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Du L, Chen L, Liu F, Wang W, Huang H. Nose-to-brain drug delivery for the treatment of CNS disease: New development and strategies. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2023; 171:255-297. [PMID: 37783558 DOI: 10.1016/bs.irn.2023.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/04/2023]
Abstract
Delivering drugs to the brain has always been a challenging task due to the restrictive properties of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Intranasal delivery is therefore emerging as an efficient method of administration, making it easy to self-administration and thus provides a non-invasive and painless alternative to oral and parenteral administration for delivering therapeutics to the central nervous system (CNS). Recently, drug formulations have been developed to further enhance this nose-to-brain transport, primarily using nanoparticles (NPs). Therefore, the purposes of this review are to highlight and describe the anatomical basis of nasal-brain pathway and provide an overview of drug formulations and current drugs for intranasal administration in CNS disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Du
- Biotherapeutic Research Center, Beijing Tsinghua Changgung Hospital, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Lin Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Dongzhimen Hospital of Beijing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Fangfang Liu
- Department of Neurology, Jilin City Central Hospital, Jilin, China
| | - Wenya Wang
- Biotherapeutic Research Center, Beijing Tsinghua Changgung Hospital, Beijing, P.R. China,.
| | - Hongyun Huang
- Institute of Neurorestoratology, Third Medical Center of General Hospital of PLA, Beijing, P.R. China; Beijing Hongtianji Neuroscience Academy, Beijing, P.R. China.
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2
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De Gaetano F, Celesti C, Paladini G, Venuti V, Cristiano MC, Paolino D, Iannazzo D, Strano V, Gueli AM, Tommasini S, Ventura CA, Stancanelli R. Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Containing Morin: Preparation, Characterization, and Ex Vivo Permeation Studies. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:1605. [PMID: 37376054 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15061605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, bioactive compounds have been the focus of much interest in scientific research, due to their low toxicity and extraordinary properties. However, they possess poor solubility, low chemical stability, and unsustainable bioavailability. New drug delivery systems, and among them solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), could minimize these drawbacks. In this work, morin (MRN)-loaded SLNs (MRN-SLNs) were prepared using a solvent emulsification/diffusion method, using two different lipids, Compritol® 888 ATO (COM) or Phospholipon® 80H (PHO). SLNs were investigated for their physical-chemical, morphological, and technological (encapsulation parameters and in vitro release) properties. We obtained spherical and non-aggregated nanoparticles with hydrodynamic radii ranging from 60 to 70 nm and negative zeta potentials (about -30 mV and -22 mV for MRN-SLNs-COM and MRN-SLNs-PHO, respectively). The interaction of MRN with the lipids was demonstrated via μ-Raman spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, and DSC analysis. High encapsulation efficiency was obtained for all formulations (about 99%, w/w), particularly for the SLNs prepared starting from a 10% (w/w) theoretical MRN amount. In vitro release studies showed that about 60% of MRN was released within 24 h and there was a subsequent sustained release within 10 days. Finally, ex vivo permeation studies with excised bovine nasal mucosa demonstrated the ability of SLNs to act as a penetration enhancer for MRN due to the intimate contact and interaction of the carrier with the mucosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica De Gaetano
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, V.le Ferdinando Stagno d'Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy
| | - Consuelo Celesti
- Department of Engineering, University of Messina, Contrada Di Dio, 98166 Messina, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Paladini
- Department of Physics and Astronomy "Ettore Majorana", University of Catania, Via S. Sofia 64, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Valentina Venuti
- Department of Mathematical and Computer Sciences, Physical Sciences and Earth Sciences, University of Messina, V.le Ferdinando Stagno D'Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy
| | - Maria Chiara Cristiano
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Catanzaro "Magna Graecia", V.le Europa s.n.c., 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Donatella Paolino
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Catanzaro "Magna Graecia", V.le Europa s.n.c., 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Daniela Iannazzo
- Department of Engineering, University of Messina, Contrada Di Dio, 98166 Messina, Italy
| | - Vincenza Strano
- National Council of Research, Institute of Microelectronics and Microsystems (CNR-IMM), University of Catania, Via S. Sofia 64, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Anna M Gueli
- Department of Physics and Astronomy "Ettore Majorana", University of Catania, Via S. Sofia 64, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Silvana Tommasini
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, V.le Ferdinando Stagno d'Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy
