-specific antigen, EgG1Y162, from protoscolex and adult worms of E. granulosus. In order to enhance the immunogenicity of the vaccine, we prepared a recombinant vaccine by tandemly linking EgG1Y162, splicing the protein and linker at the gene level. This approach is expected to improve the immunogenicity of the vaccine by enhancing the molecular weight of the protein and increasing the antigenic epitopes. Bioinformatics was used to predict the physicochemical properties, transmembrane domain, protein structure, and T-/B-cell antigenic epitope of different recombinant proteins, EgG1Y162-linker-EgG1Y162. Finally, the linker sequence, "GGGGSGGG," which had the least influence on the migration of recombinant protein T/B epitope and can fold normally in series with EgG1Y162, was selected to design the recombinant vaccine. The plasmid was produced using genetic engineering techniques, and the recombinant protein, EGG1Y162-GGGGSGGG-EgG1Y162, was induced to be expressed and purified. EgG1Y162-GGGGSGGG-EgG1Y162 was identified to be correctly expressed with 100% specificity. Compared with EgG1Y162, EgG1Y162-GGGGSGGG-EgG1Y162 was more likely to promote dendritic cell maturation. EgG1Y162-GGGGSGGG-EgG1Y162 was speculated to have the potential to improve antigen immunogenicity by increasing the molecular weight and antigenic epitope.

In silico approach to design a multi-epitopic vaccine candidate targeting the non-mutational immunogenic regions in envelope protein and surface glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2

The novel corona virus (COVID-19) is a causative agent for severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-2) and responsible for the current human pandemic situation which has caused global social and economic commotion. The currently available vaccines use whole viruses whereas there is scope for peptide based vaccines. Thus, the global raise in statistics of this infection at an alarming rate evoked us to determine a novel and effective vaccine candidate against SARS-CoV-2. To find the potential vaccine candidate targets, immunoinformatics approaches were used to analyze the mutations in the envelope protein and surface glycoprotein and determine the conserved region; further specific T-cell epitopes VSLVKPSFY, SLVKPSFYV, RVKNLNSSR, SEETGTLIV, LVKPSFYVY, LTDEMIAQY, YLQPRTFLL, RLFRKSNLK, SPRRARSVA, AEIRASANL, TLLALHRSY, YSRVKNLNS and FELLHAPAT and B-cells epitopes TLAILTALRLCAYCCN and AGTITSGWTFGAGAAL were identified. The 3 D structure of epitope was predicted, refined and validated. The molecular docking analysis of multi-epitope vaccine candidates with TLR receptors, predicted effective binding. Overall, using bioinformatics approach this multi-epitopic target facilitates the proof of concept for SARS-CoV-2 conserved epitopic vaccine design.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Epitope-based minigene vaccine targeting fibroblast activation protein α induces specific immune responses and anti-tumor effects in 4 T1 murine breast cancer model

Fibroblast activation protein (FAPα) is a tumor stromal antigen expressed by cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) in more than 90 % of malignant epithelial carcinomas. FAPα-based immunotherapy has been reported and showed that FAPα-specific immune response can remold immune microenvironment and contribute to tumor regression. Many FAPα-based vaccines have been investigated in preclinical trials, which can elicit strong and durable cytolytic T lymphocytes (CTL) with good safety. However, epitope-based FAPα vaccines are rarely reported. To break tolerance against self-antigens, analogue epitopes with modified peptides at the anchor residues are typically used to improve epitope immunogenicity. To investigate the feasibility of a FAPα epitope-based vaccine for cancer immunotherapy in vivo, we conducted a preclinical study to identify a homologous CTL epitope of human and mouse FAPα and obtained its analogue epitope in BALB/c mice, and explored the anti-tumor activity of their minigene vaccines in 4 T1 tumor-bearing mice. By using in silico epitope prediction tools and immunogenicity assays, immunodominant epitope FAP.291 (YYFSWLTWV) and its analogue epitope FAP.291I9 (YYFSWLTWI) were identified. The FAP.291-based epitope minigene vaccine successfully stimulated CTLs targeting CAFs and exhibited anti-tumor activity in a 4 T1 murine breast cancer model. Furthermore, although the analogue epitope FAP.291I9 enhanced FAP.291-specific immune responses, improvement of anti-tumor immunity effects was not observed. Check of immunosuppressive factors revealed that the high levels of IL-10, IL-13, myeloid-derived suppressor cells and iNOS induced by FAP.291I9 increased, which considered the main cause of the failure of the analogue epitope-based vaccine. Thus, we demonstrated for the first time that the FAP.291 minigene vaccine could induce mouse CTLs and also function as a tumor regression antigen, providing the basis for future studies of FAPα epitope-based vaccines. This study may also be valuable for further improvement of the immunogenicity of analogue epitope vaccines.

