Development of Low-Fat/Reduced-Fat Processed Meat Products using Fat Replacers and Analogues

Plant-Based Ingredients Utilized as Fat Replacers and Natural Antimicrobial Agents in Beef Burgers

The present study aimed to find solutions based on the use of plant-based ingredients that would improve the nutritional quality of meat products as well as ensure sensory and microbiological quality. Two fat replacers, lemon albedo (Citrus lemon) and carob seed gum (Ceratonia siliqua), were investigated by chemical analysis and panel testing to evaluate their effect on the nutritional and sensory quality of beef burgers. The antimicrobial activity of two plant extracts, from nettle (Urtica dioica) leaves and medlar (Eriobotrya japonica) seeds, was studied, evaluating the intensity of inhibitory action and the minimum inhibitory concentration against Pseudomonas spp. and Listeria innocua strains by plate test. In addition, the antioxidant activity of both extracts was evaluated. Based on the results, lemon albedo and medlar seed extracts were validated in a food model (beef burger) by a storage test and a challenge test. The storage test results highlight that medlar seed extract prevents the formation of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARSs) and ensures microbiological quality, inhibiting Enterobacteriaceae and Pseudomonas spp. Anti-Listeria efficacy was confirmed in situ by challenge test results. In conclusion, although fat replacers ensure nutritional and sensory quality, they do not satisfy microbiological quality. This study clearly demonstrates that the safety of low-fat burgers can only be achieved through the combination of appropriate fat replacers with well-selected natural antimicrobial extracts.

Microbial dynamics and quality characteristics of spontaneously fermented salamis produced by replacing pork fat with avocado pulp

The aim of this study was to develop a novel and healthier fermented meat product by replacing pork fat with avocado pulp (AVP) during salami production. Experimental salamis were produced under laboratory conditions by substituting pork fat with AVP partially (10-AVP) and totally (20-AVP), while control salamis (CTR) remained AVP-free. The microbial composition of control and experimental salamis was assessed using a combined culture-dependent and -independent approach. Over a 20-days ripening period, lactic acid bacteria, coagulase-negative staphylococci, and yeasts dominated the microbial community, with approximate levels of 9.0, 7.0 and 6.0 log CFU/g, respectively. Illumina technology identified 26 taxonomic groups, with leuconostocs being the predominant group across all trials [constituting 31.26-59.12 % of relative abundance (RA)]. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis revealed changes in fatty acid composition and volatile organic compounds due to the substitution of pork fat with AVP. Specifically, monounsaturated fatty acids and terpene compounds increased, while saturated fatty acids and lipid oxidation products decreased. Although AVP influenced the sensory characteristics of the salamis, the highest overall satisfaction ratings were observed for the 10-AVP salamis. Consequently, substituting pork fat with AVP emerges as a viable strategy for producing healthier salamis and diversifying the meat product portfolio.

Recent trends in design of healthier fat replacers: Type, replacement mechanism, sensory evaluation method and consumer acceptance

In recent years, with the increasing awareness of consumers about the relationship between excessive fat intake and chronic diseases, such as obesity, heart disease, diabetes, etc., the demand for low-fat foods has increased year by year. However, a simple reduction of fat content in food will cause changes in physical and chemical properties, physiological properties, and sensory properties of food. Therefore, developing high-quality fat replacers to replace natural fats has become an emerging trend, and it is still a technical challenge to completely simulate the special function of natural fat in low-fat foods. This review aims to provide an overview of development trends of fat replacers, and the different types of fat replacers, the potential fat replacement mechanisms, sensory evaluation methods, and their consumer acceptance are discussed and compared, which may provide a theoretical guidance to produce fat replacers and develop more healthy low-fat products favored by consumers.

Effect of partial mutton meat substitution with Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) flour on physicochemical properties, lipid oxidation, and sensory acceptability of low-fat patties

