Multiple oscillators in the suprachiasmatic nucleus

Extensive soma-soma plate-like contact sites (ephapses) connect suprachiasmatic nucleus neurons

The hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is the central pacemaker for mammalian circadian rhythms. As such, this ensemble of cell-autonomous neuronal oscillators with divergent periods must maintain coordinated oscillations. To investigate ultrastructural features enabling such synchronization, 805 coronal ultrathin sections of mouse SCN tissue were imaged with electron microscopy and aligned into a volumetric stack, from which selected neurons within the SCN core were reconstructed in silico. We found that clustered SCN core neurons were physically connected to each other via multiple large soma-to-soma plate-like contacts. In some cases, a sliver of a glial process was interleaved. These contacts were large, covering on average ∼21% of apposing neuronal somata. It is possible that contacts may be the electrophysiological substrate for synchronization between SCN neurons. Such plate-like contacts may explain why the synchronization of SCN neurons is maintained even when chemical synaptic transmission or electrical synaptic transmission via gap junctions is blocked. Such ephaptic contact-mediated synchronization among nearby neurons may therefore contribute to the wave-like oscillations of circadian core clock genes and calcium signals observed in the SCN.

A minimal model of peripheral clocks reveals differential circadian re-entrainment in aging

The mammalian circadian system comprises a network of endogenous oscillators, spanning from the central clock in the brain to peripheral clocks in other organs. These clocks are tightly coordinated to orchestrate rhythmic physiological and behavioral functions. Dysregulation of these rhythms is a hallmark of aging, yet it remains unclear how age-related changes lead to more easily disrupted circadian rhythms. Using a two-population model of coupled oscillators that integrates the central clock and the peripheral clocks, we derive simple mean-field equations that can capture many aspects of the rich behavior found in the mammalian circadian system. We focus on three age-associated effects that have been posited to contribute to circadian misalignment: attenuated input from the sympathetic pathway, reduced responsiveness to light, and a decline in the expression of neurotransmitters. We find that the first two factors can significantly impede re-entrainment of the clocks following perturbation, while a weaker coupling within the central clock does not affect the recovery rate. Moreover, using our minimal model, we demonstrate the potential of using the feed-fast cycle as an effective intervention to accelerate circadian re-entrainment. These results highlight the importance of peripheral clocks in regulating the circadian rhythm and provide fresh insights into the complex interplay between aging and the resilience of the circadian system.

Astrocytes as essential time-keepers of the central pacemaker

Since the early observations made by Santiago Ramon y Cajal more than a century ago till now, astrocytes have gradually gained protagonism as essential partners of neurons in building brain circuits that regulate complex behavior. In mammals, processes such as sleep-wake cycle, locomotor activity, cognition and memory consolidation, homeostatic and hedonic appetite and stress response (among others), are synchronized in 24-h rhythms by the circadian system. In such a way, physiology efficiently anticipates and adapts to daily recurring changes in the environment. The hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is considered the central pacemaker, it has been traditionally described as a nucleus of around 10,000 neurons nearly all GABAergic able to be entrained by light and to convey time information through multiple neuronal and hormonal pathways. Only recently, this neuro-centered view was challenged by breakthrough discoveries implicating astrocytes as essential time-keepers. In the present review, we will describe the current view on the SCN circuit and discuss whether astrocytic functions described in other brain regions and state-of-the-art experimental approaches, could help explaining better those well- and not so well-known features of the central pacemaker.

Hub-organized parallel circuits of central circadian pacemaker neurons for visual photoentrainment in Drosophila

Circadian rhythms are orchestrated by a master clock that emerges from a network of circadian pacemaker neurons. The master clock is synchronized to external light/dark cycles through photoentrainment, but the circuit mechanisms underlying visual photoentrainment remain largely unknown. Here, we report that Drosophila has eye-mediated photoentrainment via a parallel pacemaker neuron organization. Patch-clamp recordings of central circadian pacemaker neurons reveal that light excites most of them independently of one another. We also show that light-responding pacemaker neurons send their dendrites to a neuropil called accessary medulla (aMe), where they make monosynaptic connections with Hofbauer–Buchner eyelet photoreceptors and interneurons that transmit compound-eye signals. Laser ablation of aMe and eye removal both abolish light responses of circadian pacemaker neurons, revealing aMe as a hub to channel eye inputs to central circadian clock. Taken together, we demonstrate that the central clock receives eye inputs via hub-organized parallel circuits in Drosophila.

The central circadian clock in Drosophila is made up of ~ 150 anatomically distributed neurons; the circuits underlying photoentrainment is unclear. This study describes ex vivo patch-clamp recording of the eye-mediated light response of all known circadian clock neurons, and shows that they are organized in parallel circuits centered around a hub.

Collective timekeeping among cells of the master circadian clock

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the anterior hypothalamus is the master circadian clock that coordinates daily rhythms in behavior and physiology in mammals. Like other hypothalamic nuclei, the SCN displays an impressive array of distinct cell types characterized by differences in neurotransmitter and neuropeptide expression. Individual SCN neurons and glia are able to display self-sustained circadian rhythms in cellular function that are regulated at the molecular level by a 24h transcriptional-translational feedback loop. Remarkably, SCN cells are able to harmonize with one another to sustain coherent rhythms at the tissue level. Mechanisms of cellular communication in the SCN network are not completely understood, but recent progress has provided insight into the functional roles of several SCN signaling factors. This review discusses SCN organization, how intercellular communication is critical for maintaining network function, and the signaling mechanisms that play a role in this process. Despite recent progress, our understanding of SCN circuitry and coupling is far from complete. Further work is needed to map SCN circuitry fully and define the signaling mechanisms that allow for collective timekeeping in the SCN network.

