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Wu R, Yang Q, Cui W, Gao D, Luo Y, Wang D. Relationship between visual ability assessment and punch performance in competition in male amateur boxers. Front Physiol 2024; 15:1429554. [PMID: 39081778 PMCID: PMC11286555 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2024.1429554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2024] [Accepted: 06/26/2024] [Indexed: 08/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Sport visual ability plays an important role in the performance of elite athletes in competition. However, its relationship with boxers' performance has not been fully understood. This study investigated the relationship between sports visual abilities and in-competition punching performance in 26 highly trained male amateur boxers. Ten visual abilities of the boxers were tested using the Senaptec Sensory Station (Senaptec, Beaverton, OR, United States), including Visual Clarity (VC), Contrast Sensitivity (CS), Depth Perception (DP), Near Far Quickness (NFQ), Target Capture (TC), Perception Span (PS), Multiple Object Tracking (MOT), Eye-Hand Coordination (EHC), Go/No Go (GNG), and Reaction Time (RT). Performance analyses were conducted on national boxing championships conducted by the boxers to analyze their punching accuracy. Correlation and regression analyses showed that punch performance %Hit was very strong correlated with DP, EHC, GNG, and RT, and showed a strong correlation with VC, CS, and PS. %Hit was moderate correlated with MOT, while there was no correlation with NFQ and TC. In addition, RT, EHC, and DP are important visual ability variables for boxers. The results of this study indicate that there is an overall relationship between sports visual ability and boxing performance, but there is also a specific relationship between variables in visual ability and boxing performance, especially faster reaction times, better processing of visual information, and decision-making abilities, and the ability to accurately recognize the distance and position of an opponent and their punches are essential for enhancing boxing performance. Further studies are needed to investigate the relationship between sport visual ability and more comprehensive performance in boxers, and the possibility of enhancing performance through specific visual training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Wu
- School of Athletic Performance, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Lab of Human Performance, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Qingyuan Yang
- Xinjiang Research Institute of Sports Science, Urumqi, China
| | - Weijia Cui
- School of Athletic Performance, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Dongxu Gao
- School of Athletic Performance, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Yifei Luo
- School of Athletic Performance, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Dexin Wang
- School of Athletic Performance, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Lab of Human Performance, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
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Finlay MJ, Greig M, Bridge CA, Page RM. Post-Activation Performance Enhancement of Punch Force and Neuromuscular Performance in Amateur Boxing: Toward a More Individualized and "Real-World" Approach. J Strength Cond Res 2024; 38:1063-1071. [PMID: 38349345 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000004740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/29/2024]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Finlay, MJ, Greig, M, Bridge, CA, and Page, RM. Post-activation performance enhancement of punch force and neuromuscular performance in amateur boxing: Toward a more individualized and "real-world" approach. J Strength Cond Res 38(6): 1063-1071, 2024-Previous research on post-activation performance enhancement has been applied in several sporting settings, although this is lacking in a boxing setting. This study explored the effectiveness of 2 upper-body conditioning activities in improving punch-specific performance during an amateur boxing-simulated bout. On 3 separate occasions, 10 male senior elite amateur boxers performed the following conditioning activities before a boxing-specific simulation protocol: isometric (ISO) punch, elastic resistance (ER) punch, and a control trial. Boxers performed maximal punches against a vertically mounted force plate, and countermovement jumps (CMJ) at baseline, before round 1, after each round, and 4 minutes after the simulation. Both conditioning activities, but not the control trial, produced small worthwhile increases (effect size ≥ 0.20; equal to or greater than the smallest worthwhile change) in punch force, although worthwhile increases in rate of force development were limited to the cross during the ISO trial. No group-based improvements in CMJ performance were observed. Individual analysis revealed that 6 boxers improved punch-specific performance to the greatest extent in the ISO trial; in contrast, only 1 boxer did so in the ER trial. Three boxers exhibited similar performance increases across trials. In conclusion, both conditioning activities may be applied to an amateur boxer's warm-up to acutely enhance punch-specific performance. The ISO conditioning activity seems most effective; however, the interindividual variability suggests a need for protocols to be individualized to each athlete. The conditioning activities in the present study may be applied to sparring, competitive bouts, or to other combat sports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitchell James Finlay
- Sport Department, University Academy 92, Old Trafford, Manchester, United Kingdom; and
- Department of Sport & Physical Activity, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, Lancashire, United Kingdom
| | - Matt Greig
- Department of Sport & Physical Activity, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, Lancashire, United Kingdom
| | - Craig Alan Bridge
- Department of Sport & Physical Activity, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, Lancashire, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Michael Page
- Department of Sport & Physical Activity, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, Lancashire, United Kingdom
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Mohammadalizadeh M, Jaiswal S, Semken S, Mikkola A. Kinematic and Physiological Analysis of Medieval Combat Sport Using Motion Analysis, Blood Lactate Measurement, and Heart Rate Monitoring: A Case Study. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:3443. [PMID: 38894234 PMCID: PMC11174425 DOI: 10.3390/s24113443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2024] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Medieval combat sport is a form of mixed martial art in which combatants engage in fighting using offensive and defensive equipment while dressed in full armor. The sport is considered extremely taxing, making it nearly impossible to maintain the same level of performance. However, this form of sport has not been thoroughly analyzed, and its impact on human physical response is largely unknown. To address this gap, the study reported here aimed to introduce and test a procedure for analyzing human physical responses within the framework of the sport. To accomplish this, two experienced combatants were asked to engage in a series of strikes, performed in the form of a set duel simulating a professional fight competition. The kinematic aspect of the procedure was examined using motion analysis with the help of an IMU suit, while the physiological aspect was evaluated based on blood lactate levels and heart rate measurements. Furthermore, an ergometer test conducted in a laboratory setting aimed to determine the lactate threshold. The duel results showed noticeable decreases in the kinematic aspects of the strikes, such as the velocity of impact, and a dramatic rise in physiological aspects, such as heart rate and blood lactate levels. During the duel sets, the blood lactate surpassed the threshold level, and at the end, the heart rate exceeded the maximum age-related level. Practicing medieval combat sport has been shown to impose an extreme physical load on the bodies of combatants, noticeably affecting their performance levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mojtaba Mohammadalizadeh
- Laboratory of Machine Design, Department of Mechanical Engineering, LUT University, 53850 Lappeenranta, Finland; (S.J.); (S.S.); (A.M.)