Health concerns regarding fat consumption, as well as shifts in customer preference, have prompted substantial studies into low-fat products. This study examined the nutritional, color, functional, and antioxidant properties of Bambara groundnut (BGN) flour varieties (cream, brown, and red-coated) grains as well as their influence on the physicochemical properties, lipid oxidation, and sensory acceptability of low-fat mutton patties. The patties were formulated with 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, and 10% of BGN flour for each variety, and 100% mutton patties were used as a control. The BGN flours showed significant (p < .05) differences in their nutritional composition (except for ash content), color, functional (excluding emulsion stability), and antioxidant properties. The increase in the percentage of substitution of BGN flours significantly increased the fiber (0.00% to 0.79%), ash (1.16% to 1.99%), and carbohydrates (2.14% to 1.99%) contents of the formulated mutton patties. However, moisture and protein contents decreased. The cooking yield of the formulated patties significantly increased with the increase in the percentage substitution of BGN flours (2.5%-10%), with values ranging from 76.39% to 86.80%, but the diameter reduction was limited. The increase in the inclusion of BGN flours significantly increased the lightness, hue angle, color difference, and whiteness of patties. Nevertheless, the redness, yellowness, chroma, and yellowness index of the patties decreased. The hardness and resilience of formulated patties significantly increased, with values varying from 16.41 to 17.66 N, and from 0.35 to 0.48 J/J, respectively, whereas the springiness, cohesiveness, and chewiness decreased. The lipid oxidation of formulated mutton patties significantly increased from Days 7 to 21, but was still less than that of the control sample within storage days. The sensory properties of formulated patties were not significantly different from the control sample and were above the acceptable score of five. All BGN varieties had positive effects on the mutton patties, more especially red, followed by brown, and cream, respectively. The inclusion of a 10% red BGN flour variety is highly recommended due to its significant impact on mutton patties. Nevertheless, different types of BGN varieties can each be used as additives in mutton patties without having detrimental effects on the quality parameters of the patties.

Exploring Pijuayo (Bactris gasipaes) Pulp and Peel Flours as Fat Replacers in Burgers: A Multivariate Study on Physicochemical and Sensory Traits

Meat products are known for their lipid profile rich in saturated fats and cholesterol, and also for the formation of oxidation compounds; therefore, a reduction in animal fat may result in a product less harmful to health. Pijuayo is an Amazon fruit known for its nutritional properties, such as its fiber and lipid content. For these reasons, it is an attractive fruit to replace animal fat in meat products. The present work used pijuayo pulp and peel flours to partially replace animal fat in beef-based burgers at 25% and 50% levels, considering sensory and physicochemical outcomes evaluated by Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Correspondence Analysis (CA) and Multiple Factor Analysis (MFA). Pijuayo flour affected the physicochemical characteristics evaluated by PCA, where the samples with greater fat replacement were characterized by a high carbohydrate content and instrumental yellowness. The minimal fat replacement did not abruptly affect the PCA's instrumental texture and color, proximal composition, yield properties, and lipid oxidation. The overall liking was greater in the 25% fat reduction treatments, even greater than the control, in which positive sensory attributes for liking were highlighted for those treatments. A small segment of consumers (11% of total consumers) preferred the treatment with greater replacement of fat with pijuayo peel flour, which these consumers tended to characterize as seasoned. However, this treatment had the lowest liking. The MFA showed that the sensory characteristics tender and tasty were strongly correlated with overall liking and were highlighted in the samples of 25% fat reduction, suggesting that the pijuayo improves the tenderness and flavor of reduced-fat burgers. Other inclusion levels between 25% and 50% of fat replacement could be explored, and optimization studies are needed. In addition, the sensory characteristics and flavor-enhancing compounds of the fruit, as well as the nutritional aspects of the inclusion of pijuayo, should be studied, such as the fatty acid profile. These characteristics will be informative to explore pijuayo as a fat replacer at a pilot scale and industrial scale.

Emulsified sausages with yeast protein as an animal fat replacer: Effects on nutritional composition, spatial structure, gel performance, and sensory quality

This paper investigated the effect of yeast protein (YP)-fat replacement on the nutritional composition, spatial structure, gel performance, and sensory quality of emulsified sausages. YP is enriched with essential amino acids (36.49 g/100 g), which improved the nutritional quality of sausages whereas reducing its fat content. Moreover, YP could absorb water and fat, thus the YP-added sausages exhibiting an amount-dependent increase in emulsion stability and water migration. The microstructure illustrated that YP acted as a filler to improve structural homogeneity and compactness of the pork gel network. And YP-fat replacement could significantly enhance the hardness, gel strength and elasticity of sausages whereas decreasing the viscosity. Additionally, at partial or full YP-fat replacement (25-100%), the YP-added sausages scored higher in odor and texture, as well as better antioxidant stability than controls. Overall, YP can be employed as a new fat substitute for the preparation of healthy and nutritional sausages, while maintaining the sensory quality.