Clock Genes, Oscillators, and Cellular Networks in the Suprachiasmatic Nuclei

The mammalian SCN contains a biological clock that drives remarkably precise circadian rhythms in vivo and in vitro. Recent advances have revealed molecular and cellular mechanisms required for the generation of these daily rhythms and their synchronization between SCN neurons and to the environmental light cycle. This review of the evidence for a cell-autonomous circadian pacemaker within specialized neurons of the SCN focuses on 6 genes implicated within the pace making mechanism, an additional 4 genes implicated in pathways from the pacemaker, and the intercellular and intracellular mechanisms that synchronize SCN neurons to each other and to solar time.

In synch but not in step: Circadian clock circuits regulating plasticity in daily rhythms

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is a network of neural oscillators that program daily rhythms in mammalian behavior and physiology. Over the last decade much has been learned about how SCN clock neurons coordinate together in time and space to form a cohesive population. Despite this insight, much remains unknown about how SCN neurons communicate with one another to produce emergent properties of the network. Here we review the current understanding of communication among SCN clock cells and highlight a collection of formal assays where changes in SCN interactions provide for plasticity in the waveform of circadian rhythms in behavior. Future studies that pair analytical behavioral assays with modern neuroscience techniques have the potential to provide deeper insight into SCN circuit mechanisms.

Coupling-induced synchronization in multicellular circadian oscillators of mammals

In mammals, circadian rhythms are controlled by the neurons located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus. Each neuron in the SCN contains an autonomous molecular clock. The fundamental question is how the individual cellular oscillators, expressing a wide range of periods, interact and assemble to achieve phase synchronization. Most of the studies carried out so far emphasize the crucial role of the periodicity imposed by the light-dark cycle in neuronal synchronization. However, in natural conditions, the interaction between the SCN neurons is non-negligible and coupling between cells in the SCN is achieved partly by neurotransmitters. In this paper, we use a model of nonidentical, globally coupled cellular clocks considered as Goodwin oscillators. We mainly study the synchronization induced by coupling from an analytical way. Our results show that the role of the coupling is to enhance the synchronization to the external forcing. The conclusion of this paper can help us better understand the mechanism of circadian rhythm.

N-nitrosomelatonin enhances photic synchronization of mammalian circadian rhythms

Most physiological processes in mammals are synchronized to the daily light:dark cycle by a circadian clock located in the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus. Signal transduction of light-induced phase advances of the clock is mediated through a neuronal nitric oxide synthase-guanilyl cyclase pathway. We have employed a novel nitric oxide-donor, N-nitrosomelatonin, to enhance the photic synchronization of circadian rhythms in hamsters. The intraperitoneal administration of this drug before a sub-saturating light pulse at circadian time 18 generated a twofold increase of locomotor rhythm phase-advances, having no effect over saturating light pulses. This potentiation was also obtained even when inhibiting suprachiasmatic nitric oxide synthase activity. However, N-nitrosomelatonin had no effect on light-induced phase delays at circadian time 14. The photic-enhancing effects were correlated with an increased suprachiasmatic immunoreactivity of FBJ murine osteosarcoma viral oncogene and period1. Moreover, in vivo nitric oxide release by N-nitrosomelatonin was verified by measuring nitrate and nitrite levels in suprachiasmatic nuclei homogenates. The compound also accelerated resynchronization to an abrupt 6-h advance in the light:dark cycle (but not resynchronization to a 6-h delay). Here, we demonstrate the chronobiotic properties of N-nitrosomelatonin, emphasizing the importance of nitric oxide-mediated transduction for circadian phase advances.

SYNCHRONIZATION OF CLOCKS COUPLED BY NEUROTRANSMITTER IN THE SCN

In mammals, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus is considered as the master circadian pacemaker. Each cell in the SCN contains an autonomous molecular clock, and the SCN is composed of multiple single-cell circadian oscillators. The fundamental question is how the individual cellular oscillators, expressing a wide range of periods, interact and assemble to achieve phase synchronization. In natural conditions, the interaction between the SCN neurons is non-negligible and coupling between cells in the SCN is achieved partly by neurotransmitters. Though there have been a lot of works about the synchronization of circadian oscillators coupled by neurotransmitter, most of the works are based on numerical simulation with little theoretical analysis. In this paper, from the theoretical analysis, we prove that the clocks can be synchronized by the neurotransmitter with mathematical knowledge. Our results also show that the coupling among neurons can synchronize circadian oscillators but the synchronized oscillators are not with period of 24 h, which indicates that environmental cues are necessary to entrain oscillators with period of 24 h. This work can offer theoretical basis to study circadian synchronization in a numerical or experimental way.

Detecting regulatory mechanisms in endocrine time series measurements

The regulatory mechanisms underlying pulsatile secretion are complex, especially as it is partly controlled by other hormones and the combined action of multiple agents. Regulatory relations between hormones are not directly observable but may be deduced from time series measurements of plasma hormone concentrations. Variation in plasma hormone levels are the resultant of secretion and clearance from the circulation. A strategy is proposed to extract inhibition, activation, thresholds and circadian synchronicity from concentration data, using particular association methods. Time delayed associations between hormone concentrations and/or extracted secretion pulse profiles reveal the information on regulatory mechanisms. The above mentioned regulatory mechanisms are illustrated with simulated data. Additionally, data from a lean cohort of healthy control subjects is used to illustrate activation (ACTH and cortisol) and circadian synchronicity (ACTH and TSH) in real data. The simulation and the real data both consist of 145 equidistant samples per individual, matching a 24-hr time span with 10 minute intervals. The results of the simulation and the real data are in concordance.