| | - Cinzia Anna Ventura
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, V.le Ferdinando Stagno d'Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy
| | - Rosanna Stancanelli
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, V.le Ferdinando Stagno d'Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy
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Singh L, Singh S. Neuroprotective potential of Honokiol in ICV-STZ induced neuroinflammation, Aβ (1-42) and NF-kB expression in experimental model of rats. Neurosci Lett 2023; 799:137090. [PMID: 36690059 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2023.137090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a most common and prevalent age related insidious neurological condition characterised by formation of Aβ (1-42) plaques and NFT in the hippocampus. Major symptoms of AD include memory and cognitive loss caused by neuroinflammation, Aβ (1-42) plaques, and NFT accumulation in the brain. Intracerebroventricular administration of STZ up-regulates the level of Aβ (1-42) plaques, and NFT by activating NF-kB pathway. All animals were trained for behaviour analysis before infusion of ICV-STZ bilaterally, at a dose of 3 mg/kg; icv. The stereotaxic surgery was performed in target region with coordinates -2 mm [AP], 1.6 mm [MR], and1.5 mm [DV]. On day 1 and day 3 after surgery HS (hamilton syringe) was used to infuse STZ at the target region of brain. Morris Water Maze (MWM), and Elevated Plus Maze (EPM) tests were performed to check spatial and learning memory in all groups. ICV-STZ infusion produced memory impairment by increasing the activity of AchE, oxidative markers (LPO, GSH, and nitrite), neurotransmitters levels (AchE, GABA, and glutamate), and release of neuroinflammatory markers (NF-kB, IL-6, and IL-1β). The treatment with Honokiol (Bioactive polyphenolic compound) significantly ameliorated the behavioural changes at a dose of 5, and 10 mg/kg; i.p on day 7, 14, and 21. After behavioural analysis rats were sacrificed on day 22, and the hippocampus tissue was collected to investigate the biochemical, neuroinflammatory, neurotransmitters, histopathological, and immunohistopathological changes. Here, we have found Honokiol significantly down regulates the Aβ plaques via NF-kB inhibition and also reduced neuroinflammation in the brain of rats. Further inhibits the NF-kB expression confirmed for immunohistochemistry analysis. It was observed that Honokiol (5, and 10 mg/kg; i.p) dose-dependently ameliorated AchE level restored neurotransmitters concentrations in hippocampal region, and prevented neuronal loss confirmed from histopathology studies. We concluded that Honokiol drastically produced protective effect in AD model via antioxidant, reducing inflammation, AchE level, restoration of neurofibrillary tangles and preventing NF-kB as well as histopathological changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lovekesh Singh
- Neuropharmacology division, Department of Pharmacology, ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga, Punjab 142001, India
| | - Shamsher Singh
- Neuropharmacology division, Department of Pharmacology, ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga, Punjab 142001, India.
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Neuroprotective Effects of Phytochemicals against Aluminum Chloride-Induced Alzheimer’s Disease through ApoE4/LRP1, Wnt3/β-Catenin/GSK3β, and TLR4/NLRP3 Pathways with Physical and Mental Activities in a Rat Model. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15081008. [PMID: 36015156 PMCID: PMC9416484 DOI: 10.3390/ph15081008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that is associated with abnormal cognition. AD is aided in its initiation and progression by hereditary and environmental factors. Aluminum (Al) is a neurotoxic agent that causes oxidative stress, which is linked to AD progression. Additionally, Nrf2/HO-1, APOE4/LRP1, Wnt3/β-catenin, and TLR4/NLRP3 are the main signaling pathways involved in AD pathogenesis. Several phytochemicals are promising options in delaying AD evolution. Objectives: This study aimed at studying the neuroprotective effects of some phytochemicals as morin (MOR), thymol (TML), and thymoquinone (TMQ) on physical and mental activities (PhM) in Al chloride (AlCl3)-induced AD rat model. Another objective was to determine the specificity of phytochemicals to AD signaling pathways using molecular docking. Methods: Eighty male Dawley rats were divided into eight groups. Each group received: saline (control group), AlCl3, (ALAD), PhM, either alone or with a combination of MOR, TML, and/or TMQ for five weeks. Animals were then subjected to behavioral evaluation. Brain tissues were used for histopathological and biochemical analyses to determine the extent of neurodegeneration. The effect of phytochemicals on AlCl3-induced oxidative stress and the main signaling pathways involved in AD progression were also investigated. Results: AlCl3 caused a decline in spatial learning and memory, as well as histopathological changes in the brains of rats. Phytochemicals combined with PhM restored antioxidant activities, increased HO-1 and Nrf2 levels, blocked inflammasome activation, apoptosis, TLR4 expression, amyloide-β generation, and tau hyperphophorylation. They also brought ApoE4 and LRP1 levels back to normal and regulated Wnt3/β-catenin/GSK3β signaling pathway. Conclusions: The use of phytochemicals with PhM is a promising strategy for reducing AD by modulating Nrf2/HO-1, TLR4/NLRP3, APOE4/LRP1, and Wnt3/β-catenin/GSK-3β signaling pathways.