Consumer acceptance and quality of game meat "droëwors" sausages with different levels of added fat

Droëwors (dried sausage) is a unique dried meat product from South Africa, which is not smoked, fermented, nor is nitrite used in its production. The objective of the study was to compare the quality parameters and consumer acceptance of common eland meat droëwors with different quantities of added beef fat. Three treatments containing either 10, 15, or 20% (by weight) added beef fat were compared regarding chemical composition, fatty acid profiles, and sensory properties. Increasing the amount of fat in the dried product resulted in a significant decrease in the protein and ash percentages. The sausages with 10% added fat had the most favourable fatty acid profile in terms of nutritional value. Several differences were found in the sensory profiles of the products evaluated by the trained sensory panel; in particular, the evaluation scores for texture improved with increasing fat content. No differences were found between the products by the untrained consumer panel for appearance and taste. When the dataset was analysed according to gender, it was found that women evaluated the 10% fat samples more favourably. This is in line with their stated preference for low-fat meat products. For these reasons, the production of sausages with the lowest fat content can be recommended as they best meet consumer expectations.

Mixed whey and pea protein based cold-set emulsion gels induced by calcium chloride: Fabrication and characterization

The cold-set gels of oil-in-water emulsions stabilized by mixtures of whey protein isolate (WPI) and pea protein isolate (PPI) with mass ratios of 10:0, 7:3, 5:5, 3:7, and 0:10 were investigated to evaluate the possibility of pea protein to replace milk protein. Particle size and surface charge of emulsions increased and decreased with raised PPI content, respectively. The redness and yellowness of emulsion gels were strengthened with elevated pea protein percentage and independent of calcium concentration applied. Considerable differences in water holding capacity were observed between samples with different mixed proteins and high percentage of pea protein gave better water retaining ability. Gradual decreases in hardness and chewiness of emulsion gels were observed at three calcium levels with the increased PPI proportion. FT-IR spectra indicated no new covalent bonds were generated between samples with different whey and pea protein mass ratios. As PPI concentration elevated, the network structure of emulsion gels gradually became loose and disordered. The established cold-set calcium-induced whey/pea protein composite gels may have the potential to be utilized as a new material to encapsulate and deliver environment sensitive bio-active substances.

A novel strategy for simultaneous reduction of salt and animal fat in burger using a taste contrast system based on double emulsion

The work investigated a taste contrast strategy to reduce the salt content in burgers by a novel design of water in gelled oil in water double emulsion (DE) as an animal fat replacer. Oleogelation reduced the particle size and improved emulsion viscosity, resulting in more emulsion stability than conventional DE. Moreover, oil gelation enhanced the encapsulation efficiency of salt. The partial substitution of the optimized DE incorporating salt within the W1 and cinnamaldehyde within the oil phase with animal fat in the burger successfully reduced salt content by up to 25% while maintaining the desired level of saltiness. The presence of cinnamaldehyde also increased oxidative stability and decreased color changes during storage. The replacement of DE and oleogel in burgers diminished cooking loss, while negatively affected the textural properties. Therefore, further optimization of this strategy could lead to healthier food formulations with reduced fat and salt content.

Application of guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.) gum in food technologies: A review of properties and mechanisms of action

With the world continuing to push toward modernization and the consumption of processed foods growing at an exponential rate, the demand for texturizing agents and natural additives has also risen as a result. It has become increasingly common to use thickening agents in food products to modify their rheological and textural properties and enhance their quality characteristics. They can be divided into (1) animal derived (chitosan and isinglass), (2) fermentation produced (xanthan and curdlan), (3) plant fragments (pectin and cellulose), (4) seaweed extracts (agar and alginate), and (5) seed flours (guar gum and locust bean gum). The primary functions of these materials are to improve moisture binding capacity, modify structural properties, and alter flow behavior. In addition, some have another responsibility in the food sector, such as the main ingredient in the delivery systems (encapsulation) and nanocomposites. A galactomannan polysaccharide extracted from guar beans (Cyamopsis tetragonolobus), known as guar gum (GG), is one of them, which has a wide range of utilities and possesses popularity among scientists and consumers. In the world of modernization, GG has found its way into numerous industries for use in food, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, textiles, and explosives. Due to its ability to form hydrogen bonds with water molecules, it imparts significant thickening, gelling, and binding properties to the solution as well as increases its viscosity. Therefore, this study is aimed to investigate the characteristics, mechanisms, and applications of GG in different food technologies.

Novel Approaches to Improve Meat Products' Healthy Characteristics: A Review on Lipids, Salts, and Nitrites

Meat products are a staple of many diets around the world, but they have been subject to criticism due to their potential negative impact on human health. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in developing novel approaches to improve the healthy characteristics of meat products, with a particular focus on reducing the levels of harmful salts, lipids, and nitrites. This review aims to provide an overview of the latest research on the various methods being developed to address these issues, including the use of alternative salts, lipid-reducing techniques, and natural nitrite alternatives. By exploring these innovative approaches, we can gain a better understanding of the potential for improving the nutritional value of meat products, while also meeting the demands of consumers who are increasingly concerned about their health and well-being.