Coupling governs entrainment range of circadian clocks

Circadian clock oscillator properties that are crucial for synchronization with the environment (entrainment) are studied in experiment and theory.

The ratio between stimulus (zeitgeber) strength and oscillator amplitude, and the rigidity of the oscillatory system (relaxation rate upon perturbation) determine entrainment properties. Coupling among oscillators affects both qualities resulting in increased amplitude and rigidity.

Uncoupled lung clocks entrain to extreme zeitgeber cycles, whereas the coupled oscillator system in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) does not; however, when coupling in the SCN is inhibited, larger ranges of entrainment can be achieved.

Daily rhythms in physiology, metabolism and behavior are controlled by an endogenous circadian timing system, which has evolved to synchronize an organism to periodically recurring environmental conditions, such as light–dark or temperature cycles. In mammals, the circadian system relies on cell-autonomous oscillators residing in almost every cell of the body. Cells of the SCN in the anterior hypothalamus are able to generate precise, long-lasting self-sustained circadian oscillations, which drive most rhythmic behavioral and physiological outputs, and which are believed to originate from the fact that the SCN tissue consists of tightly coupled cells (Aton and Herzog, 2005). In contrast, peripheral oscillators, such as lung tissue, exhibit seemingly damped and usually less precise oscillations, which are thought to be brought about by the lack of intercellular coupling.

Precise synchronization of these rhythms within the organism, but also with the environment (so-called entrainment), is an essential part of circadian organization. Entrainment is one of the cornerstones of circadian biology (Roenneberg et al, 2003). In evolution, the phase of a rhythmic variable is selective rather than its endogenous period. Thus, the synchronization of endogenous rhythms to zeitgeber cycles of the environment (resulting in a specific phase of entrainment) is fundamental for the adaptive value of circadian clocks. In this study, we systematically investigated the properties of circadian oscillators that are essential for entrainment behavior and describe coupling as a primary determinant.

As an experimental starting point of this study, we found that the circadian oscillators of lung tissue have a larger range of entrainment than SCN tissue—they readily entrained to extreme experimental temperature cycle of 20 or 28 h, whereas SCN tissue did not (Figure 4). For this purpose, we cultured SCN and lung slices derived from mice that express luciferase as fusion protein together with the clock protein PERIOD2 (Yoo et al, 2004). The detection of luciferase-driven bioluminescence allowed us to follow molecular clock gene activity in real-time over the course of several days.

In theoretical analyses, we show that both the ratio of amplitude and zeitgeber strength and, importantly, inter-oscillator coupling are major determinants for entrainment. The reason for coupling being critical is twofold: (i) Coupling makes an oscillatory system more rigid, i.e., it relaxes faster in response to a perturbation, and (ii) coupling increases the amplitude of the oscillatory system. Both of these consequences of coupling lead to a smaller entrainment range, because zeitgeber stimuli affect the oscillatory system less if the relaxation is fast and the amplitude is high (Figure 1). From these theoretical considerations, we conclude that the lung clock probably constitutes a weak oscillatory system, likely because a lack in coupling leads to a slow amplitude relaxation. (Circadian amplitude is not particularly low in lung (Figure 4).) In contrast, the SCN constitutes a rigid oscillator, whereby coupling and its described consequences probably are the primary causes for this rigidity. We then tested these theoretical predictions by experimentally perturbing coupling in the SCN (with MDL and TTX; O'Neill et al, 2008; Yamaguchi et al, 2003) and find that, indeed, reducing the coupling weakens the circadian oscillatory system in the SCN, which results in an enlargement of the entrainment range (Figure 6).

Why is the SCN designed to be a stronger circadian oscillator than peripheral organs? We speculate that the position of the SCN—as the tissue that conveys environmental timing information (i.e., light) to the rest of the body—makes it necessary to create a circadian clock that is robust against noisy environmental stimuli. The SCN oscillator needs to be robust enough to be protected from environmental noise, but flexible enough to fulfill its function as an entrainable clock even in extreme photoperiods (i.e., seasons). By the same token, peripheral clocks are more protected from the environmental zeitgebers due to intrinsic homeostatic mechanisms. Thus, they do not necessarily need to develop a strong oscillatory system (e.g., by strengthening the coupling), rather they need to stay flexible enough to respond to direct or indirect signals from the SCN, such as hormonal, neural, temperature or metabolic signals. Such a design ensures that only robust and persistent environmental signals trigger an SCN resetting response, while SCN signals can relatively easily be conveyed to the rest of the body. Thus, the robustness in the SCN clock likely serves as a filter for environmental noise.

In summary, using a combination of simulation studies, analytical calculations and experiments, we uncovered critical features for entrainment, such as zeitgeber-to-amplitude ratio and amplitude relaxation rate. Coupling is a primary factor that governs these features explaining important differences in the design of SCN and peripheral oscillators that ensure a robust, but also flexible circadian system.

Circadian clocks are endogenous oscillators driving daily rhythms in physiology and behavior. Synchronization of these timers to environmental light–dark cycles (‘entrainment') is crucial for an organism's fitness. Little is known about which oscillator qualities determine entrainment, i.e., entrainment range, phase and amplitude. In a systematic theoretical and experimental study, we uncovered these qualities for circadian oscillators in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN—the master clock in mammals) and the lung (a peripheral clock): (i) the ratio between stimulus (zeitgeber) strength and oscillator amplitude and (ii) the rigidity of the oscillatory system (relaxation rate upon perturbation) determine entrainment properties. Coupling among oscillators affects both qualities resulting in increased amplitude and rigidity. These principles explain our experimental findings that lung clocks entrain to extreme zeitgeber cycles, whereas SCN clocks do not. We confirmed our theoretical predictions by showing that pharmacological inhibition of coupling in the SCN leads to larger ranges of entrainment. These differences between master and the peripheral clocks suggest that coupling-induced rigidity in the SCN filters environmental noise to create a robust circadian system.