Research progress on immunotherapy in triple‑negative breast cancer (Review)

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a highly heterogeneous and aggressive malignancy. Due to the absence of estrogen receptors and progesterone receptors and the lack of overexpression of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2, TNBC responds poorly to endocrine and targeted therapies. As a neoadjuvant therapy, chemotherapy is usually the only option for TNBC; however, chemotherapy may induce tumor resistance. The emergence of immunotherapy as an adjuvant therapy is expected to make up for the deficiency of chemotherapy. Most of the research on immunotherapies has been performed on advanced metastatic TNBC, which has provided significant clinical benefits. In the present review, possible immunotherapy targets and ongoing immunotherapy strategies were discussed. In addition, progress in research on immune checkpoint inhibitors in early TNBC was outlined.

Immunoinformatics Approach Toward the Introduction of a Novel Multi-Epitope Vaccine Against Clostridium difficile

Clostridium difficile (C.difficile) is an exclusively anaerobic, spore-forming, and Gram-positive pathogen that is the most common cause of nosocomial diarrhea and is becoming increasingly prevalent in the community. Because C. difficile is strictly anaerobic, spores that can survive for months in the external environment contribute to the persistence and diffusion of C. difficile within the healthcare environment and community. Antimicrobial therapy disrupts the natural intestinal flora, allowing spores to develop into propagules that colonize the colon and produce toxins, thus leading to antibiotic-associated diarrhea and pseudomembranous enteritis. However, there is no licensed vaccine to prevent Clostridium difficile infection (CDI). In this study, a multi-epitope vaccine was designed using modern computer methods. Two target proteins, CdeC, affecting spore germination, and fliD, affecting propagule colonization, were chosen to construct the vaccine so that it could simultaneously induce the immune response against two different forms (spore and propagule) of C. difficile. We obtained the protein sequences from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) database. After the layers of filtration, 5 cytotoxic T-cell lymphocyte (CTL) epitopes, 5 helper T lymphocyte (HTL) epitopes, and 7 B-cell linear epitopes were finally selected for vaccine construction. Then, to enhance the immunogenicity of the designed vaccine, an adjuvant was added to construct the vaccine. The Prabi and RaptorX servers were used to predict the vaccine's two- and three-dimensional (3D) structures, respectively. Additionally, we refined and validated the structures of the vaccine construct. Molecular docking and molecular dynamics (MD) simulation were performed to check the interaction model of the vaccine-Toll-like receptor (TLR) complexes, vaccine-major histocompatibility complex (MHC) complexes, and vaccine-B-cell receptor (BCR) complex. Furthermore, immune stimulation, population coverage, and in silico molecular cloning were also conducted. The foregoing findings suggest that the final formulated vaccine is promising against the pathogen, but more researchers are needed to verify it.