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Wu G, Guo Y, Zhang L, Chen C. A physical fitness-evaluation system for outstanding Chinese male boxers. PeerJ 2024; 12:e17271. [PMID: 38680883 PMCID: PMC11055509 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.17271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Background We sought to create a system to evaluate the physical fitness of outstanding Chinese male boxers that included an evaluation index, fitness level criteria, and modeling. This system was then used to assess athletes' physical fitness and development. Methods Documentation, expert interviews, questionnaires, measurements, and statistical analyses were used in this study. Results The physical fitness evaluation system included the following three components: (1) body shape indexes (n = 4) including the backhand upper arm circumference differential, finger span height, Cottrell index, and pelvic width/shoulder width × 100; (2) body function indexes (n = 4) including relative maximum anaerobic power, relative maximal oxygen uptake, and creatine kinase and testosterone concentrations; and (3) athletic quality indexes (n = 9) including the speed strength index, the backhand straight punch strength, 3-min cumulative punching force, backhand straight punch reaction time, backhand straight punch speed, 30-m sprint, 9-min double shake jump rope, 1-min double shake jump rope, and sitting forward bend tests. A five-point grading system to evaluate physical fitness was established and an evaluation model was proposed. Conclusions The reference values were determined to be objective and effective using a back substitution process. Individual and differential assessments reflected the athletes' level of physical fitness. The critical values were established under the best and worst conditions and the optimal values were found to be valid and effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guodong Wu
- Jiangsu Vocational Institute of Commerce, Nanjing, China
| | - Yuqiang Guo
- School of Athletic Performance, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Liqin Zhang
- Inner Mongolia Institute of Sports Science, Inner Mongolia, China
| | - Chao Chen
- School of Athletic Performance, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
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Eginyan G, Williams AM, Joseph KS, Lam T. Trunk muscle activity and kinematics during boxing and battle rope exercise in people with motor-complete spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med 2024; 47:135-142. [PMID: 34874241 PMCID: PMC10795558 DOI: 10.1080/10790268.2021.2005993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
CONTEXT Recovery of seated balance is a rehabilitation priority for people with motor-complete spinal cord injury (mcSCI). Previous research has demonstrated that people with mcSCI can voluntarily engage their trunk muscles during different exercise programs that have the potential to improve seated balance control. Boxing and battle rope exercises could offer another opportunity to improve seated balance for people with mcSCI, but it is unknown if this type of exercise engages trunk musculature and challenges seated balance. OBJECTIVE To describe the movement patterns of people with mcSCI compared to controls by characterizing the muscle activation patterns and kinematics of the trunk and upper-body during boxing and battle rope exercise. DESIGN Cross-sectional study. PARTICIPANTS 4 males with mcSCI between C7-T9, and 4 able-bodied controls. METHODS Participants performed different boxing and battle rope exercises while kinematics and electromyography (EMG) from the trunk and arms were recorded. OUTCOME MEASURES Trunk EMG amplitude, trunk and arm joint angles, and trunk curvature. RESULTS Boxing and battle ropes elicited higher relative EMG activity in people with mcSCI compared to controls (P < 0.001). Participants with mcSCI had similar upper-limb kinematics during the exercises to controls, but demonstrated reduced trunk rotation and increased trunk curvature. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that boxing and battle rope can elicit trunk activity in people with mcSCI, though they may adopt increased trunk curvatures. Future research should explore if such exercise programs may improve seated balance in people with mcSCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gevorg Eginyan
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Physical Activity Research Centre (PARC), International Collaboration On Repair Discoveries (ICORD), Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Alison M.M. Williams
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Physical Activity Research Centre (PARC), International Collaboration On Repair Discoveries (ICORD), Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Konrad S. Joseph
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Physical Activity Research Centre (PARC), International Collaboration On Repair Discoveries (ICORD), Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Tania Lam
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Physical Activity Research Centre (PARC), International Collaboration On Repair Discoveries (ICORD), Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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Omcirk D, Vetrovsky T, Padecky J, Malecek J, Tufano JJ. Validity of Commercially Available Punch Trackers. J Strength Cond Res 2023; 37:2273-2281. [PMID: 37192502 PMCID: PMC10599804 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000004535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Omcirk, D, Vetrovsky, T, Padecky, J, Malecek, J, and Tufano, JJ. Validity of commercially available punch trackers. J Strength Cond Res 37(11): 2273-2281, 2023-This study determined how well data from commercially available punch trackers (Corner, Hykso, and StrikeTec) related to gold-standard velocity and force measures during full-contact punches. In a quasi-randomized order, 20 male subjects performed 6 individual rear straight punches, rear hooks, and rear uppercuts against a wall-mounted force