Addressing Clean Label Trends in Commercial Meat Processing: Strategies, Challenges and Insights from Consumer Perspectives

BACKGROUND

The concept of a clean label is difficult to define, even in common language, as the interpretation of what a "clean" food is differs from one person to another and from one organisation to another. The lack of a unique definition and regulations of what the term "clean" means, along with the growing consumer demand for more "natural" and healthier foods, is posing new challenges for manufacturers and ingredient producers. The meat industry, in particular, has been affected by this new movement owing to negative attitudes and feelings consumers associate with consuming processed meat products. Scope and approach: The review scope is to describe attributes and associations around the "clean" label term by analysing the most recent ingredients, additives and processing methods currently available for meat manufacturers. Their application in meat, plant-based alternatives and hybrid meat/plant products, current limitations and challenges presented in consumer perception, safety and potential impacts on product quality are also presented.

KEY FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

The availability of a growing number of "clean" label ingredients provides a new suite of approaches that are available for application by meat processors to help overcome some of the negative connotations associated with processed meat products and also support plant-based meat alternatives and hybrids.

Effect of Seawater Curing Agent on the Flavor Profile of Dry-Cured Bacon Determined by Sensory Evaluation, Electronic Nose, and Fatty Composition Analysis

The purpose of this study was to check the applicability of seawater as a natural curing agent by analyzing the difference it causes in the flavor of dry-aged bacon. Pork belly was cured for seven days, and dried and aged for twenty-one days. The curing methods included the following: wet curing with salt in water, dry curing with sea salt, brine curing with brine solution, and bittern curing with bittern solution. The seawater-treated groups showed a lower volatile basic nitrogen value than the sea-salt-treated groups (p < 0.05); dry curing showed a higher thiobarbituric acid reactive substance value than other treatments (p < 0.05). Methyl- and butane- volatile compounds and polyunsaturated fatty acids such as g-linolenic and eicosapentaenoic were the highest in the bittern-cured group, lending it superior results compared to those of the control and other treatments in sensory flavor analyses (cheesy and milky). Therefore, bittern is considered to have significant potential as a food-curing agent.

A review of oil and water retention in emulsified meat products: The mechanisms of gelation and emulsification, the application of multi-layer hydrogels

Emulsified meat products are key deep-processing products due to unique flavor and high nutritional value. Myosin dissolves, and protein aggregation and heat-induced gelation occur after myosin unfolds and hydrophobic groups are exposed. Myosin could form interfacial protein membranes and wrap fat globules. Emulsified fat globules may be filled in heat-induced gel networks. Therefore, this review intends to discuss the influences of heat-induced gelation and interfacial adsorption behavior on oil and water retention. Firstly, the mechanism of heat-induced gelation was clarified from the perspective of protein conformation and micro-structure. Secondly, the mechanism of emulsification stability and its factors affecting interfacial adsorption were demonstrated as well as limitations and challenges. Finally, the structure characteristics and application of multi-layer hydrogels in the gelation and emulsification were clarified. It could conclude that the characteristic morphology, spatial conformation and structure adjustment affected heat-induced gelation and interfacial adsorption behavior. Spatial conformation and microstructure were adjusted to improve the oil and water retention by pH, ionic strength, amino acid, oil phase characteristic and protein interaction. Multi-layer hydrogels facilitated oil and water retention. The comprehensive review of gelation and emulsification mechanisms could promote the development of meat products and improvement of meat processing technology.

Effects of pre-emulsified safflower oil with magnetic field modified soy 11S globulin on the gel, rheological, and sensory properties of reduced-animal fat pork batter

In this work, the differences in macrostructure and microstructure, rheology, and storage stability of pre-emulsified safflower oil (PSO) prepared by natural and magnetic field modified soy 11S globulin were analysised. It was concluded that the PSO with magnetic field modified soy 11S globulin (MPSO) has better emulsifying activity and physical stability. The changes in gel quality, oxidational sensitivity, rheological, and sensory properties of pork batters with different substitute ratios (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%) of pork back-fat by MPSO with magnetic field modified soy 11S globulin were studied. Compared to the sample without MPSO, pork batter with MPSO showed higher emulsion stability, apparent viscosity, L^⁎ value, springiness, cohesiveness, and expressible moisture, while lower a^⁎ value and cooking loss. Moreover, added MPSO could be more uniformly distributed into the meat matrix with smaller holes. With the increase in the replacement proportion of pork back-fat, the hardness, water- and fat-holding capacity, and P₂₁ of pork batter significantly decreased (P < 0.05). As revealed by sensory evaluation and TBARS, using MPSO to substitute for pork back-fat decreased the lipid oxidational sensitivity of pork batter, and without negative effects on the appearance, juiciness and overall acceptability. Overall, it is feasible to apply MPSO as a pork-fat replacer to produce reduced-animal fat pork batter with excellent gel and sensory properties.