Circadian desynchronization

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) coordinates via multiple outputs physiological and behavioural circadian rhythms. The SCN is composed of a heterogeneous network of coupled oscillators that entrain to the daily light-dark cycles. Outside the physiological entrainment range, rich locomotor patterns of desynchronized rhythms are observed. Previous studies interpreted these results as the output of different SCN neural subpopulations. We find, however, that even a single periodically driven oscillator can induce such complex desynchronized locomotor patterns. Using signal analysis, we show how the observed patterns can be consistently clustered into two generic oscillatory interaction groups: modulation and superposition. In seven of 17 rats undergoing forced desynchronization, we find a theoretically predicted third spectral component. Combining signal analysis with the theory of coupled oscillators, we provide a framework for the study of circadian desynchronization.

Dynamic mechanistic explanation: computational modeling of circadian rhythms as an exemplar for cognitive science

We consider computational modeling in two fields: chronobiology and cognitive science. In circadian rhythm models, variables generally correspond to properties of parts and operations of the responsible mechanism. A computational model of this complex mechanism is grounded in empirical discoveries and contributes a more refined understanding of the dynamics of its behavior. In cognitive science, on the other hand, computational modelers typically advance de novo proposals for mechanisms to account for behavior. They offer indirect evidence that a proposed mechanism is adequate to produce particular behavioral data, but typically there is no direct empirical evidence for the hypothesized parts and operations. Models in these two fields differ in the extent of their empirical grounding, but they share the goal of achieving dynamic mechanistic explanation. That is, they augment a proposed mechanistic explanation with a computational model that enables exploration of the mechanism's dynamics. Using exemplars from circadian rhythm research, we extract six specific contributions provided by computational models. We then examine cognitive science models to determine how well they make the same types of contributions. We suggest that the modeling approach used in circadian research may prove useful in cognitive science as researchers develop procedures for experimentally decomposing cognitive mechanisms into parts and operations and begin to understand their nonlinear interactions.

Roles of light and serotonin in the regulation of gastrin-releasing peptide and arginine vasopressin output in the hamster SCN circadian clock

Daily timing of the mammalian circadian clock of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is regulated by photic input from the retina via the retinohypothalamic tract. This signaling is mediated by glutamate, which activates SCN retinorecipient units communicating to pacemaker cells in part through the release of gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP). Efferent signaling from the SCN involves another SCN-containing peptide, arginine vasopressin (AVP). Little is known regarding the mechanisms regulating these peptides, as literature on in vivo peptide release in the SCN is sparse. Here, microdialysis-radioimmunoassay procedures were used to characterize mechanisms controlling GRP and AVP release in the hamster SCN. In animals housed under a 14/10-h light-dark cycle both peptides exhibited daily fluctuations of release, with levels increasing during the morning to peak around midday. Under constant darkness, this pattern persisted for AVP, but rhythmicity was altered for GRP, characterized by a broad plateau throughout the subjective night and early subjective day. Neuronal release of the peptides was confirmed by their suppression with reverse-microdialysis perfusion of calcium blockers and stimulation with depolarizing agents. Reverse-microdialysis perfusion with the 5-HT(1A,7) agonist 8-OH-DPAT ((±)-8-hydroxydipropylaminotetralin hydrobromide) during the day significantly suppressed GRP but had little effect on AVP. Also, perfusion with the glutamate agonist NMDA, or exposure to light at night, increased GRP but did not affect AVP. These analyses reveal distinct daily rhythms of SCN peptidergic activity, with GRP but not AVP release attenuated by serotonergic activation that inhibits photic phase-resetting, and activated by glutamatergic and photic stimulation that mediate this phase-resetting.

A riot of rhythms: neuronal and glial circadian oscillators in the mediobasal hypothalamus

Background

In mammals, the synchronized activity of cell autonomous clocks in the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) enables this structure to function as the master circadian clock, coordinating daily rhythms in physiology and behavior. However, the dominance of this clock has been challenged by the observations that metabolic duress can over-ride SCN controlled rhythms, and that clock genes are expressed in many brain areas, including those implicated in the regulation of appetite and feeding. The recent development of mice in which clock gene/protein activity is reported by bioluminescent constructs (luciferase or luc) now enables us to track molecular oscillations in numerous tissues ex vivo. Consequently we determined both clock activities and responsiveness to metabolic perturbations of cells and tissues within the mediobasal hypothalamus (MBH), a site pivotal for optimal internal homeostatic regulation.

Results

Here we demonstrate endogenous circadian rhythms of PER2::LUC expression in discrete subdivisions of the arcuate (Arc) and dorsomedial nuclei (DMH). Rhythms resolved to single cells did not maintain long-term synchrony with one-another, leading to a damping of oscillations at both cell and tissue levels. Complementary electrophysiology recordings revealed rhythms in neuronal activity in the Arc and DMH. Further, PER2::LUC rhythms were detected in the ependymal layer of the third ventricle and in the median eminence/pars tuberalis (ME/PT). A high-fat diet had no effect on the molecular oscillations in the MBH, whereas food deprivation resulted in an altered phase in the ME/PT.

Conclusion

Our results provide the first single cell resolution of endogenous circadian rhythms in clock gene expression in any intact tissue outside the SCN, reveal the cellular basis for tissue level damping in extra-SCN oscillators and demonstrate that an oscillator in the ME/PT is responsive to changes in metabolism.