plate. Punch tracker variables were compared with the peak force of the force plate and to the peak (QPV) and mean velocity (QMV) assessed through Qualisys 3-dimensional tracking. For each punch tracker variable, Pearson's correlation coefficient, mean absolute percentage error (MAPE), and mean percentage error (MPE) were calculated. There were no strong correlations between punch tracker data and gold-standard force and velocity data. However, Hykso "velocity" was moderately correlated with QMV ( r = 0.68, MAPE 0.64, MPE 0.63) and QPV ( r = 0.61, MAPE 0.21, MPE -0.06). Corner Power G was moderately correlated with QMV ( r = 0.59, MAPE 0.65, MPE 0.58) and QPV ( r = 0.58, MAPE 0.27, MPE -0.09), but Corner "velocity" was not. StrikeTec "velocity" was moderately correlated with QMV ( r = 0.56, MAPE 1.49, MPE 1.49) and QPV ( r = 0.55, MAPE 0.46, MPE 0.43). Therefore, none of the devices fared particularly well for all of their data output, and if not willing to accept any room for error, none of these devices should be used. Nevertheless, these devices and their proprietary algorithms may be updated in the future, which would warrant further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Omcirk
- Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Tomas Vetrovsky
- Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Padecky
- Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Malecek
- Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - James J. Tufano
- Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
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Finlay MJ, Page RM, Greig M, Bridge CA. Test-retest reliability and sensitivity of senior elite amateur boxers maximal punch force, as quantified by a vertically mounted force plate. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0289791. [PMID: 37561692 PMCID: PMC10414587 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0289791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/12/2023] Open
Abstract
An ecologically valid, reliable and sensitive method of quantifying punch force variables would be useful for coaches and practitioners monitoring combat-specific performance. The present study utilised a vertically mounted force plate to quantify the peak punch force and rate of force development (RFD) of amateur boxers. Ten male senior elite amateur boxers performed maximal jab, cross, and hook punches across two separate days. The force plate showed excellent within-day and good-to-excellent between-day reliability for peak punch impact force and RFD (ICC 0.89-0.99). The CV% for all punch force variables were similar on day 1 (3-9%) and day 2 (4-10%). Standard error of measurement (SEM) and smallest worthwhile changes (SWC) revealed the force plate can detect small-to-moderate changes in punch performance. The greatest impact forces and RFD were found in the rear hook (2624 ± 581 N, 296448 ± 101823 N.s-1), followed by the lead hook (2524 ± 532 N, 256813 ± 81735 N.s-1), cross 2425 ± 545 N, 193004 ± 62671 N.s-1) and jab (1645 ± 537 N, 116675 ± 41577 N.s-1). The vertically mounted force plate is a reliable and sensitive test of punch performance, thus may be useful in determining the efficacy of training interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitchell James Finlay
- Sports Performance Research Group, Department of Sport & Physical Activity, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, Lancashire, United Kingdom
- Sport Department, University Academy 92 (UA92), Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Michael Page
- Sports Performance Research Group, Department of Sport & Physical Activity, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, Lancashire, United Kingdom
| | - Matt Greig
- Sports Performance Research Group, Department of Sport & Physical Activity, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, Lancashire, United Kingdom
| | - Craig Alan Bridge
- Sports Performance Research Group, Department of Sport & Physical Activity, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, Lancashire, United Kingdom
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Merlo R, Rodríguez-Chávez Á, Gómez-Castañeda PE, Rojas-Jaramillo A, Petro JL, Kreider RB, Bonilla DA. Profiling the Physical Performance of Young Boxers with Unsupervised Machine Learning: A Cross-Sectional Study. Sports (Basel) 2023; 11:131. [PMID: 37505618 PMCID: PMC10384265 DOI: 10.3390/sports11070131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Mexico City is the location with the largest number of boxers in Mexico; in fact, it is the first city in the country to open a Technological Baccalaureate in Education and Sports Promotion with a pugilism orientation. This cross-sectional study aimed to determine the physical-functional profile of applicants for admission to the baccalaureate in sports. A total of 227 young athletes (44F; 183M; 15.65 (1.79) years; 63.66 (14.98) kg; >3 years of boxing experience) participated in this study. Body mass (BM), maximal isometric handgrip (HG) strength, the height of the countermovement jump (CMJ), the velocity of straight boxing punches (PV), and the rear hand punch impact force (PIF) were measured. The young boxers were profiled using unsupervised machine learning algorithms, and the probability of superiority (ρ) was calculated as the effect size of the differences. K-Medoids clustering resulted in two sex-independent significantly different groups: Profile 1 (n = 118) and Profile 2 (n = 109). Except for BM, Profile 2 was statistically higher (p < 0.001) with a clear distinction in terms of superiority on PIF (ρ = 0.118), the PIF-to-BM ratio (ρ = 0.017), the PIF-to-HG ratio (ρ = 0.079) and the PIF-to-BM+HG ratio (ρ = 0.008). In general, strength levels explained most of the data variation; therefore, it is reasonable to recommend the implementation of tests aimed at assessing the levels of isometric and applied strength in boxing gestures. The identification of these physical-functional profiles might help to differentiate training programs during sports specialization of young boxing athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Merlo