Effect of Palm-Based Shortenings of Various Melting Ranges as Animal Fat Replacers on the Physicochemical Properties and Emulsion Stability of Chicken Meat Emulsion

This study evaluated the effects of palm shortenings (PS) with varying melting ranges (MR) on the physicochemical, emulsion stability, rheological, thermal, textural, and microtextural properties of chicken meat emulsions. Six emulsions were developed: control (chicken skin), sample A (PS at MR of 33-36 °C), sample B (PS at MR of 38-42 °C), sample C (PS at MR of 44-46 °C), sample D (PS at MR of 45-49 °C), and sample E (PS at MR of 55-60 °C). There were no significant differences in cooking loss, pH, and water-holding capacity between the meat emulsions, with sample E providing a more stable emulsion with the lowest fat content and highest moisture content. The colour profiles and protein thermal stabilities of the fat-replaced meat emulsions were not significantly different from the control. The hardness, shear force, storage, and loss moduli increased when palm shortenings with higher melting range were used, with sample E having the highest values. Sample E also exhibited a smaller pore size and more compact structure, and thus was well-emulsified compared to the other samples. Overall, palm shortenings-particularly those with a melting range of 55-60 °C-have the potential to replace chicken skin in meat emulsions.

The Role of Starch in Shaping the Rheo-Mechanical Properties of Fat-in-Water Emulsions

The DMA technique was used to conduct experiments on the rheo-mechanical properties of emulsified bovine fat meat products stabilised with potato starch. Starch gels with starch concentrations corresponding to the concentration of starch in water in the emulsions under analysis were used as control systems. The research showed that the rheo-mechanical properties of starch gels and starch–fat gels result from the conformational changes occurring within the structural elements of their spatial network. In starch gels, segments formed by complex associations of amylose chains are structural elements, whereas in starch–fat gels (emulsions) these are additionally amylose–fat complexes. Changes occurring during progressive retrogradation increase the degree of cross-linking in them. In starch gels, they are conditioned by the starch concentration, whereas in emulsions they are conditioned by the concentration of starch and the presence of fat. The parameters obtained by adjusting the Avrami equation to the data obtained with the DMA method enabled the determination of three forms of organisation of the dispersion structure of starch–fat systems. Each of these forms of structure organisation is conditioned by the concentration of starch in the emulsion system.

Gel-type emulsified muscle products: Mechanisms, affecting factors, and applications

The gel-type emulsified muscle products improve fatty acid composition, maintain the oxidative stability, and achieve a better sensory acceptability. This review emphasizes the stabilization mechanisms of these emulsified muscle products. In particular, factors associated with the stability of the emulsified muscle systems are outlined, including the processing conditions (pH and heating), lipids, and emulsifiers. Besides, some novel systems are further introduced, including the Pickering emulsions and organogels, due to their great potential in stabilizing emulsified gels. Moreover, the promising prospects of emulsion muscle products such as improved gel properties, oxidative stability, freeze-thaw stability, fat replacement, and nutraceutical encapsulation were elaborated. This review comprehensively illustrates the considerations on developing gel-type emulsified products and provides inspiration for the rational design of emulsified muscle formulations with both oxidatively stable and organoleptically acceptable performance.

Use of Olive and Sunflower Oil Hydrogel Emulsions as Pork Fat Replacers in Goat Meat Burgers: Fat Reduction and Effects in Lipidic Quality

Diversified strategies to incorporate healthier lipids in processed meat products are being developed. Alternative fat sources to replace animal fat associated with the reduction of fat content are some of the methods used to obtain healthier meat products well recognized by consumers. In order to create a healthier product that can also be consumed in the Halal and Kosher consumer markets, an experimental study was developed to assess the effects of replacing the pork fat (4%) with the same amount of hydrogel emulsion incorporating olive oil or sunflower oil. Three burgers were randomly selected from each lot manufactured and analyzed in triplicate. Burgers were physicochemical analyzed for pH, water activity, composition, fatty acid profile, color, yield, texture, oxidative stability, and volatile compounds and compared according to the fat source. Burgers with hydrogel emulsions can be considered reduced-fat meat products with a healthier fatty acid profile than pork fat burgers. The use of hydrogel emulsions did not negatively affect the quality characteristics assessed in the product and improved the oxidative stability during the storage of cooked burgers. By the characteristics and formulations evaluated, the replacement of pork fat with olive oil hydrogel emulsion proved to be the most effective strategy for obtaining a healthier goat meat product.