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Dangre PV, Shinde SB, Surana SJ, Jain PG, Chalikwar SS. Development and exploration on flowability of solid self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system of morin hydrate. ADV POWDER TECHNOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.apt.2022.103716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Chaiyana W, Sriyab S, Okonogi S. Enhancement of Cholinesterase Inhibition of Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd. Essential Oil by Microemulsions. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27103275. [PMID: 35630752 PMCID: PMC9147595 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27103275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2022] [Revised: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the chemical composition and reveal the selective inhibitory activity of Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd. essential oil (AGO) on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) compared to butyrylcholinesterase (BChE). The chemical composition of AGO was investigated by means of gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Ellman’s method was used to determine the inhibitory activities against AChE and BChE. Microemulsion systems with desirable anticholinesterase effects were developed. Methyl cinnamate and 1,8-cineole were reported as the major component of AGO. The IC50 values of A. galanga oil against AChE and BChE were 24.6 ± 9.6 and 825.4 ± 340.1 µg/mL, respectively. The superior selectivity of AGO on AChE (34.8 ± 8.9) compared to galantamine hydrobromide (6.4 ± 1.5) suggested AGO to be an effective ingredient with fewer side effects for Alzheimer’s treatment. Interestingly, the microemulsion of AGO possessed significantly higher anticholinesterase activity than that of native oil alone. Therefore, microemulsion of AGO is a promising alternative approach for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wantida Chaiyana
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand; (S.S.); (S.O.)
- Research Center of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
- Innovation Center for Holistic Health, Nutraceuticals and Cosmeceuticals, Faculty of Pharmacy, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +66-5394-4343
| | - Suwannee Sriyab
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand; (S.S.); (S.O.)
| | - Siriporn Okonogi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand; (S.S.); (S.O.)
- Research Center of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
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Inclusion of a Phytomedicinal Flavonoid in Biocompatible Surface-Modified Chylomicron Mimic Nanovesicles with Improved Oral Bioavailability and Virucidal Activity: Molecular Modeling and Pharmacodynamic Studies. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14050905. [PMID: 35631491 PMCID: PMC9144278 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14050905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2022] [Revised: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Morin hydrate (MH) is a widely-used Asian phytomedicinal flavonoid with a wide range of reported therapeutic activities. However, MH has limited oral bioavailability due to its low aqueous solubility and intestinal permeability, which in turn hinders its potential antiviral activity. The study reported herein was designed to encapsulate MH in polyethyleneglycolated (PEGylated) chylomicrons (PCMs) and to boost its antiviral activity and biological availability for oral administration using a rat experimental model. The PEGylated edge activator combined with the conventional components of chylomicrons (CMs) amplify the transport of the drug across the intestine and its circulation period, hence its therapeutic impact. The implementation of variables in the in vitro characterization of the vesicles was investigated. Using Design Expert® software, a 24 factorial design was conducted, and the resulting PCM formulations were fabricated utilizing a thin-film hydration technique. The efficacy of the formulations was assessed according to their zeta potential (ZP), entrapment efficiency percentage (EE%), amount of drug released after 8 h (Q8h), and particle size (PS) data. Formulation F9, which was deemed to be the optimal formula, used compritol as the lipidic core together in defined amounts with phosphatidylcholine (PC) and Brij52. Computer-aided studies revealed that MH alone in a suspension had both diminished intestinal permeability and absorption, but was enhanced when loaded in PCMs. This was affirmed by the superiority of formulation F9 results in ex vivo permeation and pharmacokinetic studies. Furthermore, formulation F9 had a superior safety profile and antiviral activity over a pure MH suspension. Molecular-docking studies revealed the capability of MH to inhibit MERS-CoV 3CLpro, the enzyme shown to exhibit a crucial role in viral replication. Additionally, F9 suppressed both MERS-CoV-induced histopathological alteration in lung tissue and resulting oxidative and inflammatory biomarkers. Collectively, the results reported herein affirmed the potential of PCMs as nanocarriers for the effective oral administration of MH as an antiviral.