- Research Division, Dynamical Business & Science Society-DBSS International SAS, Leon 37530, Mexico
- Colegio Profesional de Licenciados en Entrenamiento Deportivo (CPLED), Mexico City 03650, Mexico
| | - Ángel Rodríguez-Chávez
- Research Division, Dynamical Business & Science Society-DBSS International SAS, Leon 37530, Mexico
| | - Pedro E Gómez-Castañeda
- Colegio Profesional de Licenciados en Entrenamiento Deportivo (CPLED), Mexico City 03650, Mexico
- Escuela Nacional de Entrenadores Deportivos, Comisión Nacional de Cultura Física y Deporte, Mexico City 08400, Mexico
| | - Andrés Rojas-Jaramillo
- Research Division, Dynamical Business & Science Society-DBSS International SAS, Bogotá 110311, Colombia
- Grupo de Investigación CINDA, Instituto Departamental de Deportes de Antioquia (INDEPORTES), Medellín 050034, Colombia
| | - Jorge L Petro
- Research Division, Dynamical Business & Science Society-DBSS International SAS, Bogotá 110311, Colombia
- Research Group in Physical Activity, Sports and Health Sciences (GICAFS), Universidad de Córdoba, Montería 230002, Colombia
| | - Richard B Kreider
- Exercise & Sport Nutrition Lab, Human Clinical Research Facility, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Diego A Bonilla
- Research Division, Dynamical Business & Science Society-DBSS International SAS, Bogotá 110311, Colombia
- Research Group in Physical Activity, Sports and Health Sciences (GICAFS), Universidad de Córdoba, Montería 230002, Colombia
- Research Group in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas, Bogotá 110311, Colombia
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Liu Y, Li L, Yan X, He X, Zhao B. Biomechanics of the lead straight punch and related indexes between sanda fighters and boxers from the perspective of cross-border talent transfer. Front Physiol 2023; 13:1099682. [PMID: 36726378 PMCID: PMC9885259 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.1099682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective: To bridge the technical gaps in reserve athletes in China's national boxing program and to rapidly improve the overall level of boxing, the Wushu Sports Administration Center of the General Administration of Sports of China has sent outstanding Sanda players to boxing events through cross-border talent transfer. This was done to widely improve the strengths and resources in various fields to prepare for the Tokyo Olympic Games. In view of this, we analyzed and compared differences in biomechanical parameters of the lead straight punch and index of force developments of the lower extremities between Sanda and boxing. The results provide information and insights to bridge the technical gaps in cross-border talent transfer from Sanda to boxing. Methods: We employed a Vicon infrared 3D motion capture system, two Kistler platforms, a Kistler target, and a synchronous instrument. Eleven boxers and sixteen Sanda athletes were recruited, and their lead straight punch techniques were compared and analyzed. Three indexes of punch velocity, six indexes of strength measurement, and four indexes of lower extremity strength were analyzed. Results: Significant differences in the peak punch velocity and contact velocity were found between the two groups. Furthermore, significant differences were noted in the peak impulse, peak strength, relative strength, and the rate of force development (RFD). Among the kinetics indexes of lower limbs, the front leg strength index was higher in the boxing group than in the Sanda group, namely the RFD index and RFD/body mass. Conclusion: Based on the disparity in the effects of the lead straight punch and biomechanical parameters of both lower extremities, we can conclude that, compared to the boxers, most Sanda athletes lack standard punching technique. Therefore, it is advised that coaches and practitioners carefully consider selecting Sanda athletes with higher technical standards of punching.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Liu
- Sports Science Postdoctoral Research Station, Chengdu Sport University, Chengdu, China,School of Physical Education, Nanchang Normal University, Nanchang, China,Chinese Guoshu Academy, Chengdu Sport University, Chengdu, China,School of Wushu, Chengdu Sport University, Chengdu, China
| | - Lei Li
- School of Physical Education, Nanchang Normal University, Nanchang, China
| | - Xianliang Yan
- School of Physical Education, Nanchang Institute of Technology, Nanchang, China
| | - Xinseng He
- School of Physical Education, Nanchang Institute of Technology, Nanchang, China
| | - Bin Zhao
- Sports Science Postdoctoral Research Station, Chengdu Sport University, Chengdu, China,Chinese Guoshu Academy, Chengdu Sport University, Chengdu, China,School of Wushu, Chengdu Sport University, Chengdu, China,*Correspondence: Bin Zhao,
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Zhou Z, Chen C, Yi W, Chen X, Cui W, Wu R, Wang D. Relationships between isokinetic knee and shoulder peak strength with maximal punch force in boxing athletes. ISOKINET EXERC SCI 2022. [DOI: 10.3233/ies-220110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Muscle strength in the upper and lower limbs is a major contributing factor to punch force and is one of the keys to success in boxing. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to investigate the relationship between knee and shoulder strength and punching force in boxers. METHODS: Twenty-one boxers completed knee flexion, knee extension, shoulder external rotation and internal rotation isokinetic concentric contractions at slow (60∘/s) and fast (180∘/s) angular velocities. Maximal punch force tests included lead and rear straight arm punching were assessed using a force platform. RESULTS: Pearson’s correlation coefficients revealed that knee extension (r= 0.646–0.848) and knee flexion (r= 0.470–0.646) peak torques were moderately to very strongly correlated with maximal punching force in lead and rear arms. The shoulder internal rotation (r= 0.492–0.634) and shoulder external rotation (r= 0.441–0.588) peak torques were moderate to strongly correlated with maximal punching force. Moreover, knee extension peak torques at 60∘/s had higher correlation with maximal punching force. In contrast, shoulder internal rotation peak torques at 180∘/s had a larger correlation with maximal punching force. CONCLUSIONS: The main findings indicated the importance of the capacity to generate maximum knee extension and rapid shoulder internal rotation strength, contributing to punch force production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zixiang Zhou
