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Petersen JM, Burgess AL, van Oers MM, Herniou EA, Bojko J. Nudiviruses in free-living and parasitic arthropods: evolutionary taxonomy. Trends Parasitol 2024; 40:744-762. [PMID: 39019701 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2024.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2024] [Revised: 06/18/2024] [Accepted: 06/19/2024] [Indexed: 07/19/2024]
Abstract
The nudiviruses (family: Nudiviridae) are large double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses that infect insects and crustaceans, and have most recently been identified from ectoparasitic members (fleas and lice). This virus family was created in 2014 and has since been expanded via the discovery of multiple novel viral candidates or accepted members, sparking the need for a new taxonomic and evolutionary overview. Using current information (including data from public databases), we construct a new comprehensive phylogeny, encompassing 49 different nudiviruses. We use this novel phylogeny to propose a new taxonomic structure of the Nudiviridae by suggesting two new viral genera (Zetanudivirus and Etanudivirus), from ectoparasitic lice. We detail novel emerging relationships between nudiviruses and their hosts, considering their evolutionary history and ecological role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jirka Manuel Petersen
- Laboratory of Virology, Wageningen University and Research, 6708, PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Institut de Recherche sur la Biologie de l'Insecte, UMR7261 CNRS - Université de Tours, 37200 Tours, France.
| | - Amy L Burgess
- School of Health and Life Sciences, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, TS1 3BX, UK; National Horizons Centre, Teesside University, Darlington, DL1 1HG, UK
| | - Monique M van Oers
- Laboratory of Virology, Wageningen University and Research, 6708, PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Elisabeth A Herniou
- Institut de Recherche sur la Biologie de l'Insecte, UMR7261 CNRS - Université de Tours, 37200 Tours, France
| | - Jamie Bojko
- School of Health and Life Sciences, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, TS1 3BX, UK; National Horizons Centre, Teesside University, Darlington, DL1 1HG, UK.
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Hong XG, Zhu Y, Wang T, Chen JJ, Tang F, Jiang RR, Ma XF, Xu Q, Li H, Wang LP, Sun Y, Fang LQ, Liu W. Mapping the distribution of sandflies and sandfly-associated pathogens in China. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2024; 18:e0012291. [PMID: 39012845 PMCID: PMC11251628 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0012291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2024] [Accepted: 06/13/2024] [Indexed: 07/18/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Understanding and mapping the distribution of sandflies and sandfly-associated pathogens (SAPs) is crucial for guiding the surveillance and control effort. However, their distribution and the related risk burden in China remain poorly understood. METHODS We mapped the distribution of sandflies and SAPs using literature data from 1940 to 2022. We also mapped the human visceral leishmaniasis (VL) cases using surveillance data from 2014 to 2018. The ecological drivers of 12 main sandfly species and VL were identified by applying machine learning, and their distribution and risk were predicted in three time periods (2021-2040, 2041-2060, and 2061-2080) under three scenarios of climate and socioeconomic changes. RESULTS In the mainland of China, a total of 47 sandfly species have been reported, with the main 12 species classified into three clusters according to their ecological niches. Additionally, 6 SAPs have been identified, which include two protozoa, two bacteria, and two viruses. The incidence risk of different VL subtypes was closely associated with the distribution risk of specific vectors. The model predictions also revealed a substantial underestimation of the current sandfly distribution and VL risk. The predicted areas affected by the 12 major species of sandflies and the high-risk areas for VL were found to be 37.9-1121.0% and 136.6% larger, respectively, than the observed range in the areas. The future global changes were projected to decrease the risk of mountain-type zoonotic VL (MT-ZVL), but anthroponotic VL (AVL) and desert-type zoonotic VL (DT-ZVL) could remain stable or slightly increase. CONCLUSIONS Current field observations underestimate the spatial distributions of main sandfly species and VL in China. More active surveillance and field investigations are needed where high risks are predicted, especially in areas where the future risk of VL is projected to remain high or increase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue-Geng Hong