Ingredients and Process Affect the Structural Quality of Recombinant Plant-Based Meat Alternatives and Their Components

Recombinant plant-based meat alternatives are a kind of product that simulates animal meat with complete structure by assembling plant-tissue protein and other plant-based ingredients. The market is growing rapidly and appears to have a promising future due to the broad culinary applicability of such products. Based on the analysis and summary of the relevant literature in the recent five years, this review summarizes the effects of raw materials and production methods on the structure and quality of specific components (tissue protein and simulated fat) in plant-based meat alternatives. Furthermore, the important roles of tissue and simulated fat as the main components of recombinant plant-based meat alternatives are further elucidated herein. In this paper, the factors affecting the structure and quality of plant-based meat alternatives are analyzed from part to whole, with the aim of contributing to the structural optimization and providing reference for the future development of the plant meat industry.

Effect of Gelled Emulsions Elaborated with Soybean Oil, Maca (Lepidium meyenni) Flour, and Chincho (Tagetes elliptica Sm.) Essential Oil upon Animal Fat Substitution in Beef Burgers

The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of pork backfat (PB) substitution in a meat burger with a gelled emulsion (GE) elaborated with maca flour, soybean oil, and chincho essential oil (CEO). Lipid profile (gas chromatography—GC), health indices, physicochemical properties (CIELAB color, pH, texture profile—TPA), and cooking and sensory characteristics of meat burgers were analyzed. Five formulations were evaluated: control (BC) (80% beef meat and 20% PB); BSM (10% PB + 10% GE); BSMC0.25 (BSM + 0.25% CEO); BSMC0.5 (BSM + 0.5% CEO), and BSMC1.0 (BSM + 1.0% CEO). GE substitution in meat burgers provided a healthier lipid profile; the amount of SFA was reduced (p < 0.05), while PUFA content was significantly increased (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the use of GE resulted in healthier PUFA/SFA ratios and lower atherogenic and thrombogenic indices. The addition of GE increased moisture content and decreased fat and protein contents. Color parameters (L*, b*, and C*) decreased after cooking. Hardness (p < 0.05), cooking losses, and shrinkage changes decreased with GE addition. Lipid oxidation levels were significantly (p < 0.05) affected by GE substitution. Therefore, the substitution of PB by GE can be considered as an effective strategy to produce healthier meat burgers without negatively affecting their physicochemical and technological properties.

Biological Functions of Exopolysaccharides from Lactic Acid Bacteria and Their Potential Benefits for Humans and Farmed Animals

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) synthesize exopolysaccharides (EPS), which are structurally diverse biopolymers with a broad range of technological properties and bioactivities. There is scientific evidence that these polymers have health-promoting properties. Most commercialized probiotic microorganisms for consumption by humans and farmed animals are LAB and some of them are EPS-producers indicating that some of their beneficial properties could be due to these polymers. Probiotic LAB are currently used to improve human health and for the prevention and treatment of specific pathologic conditions. They are also used in food-producing animal husbandry, mainly due to their abilities to promote growth and inhibit pathogens via different mechanisms, among which the production of EPS could be involved. Thus, the aim of this review is to discuss the current knowledge of the characteristics, usage and biological role of EPS from LAB, as well as their postbiotic action in humans and animals, and to predict the future contribution that they could have on the diet of food animals to improve productivity, animal health status and impact on public health.

Properties of soybean protein isolate/curdlan based emulsion gel for fat analogue: Comparison with pork backfat

To obtain an analogue of pork backfat (PBF), we combined emulsion and gel to fabricate emulsion gel, which was prepared by using soybean protein isolate (SPI) and curdlan (CL) through a facile heat-treatment method in this paper. The microstructures, rheology properties, water holding capacity and freeze-thawing stability of the emulsion gel were investigated. The results suggested that the SPI/CL-stabilized emulsion gel was thermal-irreversible, and SPI was the emulsifying agent of the emulsion gel. Oil contents significantly affect the water holding capacity and freeze-thawing stability of emulsion gel. Subsequently, the TPA, gel strength and color of emulsion gels with different oil contents were compared with PBF. The hardness, chewiness, springiness, and gel strength of emulsion gel with 10 wt% oil contents were no significant differences from that of PBF (P > 0.05). Hence, this SPI/CL based emulsion gel can be used as an analogue to PBF, providing an alternative ingredient for the development of plant-based low-fat meat products.