- School of Elite Sport, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Chao Chen
- School of Elite Sport, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Lab of Human Performance, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenjuan Yi
- School of Elite Sport, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Xin Chen
- Department of Sport and Health Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Weijia Cui
- School of Elite Sport, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Rui Wu
- School of Elite Sport, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Dexin Wang
- School of Elite Sport, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Lab of Human Performance, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
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Liu Y, Zhu Z, Chen X, Deng C, Ma X, Zhao B. Biomechanics of the lead straight punch of different level boxers. Front Physiol 2022; 13:1015154. [PMID: 36589432 PMCID: PMC9798280 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.1015154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
We analyze and compare the differences in the biomechanical parameters between the lead straight punch and the index of force development of the lower extremities of boxers of different levels of ability. This can bridge the technical gap and provide insight and information for training strategies and athlete selection. To this end, a synchronized Vicon infrared 3D motion-capture system, two Kistler force platforms, and Kistler 8 target sensors were used for analysis. Sixteen boxers were recruited and sorted into an elite group (height 181.14 ± 3.01 cm, body mass 76.00 ± 10.028 kg) and a junior group (179.67 ± 5.84 cm, body mass 75.47 ± 12.19 kg), and their lead straight punch was then compared and analyzed. Three punch velocity indexes-peak velocity, contact velocity and Punching deceleration rate-six strength indexes-impulse, peak force, relative strength, peak time (frame), rate of force development (RFD), and movement time-and five exertion of both legs indexes- peak force, peak force/body mass, peak time, RFD index, and RFD/body mass index-were selected for analysis. Significant differences in the peak punch velocity and contact velocity were found between the two groups (7.162 ± 0.475 m•s-1vs. 6.317 ± 0.415 m•s-1, Cohen's d = 1.89, p < 0.01, 5.557 ± 0.606 m•s-1 vs. 4.874 ± 0.385 m•s-1, Cohen's d = 1.34, p < 0.05). Furthermore, significant differences were noted in the peak force [(1507.99 ± 411) N vs. (1035.45 ± 220) N, Cohen's d = 1.43, p < 0.01], relative strength [(21.04 ± 5.88) N•kg-1 vs. (15.61 ± 2.53) N•kg-1, Cohen's d = 1.19, p < 0.05], impulse [(88.61 ± 25.88) N•ms-1 and (60.53 ± 9.03) N•ms-1, Cohen's d = 1.45, p < 0.05], and RFD [(88.61 ± 25.88) N•ms-1 and (60.53 ± 9.03) N•ms-1, Cohen's d = 1.45, p < 0.05]. Among the four indexes of the lower extremities from two embedded Kistler force platforms, there were significant differences in the lead leg's peak force/body mass [(19.68 ± 4.096) N•kg-1vs. (13.320 ± 2.223) N•kg-1, t = 3.902, Cohen's d = 1.92, p < 0.01], RFD index [(16.90 ± 3.269) N•ms-1vs. (10.28 ± 4.313) N•ms-1, Cohen's d = 1.72, p < 0.01], and RFD/body mass index [(23.47 ± 4.09%) N•ms-1Kg-1 vs. (15.38 ± 5.65%) N•ms-1Kg-1, Cohen's d = 1.64, p < 0.01]. There were no significant differences in the four indexes on the rear leg between the two groups (p > 0.05). Based on the disparity in the effect of the lead straight punch and the biomechanical parameters of both lower extremities, the boxers must attach importance to sequential acceleration-braking training to improve the terminal velocity of the hand, and thus improve the contact velocity. Furthermore, it is advised that coaches and practitioners carefully consider increasing start-up strength training of the lead leg and attempt to improve the peak velocity of the lead straight punch. In addition, these biomechanical parameters can be used as criteria for the selection of boxers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Liu
- Sports Science Postdoctoral Research Station, Chengdu Sport University, Chengdu, China,School of Physical Education, Nanchang Normal University, Nanchang, China,Chinese Guoshu Academy, Chengdu Sport University, Chengdu, China,School of Wushu, Chengdu Sport University, Chengdu, China
| | | | - Xiuxiu Chen
- Shanghai Kongjiang Junior High School, Shanghai, China
| | - Chengyuan Deng
- College of Physical Education and Health, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiujie Ma
- Chinese Guoshu Academy, Chengdu Sport University, Chengdu, China,School of Wushu, Chengdu Sport University, Chengdu, China
| | - Bin Zhao
- Sports Science Postdoctoral Research Station, Chengdu Sport University, Chengdu, China,Chinese Guoshu Academy, Chengdu Sport University, Chengdu, China,School of Wushu, Chengdu Sport University, Chengdu, China,*Correspondence: Bin Zhao,