Functional neuroanatomy of sleep and circadian rhythms

The daily sleep-wake cycle is perhaps the most dramatic overt manifestation of the circadian timing system, and this is especially true for the monophasic sleep-wake cycle of humans. Considerable recent progress has been made in elucidating the neurobiological mechanisms underlying sleep and arousal, and more generally, of circadian rhythmicity in behavioral and physiological systems. This paper broadly reviews these mechanisms from a functional neuroanatomical and neurochemical perspective, highlighting both historical and recent advances. In particular, I focus on the neural pathways underlying reciprocal interactions between the sleep-regulatory and circadian timing systems, and the functional implications of these interactions. While these two regulatory systems have often been considered in isolation, sleep-wake and circadian regulation are closely intertwined processes controlled by extensively integrated neurobiological mechanisms.

Entrainment of Circadian Programs

Of the three defining properties of circadian rhythmicity--persisting free-running rhythm, temperature compensation, and entrainment--the last is often poorly understood by many chronobiologists. This paper gives an overview of entrainment. Where have we been? Where are we now? Whence should we be going? Particular emphasis is given to a discussion of the Discrete vs. Continuous models for entrainment. We provide an integrated mechanism for entrainment from a limit-cycle perspective.

Ultrastructural plasticity in the rat suprachiasmatic nucleus. Possible involvement in clock entrainment

Circadian rhythms in mammals are synchronized to the light (L)/dark (D) cycle through messages relaying in the master clock, the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus (SCN). Here, we provide evidence that the SCN undergoes rhythmic ultrastructural rearrangements over the 24-h cycle characterized by day/night changes of the glial, axon terminal, and/or somato-dendritic coverage of neurons expressing arginine vasopressin (AVP) or vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), the two main sources of SCN efferents. At nighttime, we noted an increase in the glial coverage of the dendrites of the VIP neurons (+29%) that was concomitant with a decrease in the mean coverage of the somata (-36%) and dendrites (-43%) of these neurons by axon terminals. Conversely, glial coverage of the dendrites of AVP neurons decreased (-19%) with parallel increase in the extent of somatal (+96%) and dendritic (+52%) membrane appositions involving these neurons. These plastic events were concomitant with daily fluctuations in quantitative expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), which were then used as an index of structural plasticity. The GFAP rhythm appeared to be strictly dependent on light entrainment, indicating that structural reorganization of the SCN may subserve synchronization of the clock to the L/D cycle. Other results presented reinforced this view while showing that circulating glucocorticoid hormones, which are known to modulate photic entrainment, were required to maintain amplitude of the GFAP rhythm to normal values.

Euchronism, allochronism, and dyschronism: is internal desynchronization of human circadian rhythms a sign of illness?

The authors define a subject as euchronic when the circadian parameters--tau (tau=period), Ø (acrophse or peak time), A (amplitude), and M (MESOR=24 h rhythm-adjusted mean)--of a set of circadian variables are within the confidence limits of appropriate reference values of healthy subjects (HS). We define internal desynchronization as a state in which the circadian tau of a set of rhythms differs from 24 h and when the tau of a given variable differs from that of other variables. Such a state was first observed in singly isolated HS without access to time cues and clues. Herein, data and analyses are presented demonstrating that internal desynchronization appears to be a rather common phenomenon in HS dwelling in their natural environment (i.e., in the presence of usual zeitgebers). This has been documented by longitudinal studies (n approximately=15 days) of the circadian rhythm in sleep-wakefulness, body temperature, right- and left-hand-grip strength, and reaction time involving a total of 246 HS and 134 shift workers (SW), with 45.5% showing good and 54.5% poor SW tolerance. The presence of internal desynchronization observed in SW was associated SW intolerance, with symptoms being sleep alteration/disturbances, sleeping-pill dependence, persisting fatigue (asthenia), mood alteration, and digestive complaints. Internal desynchronization was also documented in groups of HS and tolerant SW, though it was almost the rule among the intolerant SW. The authors introduce two new terms: allochronism to describe the time organization of those SW who evidence internal desynchronization without detectable clinical symptoms, and dyschronism to describe the time organization of those SW who exhibit internal desynchrobization plus the symptoms of SW intolerance or medical illness. The condition of allochronism is not restricted only to SW tolerance, as it was detected in 112 HS without medical complains when exposed to various experimental conditions, including medications and placebos, sojourn in the high Arctic summer, intensive sport training, and task-loaded cognitive performance testing. Dyschronism in SW who are sleep-deprived is associated with persisting fatigue. An unpublished Gallup survey found that 47% of 2478 respondents experienced a state of asthenia during the previous 12 months, with symptoms mimicking those of SW intolerance. In one-third of the cases, the origin of the asthenia was undetermined. Taking into account the high incidence of internal desynchronization found in past investigations and the clinical observation that sleep deprivation is a consequence of many acute and chronic medical conditions (nocturnal pain, nocturnal asthma, etc.), it is suggested that dyschronism may be responsible for the asthenia of unknown origin, at least for some persons. The interindividual (including sex-related) variability in the propensity to exhibit an altered temporal organization, whether it be transient or persistent (i.e., reversible or non-reversible) suggests the involvement of genetic factors. The Dian-Circadian genetic model previously proposed by the authors seems pertinent to conceptualize and explain the various levels and output of internal desynchronization.