Exopolysaccharides synthesized by lactic acid bacteria: biosynthesis pathway, structure-function relationship, structural modification and applicability

Probiotics and their fermentation products are increasingly been focused on due to their health-boosting effects. Exopolysaccharides (EPS) synthetized by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are widely applied as texture modifiers in dairy, meat and bakery products owning to their improved properties. Moreover, LAB-derived EPS have been confirmed to possess diverse physiological bioactivities including antioxidant, anti-biofilm, antiviral, immune-regulatory or antitumor. However, the low production and high acquisition cost hinder their development. Even though LAB-derived EPS have been extensively studied for their production-improving, there are only few reports on the systematic elucidation and summary of the relationship among biosynthesis pathway, strain selection, production parameter, structure-function relationship. Therefore, a detailed summary on biosynthesis pathway, production parameter and structure-function relationship of LAB-derived EPS is provided in this review, the structural modifications together with the current and potential applications are also discussed in this paper.

The rheology and foamability of crystal-melt suspensions composed of triacylglycerols

The rheology of triacylglycerol (TAG) crystal-melt suspensions (CMSs) consisting of anhydrous milk fat (AMF), cocoa butter (CB), and palm kernel oil (PKO) as function of crystallization shear rate _cryst and crystal volume fraction Φ_SFC is investigated by in-line ultrasound velocity profiling - pressure difference (UVP-PD) rheometry. Measurements up to Φ_SFC = 8.8% are presented. Below the percolation threshold Φ_c, no yield stress τ₀ is observed and the viscosity η scales linearly with Φ_SFC. Above Φ_c, a non-linear dependency of both τ₀ and η as function of Φ_SFC is apparent. For AMF and CB, the increase in _cryst leads to a decrease in η and τ₀ as function of Φ_SFC, whereas for PKO based CMSs the opposite is the case. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and polarized light microscopy (PLM) relate these rheological findings to the microstructure of the investigated CMSs by taking the effective aspect ratio a_eff and the concept of the effective crystal volume fraction ΦeffSFC into account. Foam formation by dynamically enhanced membrane foaming (DEMF) is performed directly after crystallization and reveals that depending on the CMS rheology and crystallite-, crystallite cluster- and crystal floc microstructure, a wide range of gas volume fractions between 0.05-0.6 are achievable.

Exopolysaccharides Produced by Lactic Acid Bacteria: From Biosynthesis to Health-Promoting Properties

The production of exopolysaccharides (EPS) by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) has attracted particular interest in the food industry. EPS can be considered as natural biothickeners as they are produced in situ by LAB and improve the rheological properties of fermented foods. Moreover, much research has been conducted on the beneficial effects of EPS produced by LAB on modulating the gut microbiome and promoting health. The EPS, which varies widely in composition and structure, may have diverse health effects, such as glycemic control, calcium and magnesium absorption, cholesterol-lowering, anticarcinogenic, immunomodulatory, and antioxidant effects. In this article, the latest advances on structure, biosynthesis, and physicochemical properties of LAB-derived EPS are described in detail. This is followed by a summary of up-to-date methods used to detect, characterize and elucidate the structure of EPS produced by LAB. In addition, current strategies on the use of LAB-produced EPS in food products have been discussed, focusing on beneficial applications in dairy products, gluten-free bakery products, and low-fat meat products, as they positively influence the consistency, stability, and quality of the final product. Highlighting is also placed on reports of health-promoting effects, with particular emphasis on prebiotic, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, cholesterol-lowering, anti-biofilm, antimicrobial, anticancer, and drug-delivery activities.