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Kaur R, Sood A, Lang DK, Bhatia S, Al-Harrasi A, Aleya L, Behl T. Potential of flavonoids as anti-Alzheimer's agents: bench to bedside. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:26063-26077. [PMID: 35067880 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-18165-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Developing therapies for neurodegenerative diseases are challenging because of the presence of blood-brain barrier and Alzheimer being one of the commonest and uprising neurodegenerative disorders possess the need for developing novel therapies. Alzheimer's is attributed to be the sixth leading cause of death in the USA and the number of cases is estimated to be increased from 58 million in 2021 to 88 million by 2050. Natural drugs have benefits of being cost-effective, widely available, fewer side effects, and immuno-booster can be useful in managing Alzheimer. Flavonoids can slow the neuronal degeneration as they have shown activity in central nervous system and are able to cross the blood-brain barrier. These can be easily extracted from fruits, vegetable, and plants. In Alzheimer disease, flavonoids scavenges the reactive oxygen species and reduces the production of amyloid beta protein. Agents from sub-classes of flavonoids such as flavanones, flavanols, flavones, flavonols, anthocyanins, and isoflavones having pharmacological action in treating Alzheimer disease are discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajwinder Kaur
- Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University Punjab, Rajpura, India
| | - Ankita Sood
- Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University Punjab, Rajpura, India
| | | | - Saurabh Bhatia
- Natural & Medical Sciences Research Centre, University of Nizwa, Nizwa, Oman
- School of Health Science, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Ahmed Al-Harrasi
- Natural & Medical Sciences Research Centre, University of Nizwa, Nizwa, Oman
| | - Lotfi Aleya
- Chrono-Environment Laboratory, UMR CNRS 6249, Bourgogne Franche-Comté University, Besançon, France
| | - Tapan Behl
- Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University Punjab, Rajpura, India.
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Progress in nasal drug delivery systems. Int J Pharm 2021; 607:120994. [PMID: 34390810 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2021.120994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Revised: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Most of the available drugs are usually administered orally (e.g. in tablets or capsules) or by parenteral injection in the case of substances being destroyed in the gastric environment or not being absorbed. However, this bears disadvantages as many people have trouble swallowing tablets and parenteral injection requires trained personnel and/or a reasonably sterile environment to minimize the possibility of contamination. Thus, as an easy to use alternative nasal drug delivery was developed. Drug delivery systems are used to achieve a reproducible high drug concentration. These systems overcome various disadvantages leading to stabilization of the drug, advanced drug transport, improvement of the physicochemical properties of the drug like water solubility, and increase of drug uptake and bioavailability. In addition, properties such as bad taste or smell of the drug are masked. Nasal drug delivery systems are suitable for use both locally and systemically. In the last five years, the development and progression of nasal drug delivery systems has gained importance due to their numerous advantages. This work gives an overview of the basics, such as structure and function of the nose, as well as a short introduction to local and systemic application of drugs. Furthermore, selected drug delivery systems are explained with examples of active ingredients, as well as additional possibilities to increase nasal drug uptake and factors influencing the absorption.
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Microemulsion-Based Media in Nose-to-Brain Drug Delivery. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13020201. [PMID: 33540856 PMCID: PMC7912993 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13020201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Nose-to-brain drug delivery has recently attracted enormous attention as an alternative to other delivery routes, including the most popular oral one. Due to the unique anatomical features of the nasal cavity, drugs administered intranasally can be delivered directly to the central nervous system. The most important advantage of this approach is the ability to avoid the blood-brain barrier surrounding the brain and blocking the entry of exogenous substances to the central nervous system. Moreover, selective brain targeting could possibly avoid peripheral side effects of pharmacotherapy. The challenges associated with nose-to-brain drug delivery are mostly due to the small volume of the nasal cavity and insufficient drug absorption from nasal mucosa. These issues could be minimized by using a properly designed drug carrier. Microemulsions as potential drug delivery systems offer good solubilizing properties and the ability to enhance drug permeation through biological membranes. The aim of this review is to summarize the current status of the research focused on microemulsion-based systems for nose-to-brain delivery with special attention to the most extensively investigated neurological and psychiatric conditions, such as neurodegenerative diseases, epilepsy, and schizophrenia.