Immunohistochemistry Study of OY-TES-1 Location in Fetal and Adult Human Tissues

OY-TES-1 is reportedly involved in carcinogenesis and spermatogenesis. However, the tissue distribution of OY-TES-1 in the normal human body remains elusive. This study detected OY-TES-1 expression in human fetal and adult normal tissues by immunohistochemistry. We identified a general principle of OY-TES-1 expression. The expression of OY-TES-1 was found in neurons, smooth muscle cells, and cardiac muscle cells from both fetuses and adults. The connective tissue showed no specific staining throughout the fetal and adult samples. With OY-TES-1-positive staining of the epithelium irregular, OY-TES-1 was strongly expressed in the epithelium of the skin and bladder, as well as hepatocytes, pancreatic islets, and acinous cells during the fetal stage but was not detected in the postnatal period. In contrast to the epithelium of blood vessels, the fetal and adult central hepatic vein and glomeruli showed negative expression of the OY-TES-1 protein. Sex-dimorphism was observed in the distribution of OY-TES-1 in male and female germ cells. Collectively, our results indicate that OY-TES-1 is a member of the cancer-testis antigen and autoantigen, with tissue-specific and period-specific expression patterns, revealing potential contributions of OY-TES-1 to the diagnosis and therapeutic treatment for neoplasms and infertility.

OCT4 and SOX2 Specific Cytotoxic T Cells Exhibit Not Only Good Efficiency but Also Synergize PD-1 Inhibitor (Nivolumab) in Treating Breast Cancer Stem-Like Cells and Drug-Resistant Breast Cancer Mice

Purpose

This study aimed to investigate the effect of OCT4&SOX2 specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) plus programmed cell death protein-1 (PD-1) inhibitor (nivolumab) on treating breast cancer stem-like cells (BCSCs) in vitro and drug-resistance breast cancer (DRBC) mice in vivo.

Methods

In total, 160 breast cancer patients were enrolled following the immunofluorescence assay to detect tumor OCT4 and SOX2 expressions. CD154-activated B cells were co-cultured with CD8⁺ T cells (from breast cancer patients) in the presence of OCT4&SOX2 peptides, CMV pp65 peptides (negative control), and no peptides (normal control). MCF7-BCSCs were constructed by drug-resistance experiment and sphere-formation assay, then DRBC mice were constructed by planting MCF7-BCSCs. Subsequently, different doses of OCT4&SOX2 CTLs and PD-1 inhibitor (nivolumab) were used to treat MCF7-BCSCs and DRBC mice.

Results

OCT4 and SOX2 correlated with poor differentiation, more advanced stage, and worse prognosis in breast cancer patients. In vitro, OCT4&SOX2 CTLs with effector-target ratio (ETR) 5:1, 10:1 and 20:1 presented with increased cytotoxic activity compared to CMV pp65 CTLs with ETR 20:1 (negative control) and Control CTLs with ETR 20:1 (normal control) on killing MCF7-BCSCs. Besides, PD-1 inhibitor (nivolumab) improved the cytotoxic activity of OCT4&SOX2 CTLs against MCF7-BCSCs in a dose-dependent manner. In vivo, OCT4&SOX2 CTLs plus PD-1 inhibitor (nivolumab) decreased tumor volume and tumor weight while increased tumor apoptosis rate compared to OCT4&SOX2 CTLs alone, PD-1 inhibitor (nivolumab) alone, and control.

Conclusion

OCT4&SOX2 CTLs exhibit good efficiency and synergize PD-1 inhibitor (nivolumab) in treating BCSCs and DRBC.

Prospects of Immunotherapy for Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

In the classification and typing of breast cancer, triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is one type of refractory breast cancer, while chemotherapy stays in the traditional treatment methods. However, the impact of chemotherapy is short-lived and may lead to recurrence due to incomplete killing of tumor cells. The occurrence, development, and relapse of breast cancer are relevant to T cell dysfunction, multiplied expression of related immune checkpoint molecules (ICIs) such as programmed death receptor 1 (PD-1), programmed cell death 1 ligand 1 (PD-L1), and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4) produce immunosuppressive effect. Immunotherapy (namely, immune checkpoint inhibitors, adoptive cellular immunotherapy, CAR-T immunotherapy and some potential treatments) provides new hope in TNBC. This review focuses on the new immune strategies of TNBC patients.