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Academy of Military Medical Science, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Ying Zhu
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Wuhan University, Wuhan, P. R. China
| | - Tao Wang
- The 949th Chinese PLA Hospital, Altay, P. R. China
| | - Jin-Jin Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Academy of Military Medical Science, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Fang Tang
- Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Chinese People’s Armed Police Forces, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Rui-Ruo Jiang
- Institute of NBC Defense, PLA Army, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Xiao-Fang Ma
- Qingdao Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Qingdao, P. R. China
| | - Qiang Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Academy of Military Medical Science, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Hao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Academy of Military Medical Science, Beijing, P. R. China
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Wuhan University, Wuhan, P. R. China
| | - Li-Ping Wang
- Center for Public Health Surveillance and Information Service, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Yi Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Academy of Military Medical Science, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Li-Qun Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Academy of Military Medical Science, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Wei Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Academy of Military Medical Science, Beijing, P. R. China
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Lamichhane B, Brockway C, Evasco K, Nicholson J, Neville PJ, Levy A, Smith D, Imrie A. Metatranscriptomic Sequencing of Medically Important Mosquitoes Reveals Extensive Diversity of RNA Viruses and Other Microbial Communities in Western Australia. Pathogens 2024; 13:107. [PMID: 38392845 PMCID: PMC10892203 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens13020107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Mosquitoes harbor a wide diversity of microorganisms, including viruses that are human pathogens, or that are insect specific. We used metatranscriptomics, an unbiased high-throughput molecular approach, to describe the composition of viral and other microbial communities in six medically important mosquito species from across Western Australia: Aedes vigilax, Culex annulirostris, Cx. australicus, Cx. globocoxitus, Cx. pipiens biotype molestus, and Cx. quinquefasciatus. We identified 42 viral species, including 13 novel viruses, from 19 families. Culex mosquitoes exhibited a significantly higher diversity of viruses than Aedes mosquitoes, and no virus was shared between the two genera. Comparison of mosquito populations revealed a heterogenous distribution of viruses between geographical regions and between closely related species, suggesting that geography and host species may play a role in shaping virome composition. We also detected bacterial and parasitic microorganisms, among which Wolbachia bacteria were detected in three members of the Cx. pipiens complex, Cx. australicus, Cx. pipiens biotype molestus, and Cx. quinquefasciatus. In summary, our unbiased metatranscriptomics approach provides important insights into viral and other microbial diversity in Western Australian mosquitoes that vector medically important viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Binit Lamichhane
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia;
| | - Craig Brockway
- Biological and Applied Environmental Health Hazards, Department of Health, Perth, WA 6000, Australia; (C.B.); (K.E.); (J.N.); (P.J.N.)
| | - Kimberly Evasco
- Biological and Applied Environmental Health Hazards, Department of Health, Perth, WA 6000, Australia; (C.B.); (K.E.); (J.N.); (P.J.N.)
| | - Jay Nicholson
- Biological and Applied Environmental Health Hazards, Department of Health, Perth, WA 6000, Australia; (C.B.); (K.E.); (J.N.); (P.J.N.)
| | - Peter J. Neville
- Biological and Applied Environmental Health Hazards, Department of Health, Perth, WA 6000, Australia; (C.B.); (K.E.); (J.N.); (P.J.N.)
| | - Avram Levy
- PathWest Laboratory Medicine, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia; (A.L.); (D.S.)
| | - David Smith
- PathWest Laboratory Medicine, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia; (A.L.); (D.S.)