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Bicker J, Fortuna A, Alves G, Falcão A. Nose-to-brain Delivery of Natural Compounds for the Treatment of Central Nervous System Disorders. Curr Pharm Des 2020; 26:594-619. [PMID: 31939728 DOI: 10.2174/1381612826666200115101544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 12/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several natural compounds have demonstrated potential for the treatment of central nervous system disorders such as ischemic cerebrovascular disease, glioblastoma, neuropathic pain, neurodegenerative diseases, multiple sclerosis and migraine. This is due to their well-known antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, anti-tumor, anti-ischemic and analgesic properties. Nevertheless, many of these molecules have poor aqueous solubility, low bioavailability and extensive gastrointestinal and/or hepatic first-pass metabolism, leading to a quick elimination as well as low serum and tissue concentrations. Thus, the intranasal route emerged as a viable alternative to oral or parenteral administration, by enabling a direct transport into the brain through the olfactory and trigeminal nerves. With this approach, the blood-brain barrier is circumvented and peripheral exposure is reduced, thereby minimizing possible adverse effects. OBJECTIVE Herein, brain-targeting strategies for nose-to-brain delivery of natural compounds, including flavonoids, cannabinoids, essential oils and terpenes, will be reviewed and discussed. Brain and plasma pharmacokinetics of these molecules will be analyzed and related to their physicochemical characteristics and formulation properties. CONCLUSION Natural compounds constitute relevant alternatives for the treatment of brain diseases but often require loading into nanocarrier systems to reach the central nervous system in sufficient concentrations. Future challenges lie in a deeper characterization of their therapeutic mechanisms and in the development of effective, safe and brain-targeted delivery systems for their intranasal administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Bicker
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo das Ciencias da Saude, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal.,CIBIT/ICNAS - Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research, University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ana Fortuna
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo das Ciencias da Saude, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal.,CIBIT/ICNAS - Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research, University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Gilberto Alves
- CICS-UBI - Health Sciences Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Av. Infante D. Henrique, 6200-506 Covilha, Portugal
| | - Amílcar Falcão
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo das Ciencias da Saude, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal.,CIBIT/ICNAS - Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research, University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548, Coimbra, Portugal
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12
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Jangid AK, Agraval H, Gupta N, Jain P, Yadav UCS, Pooja D, Kulhari H. Amorphous nano morin outperforms native molecule in anticancer activity and oral bioavailability. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 2020; 46:1123-1132. [PMID: 32469607 DOI: 10.1080/03639045.2020.1776318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
In the past decade, naturally occurring phytoconstituents have emerged as potential therapeutic agents and alternative to synthetic drugs. However, efficient delivery of hydrophobic phytoconstituents into the body with desired therapeutic efficacy is a key challenge for the pharmaceutical industries due to their insolubility in water and low oral bioavailability. Nanosuspension formulations have shown promises to improve the delivery of the hydrophobic molecules with simultaneously avoiding the drawbacks like carrier toxicity and scale-up issues of other nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems. In this study, we have used morin hydrate (MH), a flavonol, and developed MH nanosuspension formulation (MHNS) to improve its poor physiochemical properties and low oral bioavailability. Different stabilizers with varying concentrations were investigated for preparing nanosuspension. MHNS was characterized by DLS, TEM, FTIR, DSC, powder XRD and was evaluated for its solubility, dissolution, partition coefficient, in-vitro anticancer activity and pharmacokinetics in rats. The optimized nanosuspension formulation, with a size of <100 nm, is capable of increasing aqueous solubility, dissolution rate, and oral bioavailability of MH. Moreover, the therapeutic efficacy, in terms of cytotoxicity to human lung cancer cells, of MH was also increased after formulating into nanosuspension form.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashok Kumar Jangid
- School of Nano Sciences, Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, India
| | - Hina Agraval
- School of Life Sciences, Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, India
| | - Nitin Gupta
- School of Nano Sciences, Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, India
| | - Poonam Jain
- School of Nano Sciences, Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, India
| | - Umesh C S Yadav
- School of Life Sciences, Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, India
| | - Deep Pooja
- The Centre for Advanced Materials & Industrial Chemistry (CAMIC), School of Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Hitesh Kulhari
- School of Nano Sciences, Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, India
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Ben-Azu B, Emokpae O, Ajayi AM, Jarikre TA, Orhode V, Aderibigbe AO, Umukoro S, Iwalewa EO. Repeated psychosocial stress causes glutamic acid decarboxylase isoform-67, oxidative-Nox-2 changes and neuroinflammation in mice: Prevention by treatment with a neuroactive flavonoid, morin. Brain Res 2020; 1744:146917. [PMID: 32474018 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2020.146917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2019] [Revised: 05/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Psychosocial stress and biological predispositions are linked to mood and personality disorders related to psychiatric behaviors. Targeting neuroinflammation and oxidative stress has been recognized as a potential strategy for the prevention of psychosocial stress-induced psychiatric disorders. Morin, a bioactive compound isolated from mulberry leaf has been shown to produce antiamnesic, antipsychotic and anti-inflammatory effects relative to ginseng, a well-known adaptogen. Hence, the present study investigated the effect of morin on social-defeat stress (SDS)-induced behavioral, neurochemical, neuroimmune and neurooxidative changes in mice using intruder-resident paradigm. The intruder male mice were distributed into 6 groups (n = 10). Groups 1 (normal-control) and 2 (SDS-control) received normal saline, groups 3-5 had morin (25-100 mg/kg) while group 6 received ginseng (50 mg/kg) intraperitoneally daily for 14 days. Thirty minutes after treatment from days 7-14 onwards, mice in groups 2-6 were exposed to SDS for 10 min physical and psychological confrontations respectively with aggressive-resident mice. Neurobehavioral effects (locomotor activity, cognitive performance, anxiety- and depressive-like behavior) were assessed on day 14. Biomarkers of oxidative/nitrergic stress and neuroinflammation; acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and glutamic-acid decarboxylase-67 (GAD67) were measured in the striatum, prefrontal-cortex and hippocampus. Behavioral deficits induced by SDS were attenuated by morin and ginseng. Both morin and ginseng decreasedmalondialdehyde, nitrite levels and increased glutathione concentrations in the brain regions. They also reduced inflammatory mediators (TNF-α, IL-6, COX-2 and NF-κB), AChE activity and Nox-2 expression in the specific brain regions. However, morin increased the levels of GAD67 in the striatum, prefrontal-cortex and hippocampus in contrast to ginseng. Our results suggest that morin mitigates SDS-induced neurobehavioral deficits through enhancement of GAD67, inhibition of AChE activity, oxidative stress, Nox-2 and neuroinflammatory pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benneth Ben-Azu
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, PAMO University of Medical Sciences, Port Harcourt, River States, Nigeria; Neuropharmacology Unit, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.