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Finlay MJ, Page RM, Greig M, Bridge CA. The prevalence of pre-conditioning and recovery strategies in senior elite and non-elite amateur boxing. PHYSICIAN SPORTSMED 2022; 50:323-331. [PMID: 34003715 DOI: 10.1080/00913847.2021.1931525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES A variety of acute strategies around competition are used to prepare and promote physical and mental restoration in athletes. However, to date, no research exists on the prevalence of such methods in amateur boxing. Therefore, this study aimed to 1) examine the prevalence of pre-conditioning and recovery strategies in amateur boxing; 2) ascertain whether this was discriminated against at competitor level. METHODS This study surveyed 101 senior amateur boxers (Senior Elite SEB n = 59; Senior Development SDB n = 42), on their application and perceptions of pre-conditioning and recovery strategies. RESULTS The reported findings determined a significantly greater number of SEB performed resistance priming activity up to 48 hours prior to competition (11, 19% vs 2, 5%; P = 0.040), and post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) activity in the pre-competition warm-up (18, 31% vs 1, 2%; P < 0.001), compared to SDB. Likewise, SEB reported they were also significantly more likely to utilize massage (SEB 35, 59%, SDB 11, 29%, P = 0.001) and cold-water immersion (CWI) (SEB 28, 47%, SDB 10, 29%, P = 0.016) as recovery modes, compared to their SDB counterparts. CONCLUSIONS This study was the first to provide data on the use of PAPE, priming and recovery methods around amateur boxing bouts. Increased access to multi-disciplinary staff could be expected in SEB, possibly explaining the greater prevalence of evidence-based methods around competition. Once athlete responsiveness to PAPEand longer-term priming methods are initially assessed, these strategies could be implemented to improve punch-specific performance, though more research is needed on their efficacy. Likewise, boxers could utilize evidence-based recovery modes where possible, with increased importance during repeat-bout scenarios, such as domestic tournaments. Coaches and practitioners may use this data to implement pre-conditioning and recovery strategies, to optimize performance and reduce the risk of injury of amateur boxers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitchell James Finlay
- Sports Injury Research Group, Sport and Physical Activity Department, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, Lancashire, UK
| | - Richard Michael Page
- Sports Injury Research Group, Sport and Physical Activity Department, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, Lancashire, UK
| | - Matt Greig
- Sports Injury Research Group, Sport and Physical Activity Department, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, Lancashire, UK
| | - Craig Alan Bridge
- Sports Injury Research Group, Sport and Physical Activity Department, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, Lancashire, UK
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Lahkar BK, Muller A, Dumas R, Reveret L, Robert T. Accuracy of a markerless motion capture system in estimating upper extremity kinematics during boxing. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:939980. [PMID: 35958668 PMCID: PMC9357930 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.939980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Kinematic analysis of the upper extremity can be useful to assess the performance and skill levels of athletes during combat sports such as boxing. Although marker-based approach is widely used to obtain kinematic data, it is not suitable for “in the field” activities, i.e., when performed outside the laboratory environment. Markerless video-based systems along with deep learning-based pose estimation algorithms show great potential for estimating skeletal kinematics. However, applicability of these systems in assessing upper-limb kinematics remains unexplored in highly dynamic activities. This study aimed to assess kinematics of the upper limb estimated with a markerless motion capture system (2D video cameras along with commercially available pose estimation software Theia3D) compared to those measured with marker-based system during “in the field” boxing. A total of three elite boxers equipped with retroreflective markers were instructed to perform specific sequences of shadow boxing trials. Their movements were simultaneously recorded with 12 optoelectronic and 10 video cameras, providing synchronized data to be processed further for comparison. Comparative assessment showed higher differences in 3D joint center positions at the elbow (more than 3 cm) compared to the shoulder and wrist (<2.5 cm). In the case of joint angles, relatively weaker agreement was observed along internal/external rotation. The shoulder joint revealed better performance across all the joints. Segment velocities displayed good-to-excellent agreement across all the segments. Overall, segment velocities exhibited better performance compared to joint angles. The findings indicate that, given the practicality of markerless motion capture system, it can be a promising alternative to analyze sports-performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhrigu K. Lahkar
- Univ Lyon, Univ Gustave Eiffel, Univ Claude Bernard Lyon 1, LBMC UMR_T9406, Lyon, France
| | - Antoine Muller
- Univ Lyon, Univ Gustave Eiffel, Univ Claude Bernard Lyon 1, LBMC UMR_T9406, Lyon, France
| | - Raphaël Dumas
- Univ Lyon, Univ Gustave Eiffel, Univ Claude Bernard Lyon 1, LBMC UMR_T9406, Lyon, France
| | - Lionel Reveret
- INRIA Grenoble Rhone-Alpes, LJK, UMR 5224, Grenoble, France
| | - Thomas Robert
- Univ Lyon, Univ Gustave Eiffel, Univ Claude Bernard Lyon 1, LBMC UMR_T9406, Lyon, France
- *Correspondence: Thomas Robert
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Quinzi F, Rosellini G, Sbriccoli P. Lower Limb Maximal Power Predicts Punching Speed in Different Static and Dynamic Attacking Techniques in Karate. J Strength Cond Res 2022; 36:1353-1359. [DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000003653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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15
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Finlay MJ, Greig M, Page RM, Bridge CA. The Acute Physiological, Endocrine, Biochemical and Performance Responses Associated with Amateur Boxing: A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis. Eur J Sport Sci 2022; 23:774-788. [PMID: 35380916 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2022.2063072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