The suprachiasmatic nucleus functions beyond circadian rhythm generation

We recently discovered that human activity possesses a complex temporal organization characterized by scale-invariant/self-similar fluctuations from seconds to approximately 4 h-(statistical properties of fluctuations remain the same at different time scales). Here, we show that scale-invariant activity patterns are essentially identical in humans and rats, and exist for up to approximately 24 h: six-times longer than previously reported. Theoretically, such scale-invariant patterns can be produced by a neural network of interacting control nodes-system components with feedback loops-operating at different time scales. However such control nodes have not yet been identified in any neurophysiological model of scale invariance/self-similarity in mammals. Here we demonstrate that the endogenous circadian pacemaker (suprachiasmatic nucleus; SCN), known to modulate locomotor activity with a periodicity of approximately 24 h, also acts as a major neural control node responsible for the generation of scale-invariant locomotor patterns over a broad range of time scales from minutes to at least 24 h (rather than solely at approximately 24 h). Remarkably, we found that SCN lesion in rats completely abolished the scale-invariant locomotor patterns between 4 and 24 h and significantly altered the patterns at time scales <4 h. Identification of the control nodes of a neural network responsible for scale invariance is the critical first step in understanding the neurophysiological origin of scale invariance/self-similarity.

Neurotransmitters of the suprachiasmatic nuclei

There has been extensive research in the recent past looking into the molecular basis and mechanisms of the biological clock, situated in the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) of the anterior hypothalamus. Neurotransmitters are a very important component of SCN function. Thorough knowledge of neurotransmitters is not only essential for the understanding of the clock but also for the successful manipulation of the clock with experimental chemicals and therapeutical drugs. This article reviews the current knowledge about neurotransmitters in the SCN, including neurotransmitters that have been identified only recently. An attempt was made to describe the neurotransmitters and hormonal/diffusible signals of the SCN efference, which are necessary for the master clock to exert its overt function. The expression of robust circadian rhythms depends on the integrity of the biological clock and on the integration of thousands of individual cellular clocks found in the clock. Neurotransmitters are required at all levels, at the input, in the clock itself, and in its efferent output for the normal function of the clock. The relationship between neurotransmitter function and gene expression is also discussed because clock gene transcription forms the molecular basis of the clock and its working.

Dynamical heterogeneity of suprachiasmatic nucleus neurons based on regularity and determinism

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is known to be the master biological clock in mammals. Despite the periodic mean firing rate, interspike interval (ISI) patterns of SCN neurons are quite complex and irregular. The aim of the present study was to investigate the existence of nonlinear determinism in the complex ISI patterns of SCN neurons. ISI sequences were recorded from 173 neurons in rat hypothalamic slice preparations using a cell-attached patch recording technique. Their correlation dimensions (D2) were estimated, and were then compared with those of the randomly-shuffled surrogate data. We found that only 16 neurons (16/173) exhibited deterministic ISI patterns of spikes. In addition, clustering analysis revealed that SCN neurons could be divided into two subgroups of neurons each having distinct values of coefficient of variation (CV) and skewness (SK). Interestingly, most deterministic SCN neurons (14/16) belonged to the group of irregularly spiking neurons having large CV and SK values. To see if the neuronal coupling mediated by the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), the major neurotransmitter in the SCN, contributed to the deterministic nature, we examined the effect of the GABAA receptor antagonist bicuculline on D2 values of 56 SCN neurons. 8 SCN neurons which were originally stochastic became to exhibit deterministic characteristics after the bicuculline application. This result suggests that the deterministic nature of the SCN neurons arises not from GABAergic synaptic interactions, but likely from properties inherent to neurons themselves.

Fractal Stochastic Modeling of Spiking Activity in Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Neurons

Individual neurons in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), the master biological clock in mammals, autonomously produce highly complex patterns of spikes. We have shown that most (approximately 90%) SCN neurons exhibit truly stochastic interspike interval (ISI) patterns. The aim of this study was to understand the stochastic nature of the firing patterns in SCN neurons by analyzing the ISI sequences of 150 SCN neurons in hypothalamic slices. Fractal analysis, using the periodogram, Fano factor, and Allan factor, revealed the presence of a 1/f-type power-law (fractal) behavior in the ISI sequences. This fractal nature was persistent after the application of the GABAA receptor antagonist bicuculline, suggesting that the fractal stochastic activity is an intrinsic property of individual SCN neurons. Based on these physiological findings, we developed a computational model for the stochastic SCN neurons to find that their stochastic spiking activity was best described by a gamma point process whose mean firing rate was modulated by a fractal binomial noise. Taken together, we suggest that SCN neurons generate temporal spiking patterns using the fractal stochastic point process.

Circadian entrainment and phase resetting differ markedly under dimly illuminated versus completely dark nights

An endogenous circadian pacemaker uses photic input to synchronize mammalian physiological and behavioral rhythms to the 24 h day. Sunlight during dusk and dawn is thought to entrain the pacemaker of nocturnal rodents, whereas moonlight and starlight are presumed to exert little influence. We show that, to the contrary, dim illumination (<0.005 lux), similar in intensity to starlight and dim moonlight, markedly alters entrainment of hamster activity rhythms. Under 24 h light:dark:light:dark cycles (LDLD), for example, activity rhythms can disassociate, or split, into two distinct components, and the incidence of split entrainment is increased when daily scotophases are dimly lit rather than completely dark. The three present studies examine whether dim illumination promotes LDLD-induced splitting (1) by increasing nonphotic feedback during novelty-induced activity bouts, (2) by potentiating nonphotic and/or photic resetting, or (3) by influencing phase jumping responses under skeleton photoperiods simulating increases in day length. Experiment 1 illustrates that dim-exposed animals display split rhythms, while animals without dim light do not, despite equivalent activity levels. In Experiments 2 and 3, dim illumination potentiated both nonphotic and photic resetting, and the specific nature of these interactions suggests mechanisms through which dim illumination may alter entrainment under LDLD. Dim light likely promotes LDLD-induced splitting by facilitating both nonphotic resetting and bright light-induced phase jumping in animals entrained to short nights. The actions of dim illumination may be distinct from canonical responses to bright light, and potentially influence the interactions between oscillators comprising the circadian pacemaker.

