Upstream stimulatory factor 2 (USF2) induced upregulation of triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 1 (TREM1) promotes endometritis by regulating toll-like receptor (TLR) 2/4-nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) signaling pathway

Stored RBC transfusions leads to the systemic inflammatory response syndrome in anemic murine neonates

OBJECTIVE

RBC transfusions (RBCT) are life-saving treatment for premature and critically ill infants. However, the procedure has been associated with the development of systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) and potentially multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) in neonates. The present study aimed to investigate the mechanisms of RBCT-related SIRS in severely anemic murine neonates.

METHODS

C57BL/6 (WT), TLR4-/- and myeloid-specific triggered myeloid receptor-1 (trem1)-/- mouse pups were studied in 4 groups (n = 6 each): (1) naïve controls, (2) transfused control, (3) anemic (hematocrit 20-24%) and (4) anemic with RBC transfused using our established murine model of phlebotomy-induced anemia (PIA) and RBC transfusion. Plasma was measured for quantifying inflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ, IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, MIP2 and LIX) using a Luminex assay. In vitro studies included (i) sensitization by exposing the cells to a low level of lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 500 ng/ml) and (ii) trem1-siRNA transfection with/without plasma supernatant from stored RBC to assess the acute inflammatory response through trem1 by qRT-PCR and immunoblotting.

RESULTS

Anemic murine pups developed cytokine storm within 2 h of receiving stored RBCs, which increased until 6 h post-transfusion, as compared to non-anemic mice receiving stored RBCTs ("transfusion controls"), in a TLR4-independent fashion. Nonetheless, severely anemic pups had elevated circulating endotoxin levels, thereby sensitizing circulating monocytes to presynthesize proinflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ, IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, MIP2, LIX) and express trem1. Silencing trem1 expression in Raw264.7 cells mitigated both endotoxin-associated presynthesis of proinflammatory cytokines and the RBCT-induced release of inflammatory cytokines. Indeed, myeloid-specific trem1-/- murine pups had significantly reduced evidence of SIRS following RBCTs.

CONCLUSION

Severe anemia-associated low-grade inflammation sensitizes monocytes to enhance the synthesis of proinflammatory cytokines and trem1. In this setting, RBCTs further activate these monocytes, thereby inducing SIRS. Inhibiting trem1 in myeloid cells, including monocytes, alleviates the inflammatory response associated with the combined effects of anemia and RBCTs in murine neonates.

FuKe QianJin capsule alleviates endometritis via inhibiting inflammation and pyroptosis through modulating TLR4/ NF-κB /NLRP3 pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Fuke Qianjin Capsule (FKC), a traditional Chinese medicine commonly employed for treating endometritis, lacks reported treatment mechanisms.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of the present study was to explore the role and mechanism of FKC in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced endometritis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The main active ingredients of FKC were identified via high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) in conjunction with standard substances. Prior to endometritis induction, Sprague Dawley female rats received FKC for 7 days. The endometritis model was established through an intrauterine injection of 1 mg/kg LPS. Concurrently, an LPS-induced RAW264.7 cell inflammation model was utilized, in which the cells were treated with serum containing Fuke Qianjin Capsule. Pathological alterations in the endometrium were assessed via H&E staining and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The contents of MPO in uterine tissues, and NO release in cells, along with the secretion of IL-18, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in both tissues and cells, were determined via assay kits. The mRNA levels of Nlrp3, Caspase-1, Gsdmd, and Il-1β in uterine tissues and cells were analyzed via qPCR. The protein levels of TLR4, p65, p-P65, NLRP3, Caspase-1, GSDMD, and IL-1β in these samples were evaluated through Western blot analysis. Immunofluorescence was used to assess the protein levels of p-P65 and NLRP3 in uterine tissues and cells.

RESULTS

Five primary active components of FKC were identified. Treatment with FKC in vivo mitigated endometrial pathological damage and significantly decreased the levels of MPO, IL-18, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, as well as the levels of Nlrp3, Caspase-1, Gsdmd, and Il-1β mRNA in tissue samples. Treatment with FKC inhibited the expression of TLR4, p-P65, NLRP3, Caspase-1, GSDMD, and IL-1β, as well as reduced NLRP3 protein fluorescence intensity, and inhibited P65 phosphorylation. In vitro findings demonstrated that FKC-containing serum reduced IL-18, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α levels, as well as reduced Nlrp3, Caspase-1, Gsdmd, and Il-1β mRNA levels. In addition, FKC-containing serum inhibited the protein expression of TLR4, p-P65, NLRP3, Caspase-1, GSDMD, and IL-1β. FKC-containing serum also reduced NLRP3 protein fluorescence intensity and suppressed P65 phosphorylation.