AbstractPrevious research has explored the demands of amateur boxing-specific activity; however, no holistic review of the acute responses to such activity currently exists. This systematic review aimed to provide a synthesis of the available literature on the acute physiological, endocrine, biochemical and neuromuscular responses to amateur boxing-specific activity. Following a search of EBSCOhost, SportDiscus, PubMed and Google Scholar databases, 25 studies were identified as meeting the inclusion criteria for the review. Methodological quality of the included studies were assessed via a modified Downs and Black checklist. Random-effects meta-analysis of standardised mean differences (SMD) revealed large (SMD = 4.62) increases in pre-post blood lactate (BLa), cortisol (SMD = 1.33), myoglobin (Mb) (SMD = 1.43) and aspartate transaminase (AST) (SMD = 1.37), in addition to moderate increases in creatine kinase (CK) (SMD = 0.65) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) (SMD = 0.97). Small pre-post increases in counter-movement jump (CMJ) height (SMD = 0.33) were observed. Consistently greater pre-post alterations were observed in competitive bouts, followed by sparring, when compared with boxing-specific simulations. Considerable physiological, endocrine and biochemical responses are elicited following amateur boxing. Interestingly, neuromuscular and task-specific performance may not deteriorate following boxing-specific activity. The findings of the review may assist in the designing and periodising of boxing-specific training, dependent on the desired physical adaptations, training phase and recovery status of the amateur boxer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitchell J Finlay
- Sports Injuries Research Group, Department. of Sport & Physical Activity, Edge Hill University, St Helens Road, Ormskirk, Lancashire, L39 4QP, United Kingdom
| | - Matt Greig
- Sports Injuries Research Group, Department. of Sport & Physical Activity, Edge Hill University, St Helens Road, Ormskirk, Lancashire, L39 4QP, United Kingdom
| | - Richard M Page
- Sports Injuries Research Group, Department. of Sport & Physical Activity, Edge Hill University, St Helens Road, Ormskirk, Lancashire, L39 4QP, United Kingdom
| | - Craig A Bridge
- Sports Injuries Research Group, Department. of Sport & Physical Activity, Edge Hill University, St Helens Road, Ormskirk, Lancashire, L39 4QP, United Kingdom
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Gatt I, Allen T, Wheat J. Quantifying wrist angular excursion on impact for Jab and Hook lead arm shots in boxing. Sports Biomech 2021:1-13. [PMID: 34872457 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2021.2006296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The hand region is reported as the most common injury site in boxing, with more observed time loss than any other area in this sport. The amount of wrist motion, specifically flexion, has been described as contributing to these injuries, yet no literature is available to quantify wrist kinematics in boxing. This is the first paper describing wrist motion on impact in boxing. Utilising an electromagnetic tracking system, two types of shots were assessed, Jab (straight arm) and Hook (bent arm), during in-vivo testing procedures with 29 elite boxers. For both shots, flexion and ulnar deviation occurred concurrent on impact, with an M and SD of 9.3 ± 1.9° and 4.7 ± 1.2° respectively for Jab shots, and 5.5 ± 1.1° and 3.3 ± 1.1° respectively for Hook shots, supporting dart throwing motion at the wrist. For both Jab & Hook, wrist motion on impact occurred within >30% and >20% respectively of total available active range of motion, with wrist angles greater in both flexion (t = 9.0, p < 0.001, d = 1.7) and ulnar deviation (t = 8.4, p < 0.001, d = 1.6) for Jab compared to Hook shots. The study provides novel and quantifiable information regarding wrist kinematics during the impact phase of punching and potentially an improved understanding of injury mechanisms in boxing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Gatt
- Physiotherapy Department, English Institute of Sport, Manchester, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
- Sport and Physical Activity Research Centre, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Thomas Allen
- School of Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Jonathan Wheat
- Sport and Physical Activity Research Centre, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
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Menzel T, Potthast W. Application of a Validated Innovative Smart Wearable for Performance Analysis by Experienced and Non-Experienced Athletes in Boxing. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21237882. [PMID: 34883881 PMCID: PMC8659887 DOI: 10.3390/s21237882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 11/21/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
An athlete's sporting performance depends to a large extent on the technical execution of the athletic motion in order to achieve maximum effectiveness in physical performance. Performance analysis provides an important means of classifying and quantifying athletic prowess in terms of the significant performance aspects of the sport to provide objective feedback. This study aimed to analyze technical execution in terms of punch trajectory, force, velocity and time, considering the expert-novice paradigm by investigating the technical execution of 31 experienced and non-experienced athletes for the four main punching techniques of the cross, jab, uppercut and hook strike. The kinetic and kinematic data were collected by means of a boxing monitoring system developed and validated for in-field use. The research revealed significant correlation for executed punching trajectory and punch force in intragroup comparison and significant differences in intergroup comparison. No significant differences were detected for punch velocity in either inter- or intra-group paradigms. This study, through use of the sensor system, aligns with the results of existing publications conducted in laboratory conditions, in the assessment of punch force, punch speed and punch time and thus extends the state of research by use of a smart wearable in field method.