| | - Osagie Emokpae
- Neuropharmacology Unit, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
| | - Abayomi Mayowa Ajayi
- Neuropharmacology Unit, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
| | - Thiophilus Aghogho Jarikre
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Valiant Orhode
- Neuropharmacology Unit, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
| | - Adegbuyi Oladele Aderibigbe
- Neuropharmacology Unit, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
| | - Solomon Umukoro
- Neuropharmacology Unit, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
| | - Ezekiel O Iwalewa
- Inflammatory and Immunopharmacology Unit, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
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Kobayashi H, Murata M, Kawanishi S, Oikawa S. Polyphenols with Anti-Amyloid β Aggregation Show Potential Risk of Toxicity Via Pro-Oxidant Properties. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E3561. [PMID: 32443552 PMCID: PMC7279003 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21103561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Revised: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia among older people. Amyloid β (Aβ) aggregation has been the focus for a therapeutic target for the treatment of AD. Naturally occurring polyphenols have an inhibitory effect on Aβ aggregation and have attracted a lot of attention for the development of treatment strategies which could mitigate the symptoms of AD. However, considerable evidence has shown that the pro-oxidant mechanisms of polyphenols could have a deleterious effect. Our group has established an assay system to evaluate the pro-oxidant characteristics of chemical compounds, based on their reactivity with DNA. In this review, we have summarized the anti-Aβ aggregation and pro-oxidant properties of polyphenols. These findings could contribute to understanding the mechanism underlying the potential risk of polyphenols. We would like to emphasize the importance of assessing the pro-oxidant properties of polyphenols from a safety point of view.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hatasu Kobayashi
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Medicine, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Mie 514-8507, Japan; (H.K.); (M.M.)
| | - Mariko Murata
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Medicine, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Mie 514-8507, Japan; (H.K.); (M.M.)
| | - Shosuke Kawanishi
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Suzuka University of Medical Science, Suzuka, Mie 513-8670, Japan;
| | - Shinji Oikawa
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Medicine, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Mie 514-8507, Japan; (H.K.); (M.M.)
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15
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Li G, Wang G, Li M, Li L, Liu H, Sun M, Wen Z. Morin inhibits Listeria monocytogenes virulence in vivo and in vitro by targeting listeriolysin O and inflammation. BMC Microbiol 2020; 20:112. [PMID: 32398085 PMCID: PMC7216731 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-020-01807-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Listeria monocytogenes (L. monocytogenes) is a global opportunistic intracellular pathogen that can cause many infections, including meningitis and abortion in humans and animals; thus, L. monocytogenes poses a great threat to public safety and the development of the aquaculture industry. The isolation rate of Listeria monocytogenes in fishery products has always been high. And the pore-forming toxin listeriolysin O (LLO) is one of the most important virulence factors of L. monocytogenes. LLO can promote cytosolic bacterial proliferation and help the pathogen evade attacks from the host immune system. In addition, L. monocytogenes infection can trigger a series of severe inflammatory reactions. RESULTS Here, we further confirmed that morin lacking anti-Listeria activity could inhibit LLO oligomerization. We also found that morin can effectively alleviate the inflammation induced by Listeria in vivo and in vitro and exerted an obvious protective effect on infected cells and mice. CONCLUSIONS Morin does not possess anti-Listeria activity, neither does it interfere with secretion of LLO. However, morin inhibits oligomerisation of LLO and morin does reduce the inflammation caused during Listeria infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gen Li
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, 130021, China.,Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Guizhen Wang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China.,College of Food Engineering, Jilin Engineering Normal University, Changchun, China
| | - Meng Li
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, 130021, China.,Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Li Li
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Hongtao Liu
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Meiyang Sun
- Department of Breast Surgery, Jilin Provincial Cancer Hospital, Changchun, China
| | - Zhongmei Wen
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, 130021, China.