CONCLUSION

FKC reverses the LPS induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation, and mitigates inflammation and pyroptosis through the modulation of the TLR4/NF-κB/NLRP3 pathway, thereby alleviating endometritis.

Pharmacological Inhibition or Silencing of TREM1 Restrains HCC Cell Metastasis by Inactivating TLR/PI3K/AKT Signaling

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), a widely prevalent malignancy strongly linked to inflammation, remains a significant public health concern. Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 1 (TREM1), a modulator of inflammatory responses identified in recent years, has emerged as a crucial facilitator in cancer progression. Despite its significance, the precise regulatory mechanism of TREM1 in HCC metastasis remains unanswered. In the present investigation, we observed aberrant upregulation of TREM1 in HCC tissues, which was significantly linked to poorer overall survival. Inhibition of TREM1 expression resulted in a significant reduction in HCC Huh-7 and MHCC-97H cell proliferation, invasion, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process. Furthermore, inhibiting TREM1 decreased protein expressions of toll-like receptor 2/4 (TLR2/4) and major myeloid differentiation response gene 88 (MyD88), leading to the inactivation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and protein kinase B (AKT) in HCC cells. Notably, these effects were reversed by treatment with TLR2-specific agonist (CU-T12-9), indicating a potential crosstalk between TREM1 and TLR2/4. Mechanistic studies revealed a direct interaction between TREM1 and both TLR2 and TLR4. In vivo studies demonstrated that inhibition of TREM1 suppressed the growth of HCC cells in the orthotopic implant model and its metastatic potential in the experimental lung metastasis model. Overall, our findings underscore the role of TREM1 inhibition in regulating EMT and metastasis of HCC cells by inactivating the TLR/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, thereby providing deeper mechanistic insights into how TREM1 regulates metastasis during HCC progression.

TREM-1 mediates interaction between substantia nigra microglia and peripheral neutrophils

Microglia-mediated neuroinflammation is considered a pathological feature of Parkinson’s disease. Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cell-1 (TREM-1) can amplify the inherent immune response, and crucially, regulate inflammation. In this study, we found marked elevation of serum soluble TREM-1 in patients with Parkinson’s disease that positively correlated with Parkinson’s disease severity and dyskinesia. In a mouse model of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-induced Parkinson’s disease, we found that microglial TREM-1 expression also increased in the substantia nigra. Further, TREM-1 knockout alleviated dyskinesia in a mouse model of Parkinson’s disease and reduced dopaminergic neuronal injury. Meanwhile, TREM-1 knockout attenuated the neuroinflammatory response, dopaminergic neuronal injury, and neutrophil migration. Next, we established an in vitro 1-methyl-4-phenyl-pyridine-induced BV2 microglia model of Parkinson’s disease and treated the cells with the TREM-1 inhibitory peptide LP17. We found that LP17 treatment reduced apoptosis of dopaminergic neurons and neutrophil migration. Moreover, inhibition of neutrophil TREM-1 activation diminished dopaminergic neuronal apoptosis induced by lipopolysaccharide. TREM-1 can activate the downstream CARD9/NF-κB proinflammatory pathway via interaction with SYK. These findings suggest that TREM-1 may play a key role in mediating the damage to dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson’s disease by regulating the interaction between microglia and peripheral neutrophils.

H3K4me3-Mediated FOXJ2/SLAMF8 Axis Aggravates Thrombosis and Inflammation in β2GPI/Anti-β2GPI-Treated Monocytes

Antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is characterized by thrombus formation, poor pregnancy outcomes, and a proinflammatory response. H3K4me3-related monocytes activation are key regulators of APS pathogenesis. Therefore, H3K4me3 CUT&Tag and ATAC-seq are performed to examine the epigenetic profiles. The results indicate that the H3K4me3 signal and chromatin accessibility at the FOXJ2 promoter are enhanced in an in vitro monocyte model by stimulation with β2GPI/anti-β2GPI, which mimics APS, and decreases after OICR-9429 administration. Furthermore, FOXJ2 is highly expressed in patients with primary APS (PAPS) and is the highest in patients with triple-positive antiphospholipid antibodies (aPLs). Mechanistically, FOXJ2 directly binds to the SLAMF8 promoter and activates SLAMF8 transcription. SLAMF8 further interacts with TREM1 to stimulate TLR4/NF-κB signaling and prohibit autophagy. Knockdown of FOXJ2, SLAMF8, or TREM1 blocks TLR4/NF-κB and provokes autophagy, subsequently inhibiting the release of inflammatory and thrombotic indicators. A mouse model of vascular APS is established via β2GPI intraperitoneal injection, and the results suggest that OICR-9429 administration attenuates the inflammatory response and thrombus formation by inactivating FOXJ2/SLAMF8/TREM1 signaling. These findings highlight the overexpression of H3K4me3-mediated FOXJ2 in APS, which consequently accelerates APS pathogenesis by triggering inflammation and thrombosis via boosting the SLAMF8/TREM1 axis. Therefore, OICR-9429 is a promising candidate drug for APS therapy.

TREM1: Activation, signaling, cancer and therapy

Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 1 (TREM1) is a cell surface receptor expressed on neutrophils, monocytes and some tissue macrophages, where it functions as an immunoregulator that controls myeloid cell responses. The activation of TREM1 is suggested to be an upregulation-based, ligands-induced and structural multimerization-mediated process, in which damage- and pathogen-associated molecular patterns play important roles. Activated TREM1 initiates an array of downstream signaling pathways that ultimately result in the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, whereby it functions as an amplifier of inflammation and is implicated in the pathogenesis of many inflammation-associated diseases. Over the past decade, there has been growing evidence for the involvement of TREM1 overactivation in tumor stroma inflammation and cancer progression. Indeed, it was shown that TREM1 promotes tumor progression, immunosuppression, and resistance to therapy by activating tumor-infiltrating myeloid cells. TREM1-deficiency or blockade provide protection against tumors and reverse the resistance to anti-PD-1/PD-L1 therapy and arginine-deprivation therapy in preclinical models. Here, we first review the structure, activation modes and signaling pathways of TREM1 and emphasize the role of soluble TREM1 as a biomarker of infection and cancer. We then focus on the role of TREM1 in cancer and systematically summarize its expression patterns, upregulation mechanisms and functions in tumor development and progression. Lastly, we discuss the therapeutic prospects of TREM1 inhibition, via effective pharmacological inhibitors, in treating cancer and other diseases.

USF2 activates RhoB/ROCK pathway by transcriptional inhibition of miR-206 to promote pyroptosis in septic cardiomyocytes

Septic cardiomyopathy (SCM) is one of the most serious complications of sepsis. The present study investigated the role and mechanism of upstream stimulatory factor 2 (USF2) in SCM. Serum samples were extracted from SCM patients and healthy individuals. A murine model of sepsis was induced by caecal ligation and puncture (CLP) surgery. Myocardial injury was examined by echocardiography and HE staining. ELISA assay evaluated myocardial markers (CK-MB, cTnI) and inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-18). Primary mouse cardiomyocytes were treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to simulate sepsis in vitro. RT-qPCR and Western blot were used for analyzing gene and protein levels. CCK-8 assay assessed cell viability. NLRP3 was detected by immunofluorescence. ChIP, RIP and dual luciferase reporter assays were conducted to validate the molecular associations. USF2 was increased in serum from SCM patients, septic mice and primary cardiomyocytes. USF2 silencing improved the survival of septic mice and attenuated sepsis-induced myocardial pyroptosis and inflammation in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, USF2 could directly bind to the promoter of miR-206 to transcriptionally inhibit its expression. Moreover, RhoB was confirmed as a target of miR-206 and could promote ROCK activation and NLRP3 inflammasome formation. Moreover, overexpression of RhoB remarkably reversed the protection against LPS-induced inflammation and pyroptosis mediated by USF2 deletion or miR-206 overexpression in cardiomyocytes. The above findings elucidated that USF2 knockdown exerted a cardioprotective effect on sepsis by decreasing pyroptosis and inflammation via miR-206/RhoB/ROCK pathway, suggesting that USF2 may be a novel drug target in SCM.