- UWA Medical School, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Allison Imrie
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia;
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Yao X, Yin Q, Tian X, Zheng Y, Li H, Fu S, Lian Z, Zhang Y, Li F, Zhang W, He Y, Wang R, Wu B, Nie K, Xu S, Cheng J, Li X, Wang H, Liang G. Human and animal exposure to newly discovered sand fly viruses, China. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2024; 13:1291937. [PMID: 38235489 PMCID: PMC10791927 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1291937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2023] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction The Hedi virus (HEDV) and Wuxiang virus (WUXV) are newly discovered Bunyaviruses transmitted by sandflies. The geographical distribution of isolation of these two viruses continues to expand and it has been reported that WUXV causes neurological symptoms and even death in suckling mice. However, little is known about the prevalence of the two viruses in mammalian infections. Methods In order to understand the infection status of HEDV and WUXV in humans and animals from regions where the viruses have been isolated, this study used Western blotting to detect the positive rates of HEDV and WUXV IgG antibodies in serum samples from febrile patients, dogs, and chickens in the forementioned regions. Results The results showed that of the 29 human serum samples, 17.24% (5/29) tested positive for HEDV, while 68.96% (20/29) were positive for WUXV. In the 31 dog serum samples, 87.10% (27/31) were positive for HEDV and 70.97% (22/31) were positive for WUXV, while in the 36 chicken serum samples, 47.22% (17/36) were positive for HEDV, and 52.78% (19/36) were positive for WUXV. Discussion These findings suggest there are widespread infections of HEDV and WUXV in mammals (dogs, chickens) and humans from the regions where these viruses have been isolated. Moreover, the positive rate of HEDV infections was higher in local animals compared to that measured in human specimens. This is the first seroepidemiological study of these two sandfly-transmitted viruses. The findings of the study have practical implications for vector-borne viral infections and related zoonotic infections in China, as well as providing an important reference for studies on the relationship between sandfly-transmitted viruses and zoonotic infections outside of China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohui Yao
- Department of Arbovirus, National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Qikai Yin
- Department of Arbovirus, National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaodong Tian
- Department of Vector Biology, Shanxi Province Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China
| | - Yuke Zheng
- Department of Arbovirus, National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Hongyan Li
- Yangquan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Yangquan, Shanxi, China
| | - Shihong Fu
- Department of Arbovirus, National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Zhengmin Lian
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Yijia Zhang
- Department of Arbovirus, National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Fan Li
- Department of Arbovirus, National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Weijia Zhang
- Department of Arbovirus, National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Ying He
- Department of Arbovirus, National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Ruichen Wang
- Department of Arbovirus, National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Bin Wu
- Yangquan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Yangquan, Shanxi, China
| | - Kai Nie
- Department of Arbovirus, National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Songtao Xu
- Department of Arbovirus, National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Jingxia Cheng
- Department of Vector Biology, Shanxi Province Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China
| | - Xiangdong Li
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Huanyu Wang
- Department of Arbovirus, National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Guodong Liang
- Department of Arbovirus, National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
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Rogerio LA, Takahashi TY, Cardoso L, Takamiya NT, de Melo EV, de Jesus AR, de Oliveira FA, Forrester S, Jeffares DC, da Silva JS, Ribeiro JM, Almeida RP, Maruyama SR. Co-infection of Leishmania infantum and a Crithidia-related species in a case of refractory relapsed visceral leishmaniasis with non-ulcerated cutaneous manifestation in Brazil. Int J Infect Dis 2023; 133:85-88. [PMID: 37182549 PMCID: PMC10330508 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2023.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Revised: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/16/2023] Open
Abstract
We report a refractory and relapsed visceral leishmaniasis case in a male child patient followed from 2016 to 2020, whose clinical isolates from multiple relapses were analyzed at the genome level. To the best of our knowledge, it is the first report that both visceral leishmaniasis and non-ulcerated cutaneous leishmaniasis have concomitantly manifested in the same patient. Importantly, sequence analysis revealed that the patient was co-infected with Leishmania infantum and a Crithidia-related parasite, which was previously found in a fatal case of visceral leishmaniasis from the same endemic region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luana Aparecida Rogerio
- Department of Genetics and Evolution, Centre for Biological Sciences and Health, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Talita Yuri Takahashi
- Department of Genetics and Evolution, Centre for Biological Sciences and Health, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Luria Cardoso
- Department of Medicine, Centre for Biology and Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe (UFS), Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Nayore Tamie Takamiya
- Department of Genetics and Evolution, Centre for Biological Sciences and Health, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Enaldo Vieira de Melo
- Department of Medicine, Centre for Biology and Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe (UFS), Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Amelia Ribeiro de Jesus
- Department of Medicine, Centre for Biology and Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe (UFS), Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Fabricia Alvisi de Oliveira
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, University Hospital (HU-UFS), Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Sarah Forrester
- Department of Biology and York Biomedical Research Institute, University of York, York, UK
| | - Daniel C Jeffares
- Department of Biology and York Biomedical Research Institute, University of York, York, UK
| | - João Santana da Silva
- Fiocruz - Bi-Institutional Translational Medicine Project, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo (USP), Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Roque Pacheco Almeida
- Department of Medicine, Centre for Biology and Health Sciences, Federal University of Sergipe (UFS), Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Sandra Regina Maruyama
- Department of Genetics and Evolution, Centre for Biological Sciences and Health, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil.