Spontaneous synchronization of coupled circadian oscillators

In mammals, the circadian pacemaker, which controls daily rhythms, is located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). Circadian oscillations are generated in individual SCN neurons by a molecular regulatory network. Cells oscillate with periods ranging from 20 to 28 h, but at the tissue level, SCN neurons display significant synchrony, suggesting a robust intercellular coupling in which neurotransmitters are assumed to play a crucial role. We present a dynamical model for the coupling of a population of circadian oscillators in the SCN. The cellular oscillator, a three-variable model, describes the core negative feedback loop of the circadian clock. The coupling mechanism is incorporated through the global level of neurotransmitter concentration. Global coupling is efficient to synchronize a population of 10,000 cells. Synchronized cells can be entrained by a 24-h light-dark cycle. Simulations of the interaction between two populations representing two regions of the SCN show that the driven population can be phase-leading. Experimentally testable predictions are: 1), phases of individual cells are governed by their intrinsic periods; and 2), efficient synchronization is achieved when the average neurotransmitter concentration would dampen individual oscillators. However, due to the global neurotransmitter oscillation, cells are effectively synchronized.

Pharmacological modulation of circadian rhythms: a new drug target in psychotherapeutics

Daily variation in an organism's physiology and behaviour is regulated by the synchrony that is achieved between the internal timing mechanisms - the circadian rhythms of the biological clock - and the prevailing environmental cues. Proper synchrony constitutes an adaptive response; improper or lost synchrony may well yield maladaptation and, in the case of humans, a psychiatric disorder. On a basic level, the circadian system is comprised of three parts: a central oscillator, its various neuronal inputs and its outputs. For all three of these parts, the dissemination of new information is moving at an unprecedented pace, and the number of molecular targets for the opportunistic pharmacologist is growing in step. Monoamines, neuropeptides, kinases - sorting through all these, much less developing one into a drug discovery programme, may be the biggest challenge. However, the potential benefits in targeting a basic flaw in a fundamental biological system may be enormous.

Longitudinal studies on the effect of hypertension on circadian hemodynamic and autonomic rhythms in telemetered rats

This study dealt with the long-term effects of hypertension on circadian rhythms of hemodynamic and cardiovascular autonomic functions in radiotelemetered rats. Blood pressure (BP), heart rate (HR), spontaneous locomotor activity, and respiration.were monitored in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs), a model of human hypertension, from 14 to 27 weeks of age and in Wistar-Kyoto rats (WKY) as controls. Cardiovascular autonomic changes were determined by time-domain analysis of the variability of BP (standard deviation of mean arterial pressure, SDMAP) and HR (standard deviation of R-R intervals, SDRR, and the root mean square of successive differences in R-R intervals, rMSSD). Compared with WKY rats, the 24-hr MAP and SDMAP were higher at week 14 in SHRs and showed stepwise increases over the study duration, suggesting progressive increases in vasomotor sympathetic activity in hypertensive rats. Also, higher SDRR, rMSSD, and activity and lower HR and respiration were demonstrated in SHRs. Normal circadian rhythms (higher dark-time values) of MAP, HR, SDMAP, and SDRR were evident in WKY rats at week 20 and continued thereafter. Compared with WKY rats, the circadian BP and HR patterns were abolished and inverted, respectively, in SHRs. Lower dark-time, compared with light-time, SDMAP values were observed in SHRs that were associated with temporal increases in HR variability indices. These findings demonstrate that hypertension elicits significant alterations in circadian autonomic and hemodynamic profiles. Further, the steady increases in BP, average level and oscillations, in SHRs may explain the reported progressive age-related vascular and cardiac hypertrophy in these rats.

Temporal precision in the mammalian circadian system: a reliable clock from less reliable neurons

The mammalian SCN contains a biological clock that drives remarkably precise circadian rhythms in vivo and in vitro. This study asks whether the cycle-to-cycle variability of behavioral rhythms in mice can be attributed to precision of individual circadian pacemakers within the SCN or their interactions. The authors measured the standard deviation of the cycle-to-cycle period from 7-day recordings of running wheel activity, Period1 gene expression in cultured SCN explants, and firing rate patterns of dispersed SCN neurons. Period variability of the intact tissue and animal was lower than single neurons. The median variability of running wheel and Period1 rhythms was less than 40 min per cycle compared to 2.1 h in firing rate rhythms of dispersed SCN neurons. The most precise SCN neuron, with a period deviation of 1.1 h, was 10 times noisier than the most accurate SCN explant (0.1 h) or mouse (0.1 h) but comparable to the least stable explant (2.1 h) and mouse (1.1 h). This variability correlated with intrinsic period in mice and SCN explants but not with single cells. Precision was unrelated to the amplitude of rhythms and did not change significantly with age up to 1 year after birth. Analysis of the serial correlation of cycle-to-cycle period revealed that approximately half of this variability is attributable to noise outside the pacemaker. These results indicate that cell-cell interactions within the SCN reduce pacemaker noise to determine the precision of circadian rhythms in the tissue and in behavior.