ALA-PDT augments intense inflammation in the treatment of acne vulgaris by COX2/TREM1 mediated M1 macrophage polarization

Severe acne vulgaris is a common chronic inflammatory skin disease worldwide. 5-Aminolaevulinic acid photodynamic therapy (ALA-PDT) is effective and safe for severe acne. However, the mechanism is not fully understood. Intense acute inflammatory response at 24 h after ALA-PDT is reported positively correlated to the effectiveness. Inflammation regulation influence the progression or outcome of diseases. ALA-PDT may exert its therapeutic effect by augmenting intense inflammation and break the chronic inflammation. This study was set out to explore the mechanism of ALA-PDT augmenting intense acute inflammation in the treatment of acne. As a result, transcriptome microarrays analysis of severe acne patients showed that ALA-PDT significantly up-regulated expression of various inflammation-related genes, especially TREM1 and PTGS2, which were further confirmed by a C.acnes induced acne-like mouse ear model. The subsequent experiments demonstrated that ALA-PDT could trigger pro-inflammatory M1 polarization of macrophages in vitro and in vivo. Additionally, the crosstalk between keratinocytes and macrophages studied by a transwell co-culture system indicated that PGE2 secreted by ALA-PDT treated HaCaT cells could promote THP-1 macrophages M1 polarization by COX2/PGE2/TLR4/TREM1 axis to augment inflammation. Our study provides a novel insight that ALA-PDT could amplify inflammation by COX2/TREM1 mediated macrophages M1 polarization for the treatment of acne. It is hoped that this research will decipher the mechanism of ALA-PDT for the treatment of acne and provide a theoretical basis for optimizing the clinical ALA-PDT management.

USF2-mediated upregulation of TXNRD1 contributes to hepatocellular carcinoma progression by activating Akt/mTOR signaling

Thioredoxin reductase 1 (TXNRD1) is one of the major redox regulators in mammalian cells, which has been reported to be involved in tumorigenesis. However, its roles and regulatory mechanism underlying the progression of HCC remains poorly understood. In this study, we demonstrated that TXNRD1 was significantly upregulated in HCC tumor tissues and correlated with poor survival in HCC patients. Functional studies indicated TXNRD1 knockdown substantially suppressed HCC cell proliferation and metastasis both in vitro and in vivo, and its overexpression showed opposite effects. Mechanistically, TXNRD1 attenuated the interaction between Trx1 and PTEN which resulting in acceleration of PTEN degradation, thereby activated Akt/mTOR signaling and its target genes which conferred to elevated HCC cell mobility and metastasis. Moreover, USF2 was identified as a transcriptional suppressor of TXNRD1, which directly interacted with two E-box sites in TXNRD1 promoter. USF2 functioned as tumor suppressor through the downstream repression of TXNRD1. Further clinical data revealed negative co-expression correlations between USF2 and TXNRD1. In conclusion, our findings reveal that USF2-mediated upregulation of TXNRD1 contributes to hepatocellular carcinoma progression by activating Akt/mTOR signaling.

Knockdown of triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 1 (TREM1) inhibits endoplasmic reticulum stress and reduces extracellular matrix degradation and the apoptosis of human nucleus pulposus cells

According to the linear model of microarray data analysis, triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 1 (TREM1) has been shown to have a significantly different expression profile between intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD) samples and associated control samples. The purpose of the present study was to explore the probable role and underlying mechanism of TREM1 in IDD. To accomplish this, an in vitro model of IDD was established by using IL-1β to stimulate human nucleus pulposus cells (NPCs). After the level of TREM1 had been determined, its functions in terms of the viability of the NPCs, extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation, inflammation, apoptosis and endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) were assessed. The downstream target of TREM1 was predicted to be Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR-4) and its roles were then studied, incorporating experiments featuring an ERS agonist. IL-1β was found to elevate the level of TREM1 in NPCs. TREM1 knockdown reversed the observed effects of IL-1β on cell viability, ECM degradation, inflammation, apoptosis of NPCs, ERS and TLR4/NF-κB signaling. Subsequently, the TLR4 and ERS agonists were found to reverse the effect of TREM1 knockdown on NPCs, indicating that the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway and ERS were responsible for mediating the regulation of TREM1. In conclusion, the present study showed that TREM1 knockdown blocked the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway, inhibited ERS and reduced the levels of ECM degradation and apoptosis of NPCs induced by IL-1β.