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Li C, Liu S, Zhou H, Zhu W, Cui M, Li J, Wang J, Liu J, Zhu J, Li W, Bi Y, Carr MJ, Holmes EC, Shi W. Metatranscriptomic Sequencing Reveals Host Species as an Important Factor Shaping the Mosquito Virome. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0465522. [PMID: 36786616 PMCID: PMC10101097 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.04655-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Mosquitoes are important vector hosts for numerous viral pathogens and harbor a large number of mosquito-specific viruses as well as human-infecting viruses. Previous studies have mainly focused on the discovery of mosquito viruses, and our understanding of major ecological factors associated with virome structure in mosquitoes remains limited. We utilized metatranscriptomic sequencing to characterize the viromes of five mosquito species sampled across eight locations in Yunnan Province, China. This revealed the presence of 52 viral species, of which 19 were novel, belonging to 15 viral families/clades. Of particular note was Culex hepacivirus 1, clustering within the avian clade of hepaciviruses. Notably, both the viromic diversity and abundance of Aedes genus mosquitoes were significantly higher than those of the Culex genus, while Aedes albopictus mosquitoes harbored a higher diversity than Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. Our findings thus point to discernible differences in viromic structure between mosquito genera and even between mosquito species within the same genus. Importantly, such differences were not attributable to differences in sampling between geographical location. Our study also revealed the ubiquitous presence of the endosymbiont bacterium Wolbachia, with the genetic diversity and abundance also varying between mosquito species. In conclusion, our results suggested that the mosquito host species play an important role in shaping the virome's structure. IMPORTANCE This study revealed the huge capability of mosquitoes in harboring a rich diversity of RNA viruses, although relevant studies have characterized the intensively unparalleled diversity of RNA viruses previously. Furthermore, our findings showed discernible differences not only in viromic structure between mosquito genera and even between mosquito species within the same genus but also in the genetic diversity and abundance of Wolbachia between different mosquito populations. These findings emphasize the importance of host genetic background in shaping the virome composition of mosquitoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cixiu Li
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Clinical and Basic Medicine, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji’nan, China
- Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases in Universities of Shandong, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Taian, China
| | - Shuqi Liu
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Clinical and Basic Medicine, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji’nan, China
- Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases in Universities of Shandong, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Taian, China
| | - Hong Zhou
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Clinical and Basic Medicine, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji’nan, China
- Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases in Universities of Shandong, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Taian, China
| | - Wei Zhu
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Clinical and Basic Medicine, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji’nan, China
- Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases in Universities of Shandong, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Taian, China
| | - Mingxue Cui
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Clinical and Basic Medicine, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji’nan, China
- Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases in Universities of Shandong, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Taian, China
| | - Juan Li
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Clinical and Basic Medicine, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji’nan, China
- Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases in Universities of Shandong, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Taian, China
| | - Jiao Wang
- Mengla County Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Mengla, China
| | - Jiangyun Liu
- Mengla County Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Mengla, China
| | - Jin Zhu
- Xishuangbanna Prefecture Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Jinghong, China
| | - Weiping Li
- Xishuangbanna Prefecture Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Jinghong, China
| | - Yuhai Bi
- Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Michael J. Carr
- National Virus Reference Laboratory, School of Medicine, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- International Collaboration Unit, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Edward C. Holmes
- Sydney Institute for Infectious Diseases, School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Weifeng Shi
- Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases in Universities of Shandong, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Taian, China
- School of Public Health, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji’nan, China
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