Cry1Ac Protoxin Confers Antitumor Adjuvant Effect in a Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Mouse Model by Improving Tumor Immunity

The Cry1Ac protoxin from Bacillus thuringiensis is a systemic and mucosal adjuvant, able to confer protective immunity in different infection murine models and induce both Th1 and TCD8+ cytotoxic lymphocyte responses, which are required to induce antitumor immunity. The Cry1Ac toxin, despite having not being characterized as an adjuvant, has also proved to be immunogenic and able to activate macrophages. Here, we investigated the potential antitumor adjuvant effect conferred by the Cry1Ac protoxin and Cry1Ac toxin in a triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) murine model. First, we evaluated the ability of Cry1Ac proteins to improve dendritic cell (DC) activation and cellular response through intraperitoneal (i.p.) coadministration with the 4T1 cellular lysate. Mice coadministered with the Cry1Ac protoxin showed an increase in the number and activation of CD11c+MHCII- and CD11c+MHCII+^low in the peritoneal cavity and an increase in DC activation (CD11c+MHCII+) in the spleen. Cry1Ac protoxin increased the proliferation of TCD4+ and TCD8+ lymphocytes in the spleen and mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN), while the Cry1Ac toxin only increased the proliferation of TCD4+ and TCD8+ in the MLN. Remarkably, when tested in the in vivo TNBC mouse model, prophylactic immunizations with 4T1 lysates plus the Cry1Ac protoxin protected mice from developing tumors. The antitumor effect conferred by the Cry1Ac protoxin also increased specific cytotoxic T cell responses, and prevented the typical tumor-related decrease of T cells (TCD3+ and TCD4+) as well the increase of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) in spleen. Also in the tumor microenvironment of mice coadministered twice with Cry1Ac protoxin immunological improvements were found such as reductions in immunosupressive populations (T regulatory lymphocytes and MDSC) along with increases in macrophages upregulating CD86. These results show a differential antitumor adjuvant capability of Cry1Ac proteins, highlighting the ability of Cry1Ac protoxin to enhance local and systemic tumor immunity in TNBC. Finally, using a therapeutic approach, we evaluated the coadministration of Cry1Ac protoxin with doxorubicin. A significant reduction in tumor volume and lung metastasis was found, with increased intratumoral levels of tumor necrosis factor-α and IL-6 with respect to the vehicle group, further supporting its antitumor applicability.

A Computational Reverse Vaccinology Approach for the Design and Development of Multi-Epitopic Vaccine Against Avian Pathogen Mycoplasma gallisepticum

Avian mycoplasma is a bacterial disease causing chronic respiratory disease (CRD) in poultry industries with high economic losses. The eradication of this disease still remains as a challenge. A multi-epitope prophylactic vaccine aiming the antigenic proteins of Mycoplasma gallisepticum can be a capable candidate to eradicate this infection. The present study is focused to design a multi-epitope vaccine candidate consisting of cytotoxic T-cell (CTL), helper T-cell (HTL), and B-cell epitopes of antigenic proteins, using immunoinformatics strategies. The multi-epitopic vaccine was designed, and its tertiary model was predcited, which was further refined and validated by computational tools. After initial validation, molecular docking was performed between multi-epitope vaccine construct and chicken TLR-2 and 5 receptors, which predicted effective binding. The in silico results specify the structural stability, precise specificity, and immunogenic response of the designed multi-epitope vaccine, and it could be an appropriate vaccine candidate for the M. gallisepticum infection.

Designing of Potential Polyvalent Vaccine Model for Respiratory Syncytial Virus by System Level Immunoinformatics Approaches

BACKGROUND

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection is a public health epidemic, leading to around 3 million hospitalization and about 66,000 deaths each year. It is a life-threatening condition exclusive to children with no effective treatment.

METHODS

In this study, we used system-level and vaccinomics approaches to design a polyvalent vaccine for RSV, which could stimulate the immune components of the host to manage this infection. Our framework involves data accession, antigenicity and subcellular localization analysis, T cell epitope prediction, proteasomal and conservancy evaluation, host-pathogen-protein interactions, pathway studies, and in silico binding affinity analysis.