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Chen MA, Spanton K, van Schaik P, Spears I, Eaves D. The Effects of Biofeedback on Performance and Technique of the Boxing Jab. Percept Mot Skills 2021; 128:1607-1622. [PMID: 33940988 PMCID: PMC8267084 DOI: 10.1177/00315125211013251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
A growing body of research has addressed the application of movement-based biofeedback techniques for improving sports performers’ gross motor skills. Unlike in previous research, we aimed in this study to quantify the effects of this “external” biofeedback on selected performance and technique variables for the boxing jab among both novices and experts. The technical setup included two inertial measurement units linked wirelessly to a video game system with audio output. The units were configured to provide auditory external biofeedback, based on the peak acceleration of the bag (i.e., biofeedback with an external attentional focus). Sixteen participants (8 novices and 8 experts) performed boxing jabs against the bag in blocked phases of biofeedback. When compared to baseline, the acute effects of externally focused biofeedback on peak bag acceleration were possibly positive in both retention phases for novices (d = 0.29; d = 0.41) and likely positive for experts (d = 0.41; d = 0.30), respectively. The experts’ performance improvements were accompanied by substantive increases in trunk rotation, though this was not true for the novices. Thus, technique improvements can be promoted indirectly via externally focused biofeedback, but only when these actions are within the performers’ motor repertoire. Overall, biofeedback via inertial sensors appears to be a potent technique for modifying human movement patterns in both experts and novices. This low-cost technology could be used to support training across sports, rehabilitation and human-computer interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Chen
- University of Teesside, Department of Science, Middlesbrough, UK
| | - K Spanton
- University of Teesside, Department of Science, Middlesbrough, UK
| | - P van Schaik
- University of Teesside, Department of Science, Middlesbrough, UK
| | - I Spears
- University of Teesside, Department of Science, Middlesbrough, UK
| | - D Eaves
- University of Teesside, Department of Science, Middlesbrough, UK
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Dinu D, Louis J. Biomechanical Analysis of the Cross, Hook, and Uppercut in Junior vs. Elite Boxers: Implications for Training and Talent Identification. Front Sports Act Living 2020; 2:598861. [PMID: 33345181 PMCID: PMC7739747 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.598861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Punching in boxing requires a combination of force and velocity of the acting arm, originating from an optimal synchronization of the different body segments. However, it is not well-understood what kinematic parameters of the punching execution influence boxing performance the most. This study aimed to investigate the differences in punching execution between 15 potential Olympic medalist boxers (Elite group) and 8 younger well trained boxers (Junior group). Each athlete was equipped with an instrumented suit composed of 17 inertial measurement units (IMU) and were asked to perform several series of 3 standardized punch types (cross, hook, and uppercut) with maximal force. Linear velocity, stability, and punch forces were computed from the different sensors. Our findings show that Elite boxers systematically produced more force and at a higher velocity for the three punch types compared to Juniors. Further analysis revealed differences in joint contributions between Elite and Juniors, Juniors presenting a higher contribution of the shoulder for the three punch types. Finally ground reaction force imbalance between the front and rear foot was revealed in the cross only, in all boxers (60.6 ± 24.9 vs. 39.4 ± 24.9% and 54.1 ± 7.1 vs. 45.9 ± 7.1%, p ≤ 0.05, for the front vs. rear foot in Elite and Juniors, respectively) but not different between groups. These results have important implications for practitioners involved in the talent identification process, longitudinal follow-up, and training of boxers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Dinu
- French National Institute of Sport, Expertise and Performance, Sport, Expertise and Performance Lab, Paris, France
| | - Julien Louis
- French National Institute of Sport, Expertise and Performance, Sport, Expertise and Performance Lab, Paris, France.,Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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