The effect of β-glucan and inulin on the reduction of aflatoxin B1 level and assessment of textural and sensory properties in chicken sausages

In recent years, people have a tendency to consume ready-made foods such as sausages. Therefore, the use of quality raw materials in these products is very important because these compounds may be contaminated with aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁). Various biological and natural methods have been introduced to reduce aflatoxins in food products. The aim of the present study was to reduce AFB₁ levels. So, β-glucan (βG) and Inulin (IN) were used in different ratios (1: 2%, 2: 1%, 1.5: 1.5%, 0: 3, 3: 0%) in chicken sausages. AFB₁ levels were measured by High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) in a period of 1–45 days. Then, texture and sensory properties were examined. After 45 days, AFB₁ levels were decreased in all samples, and the highest level of reduction (73.7%) was observed in samples with 5 μg/kg AFB₁ and 3% βG. Texture analysis showed that all the evaluated features complied with the standard. The hardness of chicken sausage with addition of IN (3%) (3.162N) was close to that of the control (2.99N). None of the products were significantly different from the control sample in terms of sensory properties. Therefore, βG and IN are effective in reducing AFB1, and the produced sausages can be acceptable for marketing and be offered for consumption.

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Aflatoxin B₁ levels were assessed by adding β-glucan and inulin.

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Texture and sensory characteristics were investigated.

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Aflatoxin B₁ levels were reduced in all samples.

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The impact of β-glucan on the reduction of aflatoxin B₁ was more than that of inulin.

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The textural and sensory characteristics of the sausage samples were acceptable.

Functional fermented meat products with probiotics-A review

Fermentation has been an important strategy in the preservation of foods. The use of starter cultures with probiotic activity has gained the attention of researchers to produce functional fermented meat products. This review aims to overview the main strengths, weakness, opportunities and threats of fermented meat products with probiotics. Fermented meat products can be considered as a relevant matrix for the delivery of probiotics with potential health benefits. Moreover, fermented meat products produced by traditional methods are sources of probiotics that can be explored in the production of functional meat products. However, some barriers are limit the progression with these products: the complex selection process to obtain new and tailored probiotic strains, the current perception of healthiness associated with meat and meat products, and the limited application of probiotic to fermented sausages. Promising opportunities to improve the value of functional fermented meat products have been developed by exploring new meat products as functional fermented foods, improving the protection of probiotics with microencapsulation and improving the quality of meat product (reducing nitrate and nitrate salts, adding dietary fibre, and exploring the inherent antioxidant and cardioprotective activity of meat products). Attention to potential threats is also indicated such as the unclear future changes in meat and meat products consumption due to changes in consumer preferences and the presence of competitors (dairy, fruit and vegetable-based products, for instance) in more advanced stages of development and commercialization. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF STUDY: This review provides an overview of the Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats related to the development of functional fermented meat products with probiotics. Internal and external factors that explain the current scenario and strategies to advance the production are highlighted.

Chemical, technological, instrumental, microstructural, oxidative and sensory properties of emulsified sausages formulated with microparticulated whey protein to substitute animal fat

The current study was conducted to investigate the utilization of microparticulated whey protein (MWP) in different levels (5% or 10%) as partial fat replacers in emulsified beef sausage formulations. Inclusion of MWP resulted in sausages having decreased amounts of fat and energy while increased amounts of protein. Both emulsion stability and processing yield were the highest in samples containing MWP. No differences were recorded in L* values of the sausages although both a* and b* values were higher in MWP sausages than in full-fat sausages regardless of MWP level. Increased amounts of MWP led to lower hardness, chewiness and adhesiveness. Micrographs brought out the organized and reticulated structure of the sausages containing 10% MWP. MWP did not cause unfavorable impacts in general sensory acceptance, besides, it was associated with increased oxidative stability. Overall, the findings highlighted the favorable effects of MWP in terms of nutritional, technological, sensory and oxidative quality indicating the possibility to design low-fat emulsified meat product formulations.

DMA Study of the Molecular Structure of Porcine Fat in-Water Emulsions Stabilised by Potato Starch

The aim of the study was to determine how the molecular structure of porcine fat-in-water type emulsions stabilised with potato starch affected their rheomechanical properties. Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) and instrumental analysis of the texture were the method used in experiments. Starch gels with concentrations corresponding to the water starch concentration of the examined emulsions were used as control systems. The analysis of the starch and starch-fat systems showed that the values characterising their rheomechanical and textural properties reflected the spatial reaction of the amylose matrix to dynamic mechanical interactions. Changes in their values resulted from conformational changes in the structure of segments and nodes of the lattice, conditioned by the concentration of starch and the presence of fat. As a result of these changes, starch-fat emulsions are distinguished by greater densities of network segments and nearly two times greater functionalities of nodes than starch gels. The instrumental analysis of the texture showed that the values of the texture parameters in the starch gels were greater than in the starch-fat emulsions. The high values of the correlation coefficients (R~0.9) between the texture determinants and the rheological parameters proved that there was a strong correlation between the textural properties of the tested systems and their rheomechanical properties.