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16
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Mishra N, Sharma S, Deshmukh R, Kumar A, Sharma R. Development and Characterization of Nasal Delivery of Selegiline Hydrochloride Loaded Nanolipid Carriers for the Management of Parkinson's Disease. Cent Nerv Syst Agents Med Chem 2019; 19:46-56. [PMID: 30474538 DOI: 10.2174/1871524919666181126124846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2018] [Revised: 11/16/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Parkinson's Disease (PD) is one of the most common age-related neurodegenerative disorders which is marked with the loss of dopaminergic neurons. The present study performed on the nose to brain delivery of selegiline hydrochloride loaded nano lipid carrier, suggests that the nasal route is a good mean of targeting the drug directly into the brain. METHODS AND MATERIALS Nanostructured lipid carriers were prepared by using hot homogenization. Selegiline hydrochloride loaded NLCs and rotenone treatment were given at a dose of 10 mg/kg administered from 14th day to 28th day. Behavioral parameters were determined at 7th, 14th, 21st and 28th day. On the 28th day, animals were sacrificed for biochemical estimation. RESULTS The optimized drug loaded NLC formulation has shown 93±5.25% entrapment efficiency and 51.96% loading capacity. Optimized NLCs formulation has shown 70% release within 10 hours and after that, the release of the drug is sustained up to 22 hours (97%). Pharmacological action of the drug was found to restore the behavioral parameters in rotenone-induced rats. CONCLUSION Nano Lipid Carrier (NLCs) therapeutics has emerged as a prominent method for the treatment of Parkinson's Disease (PD) as it offers targeted delivery and enhances the therapeutic efficacy of neurotherapeutics. It is concluded from the studies that, Selegiline HCl loaded nano lipid carrier which was administered through nasal route has the potential to be used in the management therapy of Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neeraj Mishra
- Department of Pharmaceutics, ISF College of Pharmacy, Ghal Kalan, Ferozpur, G.T. Road Moga-142001, Punjab, India
| | - Sawarni Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, ISF College of Pharmacy, Ghal Kalan, Ferozpur, G.T. Road Moga-142001, Punjab, India
| | | | - Anoop Kumar
- Department of Pharmacology, ISF College of Pharmacy, Ghal Kalan, Ferozpur, G.T Road Moga-142001, Punjab, India
| | - Ruchika Sharma
- Department of Biotechnology, ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga, 142001, Punjab, India
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Kwon JY, Jeon MT, Jung UJ, Kim DW, Moon GJ, Kim SR. Perspective: Therapeutic Potential of Flavonoids as Alternative Medicines in Epilepsy. Adv Nutr 2019; 10:778-790. [PMID: 31111873 PMCID: PMC6743823 DOI: 10.1093/advances/nmz047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Revised: 03/05/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Epilepsy is a chronic neurological disorder that affects many people worldwide. Temporal lobe epilepsy is the most common and most studied type of epilepsy, but the pathological mechanisms underlying this condition are poorly understood. More than 20 antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) have been developed and used for the treatment of epilepsy; however, 30% of patients still experience uncontrolled epilepsy and associated comorbidities, which impair their quality of life. In addition, various side effects have been reported for AEDs, such as drowsiness, unsteadiness, dizziness, blurred or double vision, tremor (shakiness), greater risk of infections, bruising, and bleeding. Thus, critical medical needs remain unmet for patients with uncontrolled epilepsy. Flavonoids belong to a subclass of polyphenols that are widely present in fruits, vegetables, and certain beverages. Recently, many studies have reported that some flavonoids elicit various beneficial effects in patients with epilepsy without causing the side effects associated with conventional medical therapies. Moreover, flavonoids may have a property of regulating microRNA expression associated with inflammation and cell survival. These findings suggest that flavonoids, which are more effective but impose fewer adverse effects than conventional AEDs, could be used in the treatment of epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae Young Kwon
- School of Life Sciences, BK21 plus KNU Creative BioResearch Group, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Tae Jeon
- School of Life Sciences, BK21 plus KNU Creative BioResearch Group, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Un Ju Jung
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Pukyong National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Woon Kim
- Department of Medical Science,Department of Anatomy, Brain Research Institute, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Gyeong Joon Moon
- School of Life Sciences, BK21 plus KNU Creative BioResearch Group, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea,Address correspondence to GJM (e-mail: )
| | - Sang Ryong Kim
- School of Life Sciences, BK21 plus KNU Creative BioResearch Group, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea,Brain Science and Engineering Institute, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea,Address correspondence to SRK (e-mail: )