RESULTS

We found glycoprotein (G), fusion protein (F), and small hydrophobic protein (SH) of RSV as potential vaccine candidates. Of these proteins (G, F, and SH), we found 9 epitopes for multiple alleles of MHC classes I and II bear significant binding affinity. These potential epitopes were linked to form a polyvalent construct using AAY, GPGPG linkers, and cholera toxin B adjuvant at N-terminal with a 23.9 kDa molecular weight of 224 amino acid residues. The final construct was a stable, immunogenic, and nonallergenic protein containing cleavage sites, TAP transport efficiency, posttranslation shifts, and CTL epitopes. The molecular docking indicated the optimum binding affinity of RSV polyvalent construct with MHC molecules (-12.49 and -10.48 kcal/mol for MHC classes I and II, respectively). This interaction showed that a polyvalent construct could manage and control this disease.

CONCLUSION

Our vaccinomics and system-level investigation could be appropriate to trigger the host immune system to prevent RSV infection.

Exploring the cancer-testis antigen BORIS to design a novel multi-epitope vaccine against breast cancer based on immunoinformatics approaches

Recently, cancer immunotherapy has gained lots of attention to replace the current chemoradiation approaches and multi-epitope cancer vaccines are manifesting as the next generation of cancer immunotherapy. Therefore, in this study, we used multiple immunoinformatics approaches along with other computational approaches to design a novel multi-epitope vaccine against breast cancer. The most immunogenic regions of the BORIS cancer-testis antigen were selected according to the binding affinity to MHC-I and II molecules as well as containing multiple cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) epitopes by multiple immunoinformatics servers. The selected regions were linked together by GPGPG linker. Also, a T helper epitope (PADRE) and the TLR-4/MD-2 agonist (L7/L12 ribosomal protein from mycobacterium) were incorporated by A(EAAAK)3A linker to form the final vaccine construct. Then, its physicochemical properties, cleavage sites, TAP transport efficiency, B cell epitopes, IFN-γ inducing epitopes and population coverage were predicted. The final vaccine construct was reverse translated, codon-optimized and inserted into pcDNA3.1 to form the DNA vaccine. The final vaccine construct was a stable, immunogenic and non-allergenic protein that contained numerous CTL epitopes, IFN-γ inducing epitopes and several linear and conformational B cell epitopes. Also, the final vaccine construct formed stable and significant interactions with TLR-4/MD-2 complex according to molecular docking and dynamics simulations. Moreover, its world population coverage for HLA-I and HLA-II were about 93% and 96%, respectively. Taking together, these preliminary results can be used as an appropriate platform for further experimental investigations.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Exploring the out of sight antigens of SARS-CoV-2 to design a candidate multi-epitope vaccine by utilizing immunoinformatics approaches

SARS-CoV-2 causes a severe respiratory disease called COVID-19. Currently, global health is facing its devastating outbreak. However, there is no vaccine available against this virus up to now. In this study, a novel multi-epitope vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 was designed to provoke both innate and adaptive immune responses. The immunodominant regions of six non-structural proteins (nsp7, nsp8, nsp9, nsp10, nsp12 and nsp14) of SARS-CoV-2 were selected by multiple immunoinformatic tools to provoke T cell immune response. Also, immunodominant fragment of the functional region of SARS-CoV-2 spike (400-510 residues) protein was selected for inducing neutralizing antibodies production. The selected regions' sequences were connected to each other by furin-sensitive linker (RVRR). Moreover, the functional region of β-defensin as a well-known agonist for the TLR-4/MD complex was added at the N-terminus of the vaccine using (EAAAK)3 linker. Also, a CD4 + T-helper epitope, PADRE, was used at the C-terminal of the vaccine by GPGPG and A(EAAAK)2A linkers to form the final vaccine construct. The physicochemical properties, allergenicity, antigenicity, functionality and population coverage of the final vaccine construct were analyzed. The final vaccine construct was an immunogenic, non-allergen and unfunctional protein which contained multiple CD8 + and CD4 + overlapping epitopes, IFN-γ inducing epitopes, linear and conformational B cell epitopes. It could form stable and significant interactions with TLR-4/MD according to molecular docking and dynamics simulations. Global population coverage of the vaccine for HLA-I and II were estimated 96.2% and 97.1%, respectively. At last, the final vaccine construct was reverse translated to design the DNA vaccine. Although the designed vaccine exhibited high efficacy in silico, further experimental validation is necessary.