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18
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Mori Y, Kato S, Fujisawa Y, Ohnishi S, Hiraku Y, Kawanishi S, Murata M, Oikawa S. Mechanisms of DNA damage induced by morin, an inhibitor of amyloid β-peptide aggregation. Free Radic Res 2019; 53:115-123. [PMID: 30572734 DOI: 10.1080/10715762.2018.1562179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Morin is a potential inhibitor of amyloid β-peptide aggregation. This aggregation is involved in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Meanwhile, morin has been found to be mutagenic and exhibits peroxidation of membrane lipids concurrent with DNA strand breaks in the presence of metal ions. To clarify a molecular mechanism of morin-induced DNA damage, we examined the DNA damage and its site specificity on 32P-5'-end-labeled human DNA fragments treated with morin plus Cu(II). The formation of 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxodG), an indicator of oxidative DNA damage, was also determined in calf thymus DNA treated with morin plus Cu(II). Morin-induced DNA strand breaks and base modification in the presence of Cu(II) were dose dependent. Morin plus Cu(II) caused piperidine-labile lesions preferentially at thymine and guanine residues. The DNA damage was inhibited by methional, catalase and Cu(I)-chelator bathocuproine. The typical •OH scavengers ethanol, mannitol and sodium formate showed no inhibitory effect on DNA damage induced by morin plus Cu(II). When superoxide dismutase was added to the solution, DNA damage was not inhibited. In addition, morin plus Cu(II) increased 8-oxodG formation in calf thymus DNA fragments. We conclude that morin undergoes autoxidation in the presence of Cu(II) via a Cu(I)/Cu(II) redox cycle and H2O2 generation to produce Cu(I)-hydroperoxide, which causes oxidative DNA damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yurie Mori
- a Department of Environmental and Molecular Medicine , Mie University Graduate School of Medicine , Tsu , Japan
| | - Shinya Kato
- b Radioisotope Facilities for Medical Science , Mie University , Tsu , Japan
| | - Yutaka Fujisawa
- c Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Suzuka University of Medical Science , Suzuka , Japan
| | - Shiho Ohnishi
- c Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Suzuka University of Medical Science , Suzuka , Japan
| | - Yusuke Hiraku
- a Department of Environmental and Molecular Medicine , Mie University Graduate School of Medicine , Tsu , Japan
| | - Shosuke Kawanishi
- c Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Suzuka University of Medical Science , Suzuka , Japan
| | - Mariko Murata
- a Department of Environmental and Molecular Medicine , Mie University Graduate School of Medicine , Tsu , Japan
| | - Shinji Oikawa
- a Department of Environmental and Molecular Medicine , Mie University Graduate School of Medicine , Tsu , Japan
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Morin Attenuates Neurochemical Changes and Increased Oxidative/Nitrergic Stress in Brains of Mice Exposed to Ketamine: Prevention and Reversal of Schizophrenia-Like Symptoms. Neurochem Res 2018; 43:1745-1755. [PMID: 29956036 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-018-2590-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Revised: 06/20/2018] [Accepted: 06/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have revealed that morin (MOR), a neuroactive bioflavonoid, with proven psychotropic and neuroprotective properties reduced schizophrenic-like behaviors in mice. This study further evaluated the ability of MOR to prevent and reverse ketamine-induced schizophrenic-like behaviors and the underlying neurochemical changes and increased oxidative/nitrergic stress in mice. In the preventive protocol, mice received intraperitoneal injection of MOR (100 mg/kg), reference antipsychotic drugs [haloperidol (1 mg/kg), risperidone (0.5 mg/kg)], or saline daily for 14 consecutive days prior to i.p. injection of ketamine (KET) (20 mg/kg/day) from the 8th to the 14th day. In the reversal protocol, the animals received KET or saline for 14 days prior to MOR, haloperidol, risperidone, or saline treatments. Schizophrenic-like behaviors: positive (open-field test), negative (social-interaction test) and cognitive (Y-maze test) symptoms were evaluated. Thereafter, the brain levels of dopamine, glutamate, 5-hydroxytryptamine and acetyl-cholinesterase, as well as biomarkers of oxidative/nitrergic stress were measured in the striatum, prefrontal-cortex (PFC) and hippocampus (HC). Morin prevented and reversed KET-induced hyperlocomotion, social and cognitive deficits. Also, MOR or risperidone attenuated altered dopaminergic, glutamatergic, 5-hydroxytryptaminergic and cholinergic neurotransmissions in brain region-dependent manner. The increased malondialdehyde and nitrite levels accompanied by decreased glutathione concentrations in the striatum, PFC and HC in KET-treated mice were significantly attenuated by MOR or risperidone. Taken together, these findings suggest that the anti-schizophrenic-like activity of MOR may be mediated via mechanisms related to attenuation of neurochemical changes and oxidative/nitrergic alterations in mice.
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