Temporal and spatial expression patterns of canonical clock genes and clock-controlled genes in the suprachiasmatic nucleus

In mammals, the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) of the hypothalamus control endogenous circadian rhythms and entrainment to the environment. A core SCN region of calbindin (CalB)-containing cells is retinorecipient and the cells therein lack rhythmic expression of clock genes and electrical activity. The core is surrounded by a 'shell' of rhythmic oscillator cells. In the present experiments, we studied the spatial arrangement of oscillator cells by examining the spatial and temporal patterns of expression of the canonical clock genes Per1, Per2 and vasopressin mRNA, a clock-controlled gene. Surprisingly, in the SCN shell, the dorsomedial cells were the first to rhythmically express both Per1 and VP mRNA, with gene expression then spreading very slowly through much of the nucleus for the next 12 h then receding to baseline levels. Following a light pulse, Per expression increased after 1 h in the core SCN and after 1.5 h in the shell. Although expression in the shell occurred earlier in light-pulsed animals than in those housed in constant darkness, it still followed the same spatial and temporal expression pattern as was observed in constant darkness. The results suggest that not only is the SCN organized into light-responsive and rhythmic regions but also that the rhythmic region of the SCN itself has an ordered arrangement of SCN oscillator cells.

The brain's calendar: neural mechanisms of seasonal timing

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus is the principal component of the mammalian biological clock, the neural timing system that generates and coordinates a broad spectrum of physiological, endocrine and behavioural circadian rhythms. The pacemaker of the SCN oscillates with a near 24 h period and is entrained to the diurnal light-dark cycle. Consistent with its role in circadian timing, investigations in rodents and non-human primates furthermore suggest that the SCN is the locus of the brain's endogenous calendar, enabling organisms to anticipate seasonal environmental changes. The present review focuses on the neuronal organization and dynamic properties of the biological clock and the means by which it is synchronized with the environmental lighting conditions. It is shown that the functional activity of the biological clock is entrained to the seasonal photic cycle and that photoperiod (day length) may act as an effective zeitgeber. Furthermore, new insights are presented, based on electrophysiological and molecular studies, that the mammalian circadian timing system consists of coupled oscillators and that the clock genes of these oscillators may also function as calendar genes. In summary, there are now strong indications that the neuronal changes and adaptations in mammals that occur in response to a seasonally changing environment are driven by an endogenous circadian clock located in the SCN, and that this neural calendar is reset by the seasonal fluctuations in photoperiod.

A molecular perspective of human circadian rhythm disorders

A large number of physiological variables display 24-h or circadian rhythms. Genes dedicated to the generation and regulation of physiological circadian rhythms have now been identified in several species, including humans. These clock genes are involved in transcriptional regulatory feedback loops. The mutation of these genes in animals leads to abnormal rhythms or even to arrhythmicity in constant conditions. In this view, and given the similarities between the circadian system of humans and rodents, it is expected that mutations of clock genes in humans may give rise to health problems, in particular sleep and mood disorders. Here we first review the present knowledge of molecular mechanisms underlying circadian rhythmicity, and we then revisit human circadian rhythm syndromes in light of the molecular data.

Electrophysiology of the circadian pacemaker in mammals

The neurons of the mammalian suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) control circadian rhythms in molecular, physiological, endocrine, and behavioral functions. In the SCN, circadian rhythms are generated at the level of individual neurons. The last decade has provided a wealth of information on the genetic basis for circadian rhythm generation. In comparison, a modest but growing number of studies have investigated how the molecular rhythm is translated into neuronal function. Neuronal attributes have been measured at the cellular and tissue level with a variety of electrophysiological techniques. We have summarized electrophysiological research on neurons that constitute the SCN in an attempt to provide a comprehensive view on the current state of the art.

Right- and left-brain hemisphere. Rhythm in reaction time to light signals is task-load-dependent: age, gender, and handgrip strength rhythm comparisons

In healthy mature subjects simple reaction time (SRT) to a single light signal (an easy task) is associated with a prominent rhythm with tau = 24 h of dominant (DH) as well as nondominant (NDH) hand performance, while three-choice reaction time (CRT), a complex task, is associated with tau = 24 h of the DH but tau < 24 h of the NDH. The aims of the study were to assess the influence of age and gender on the difference in tau of the NDH and DH, as it relates to the corresponding cortical hemisphere of the brain, in comparison to the rhythm in handgrip strength. Healthy subjects, 9 (5 M and 4 F) adolescents 10-16 yr of age and 15 (8 M and 7 F) adults 18-67 yr of age, active between 08:00 +/- 1 h and 23:00 +/- 1:30 h and free of alcohol, tobacco, and drug consumption volunteered. Data were gathered longitudinally at home and work 4-7 times daily for 11-20 d. At each test time the following variables were assessed: grip strength of both hands (Dynamometer: Colin-Gentile, Paris, France); single reaction time to a yellow signal (SRT); and CRT to randomized yellow, red, or green signal series with varying instruction from test to test (Psycholog-24: Biophyderm, France). Rhythms in the performance in SRT, CRT, and handgrip strength of both DH and NDH were explored. The sleep-wake rhythm was assessed by sleep-logs, and in a subset of 14 subjects it was also assessed by wrist actigraphy (Mini-Motionlogger: AMI, Ardsley NY). Exploration of the prominent period tau of time series was achieved by a special power spectra analysis for unequally spaced data. Cosinor analysis was used to quantify the rhythm amplitude A and rhythm-adjusted mean M of the power spectral analysis determined trial tau. A 24h sleep-wake rhythm was detected in almost all cases. In adults, a prominent tau of 24 h characterized the performance of the easy task by both the DH and NDH. In adults a prominent tau of 24 h was also detected in the complex CRT task performed by the DH, but for the NDH the tau was < 24 h. This phenomenon was not gender-related but was age-related since it was seldom observed in adolescent subjects. Hand-side differences in the grip strength rhythms in the same individuals were detected, the tau being ultradian rather than circadian in adolescent subjects while in mature subjects the tau frequently differed from that of the rhythm in CRT. These findings further support the hypothesis that functional biological clocks exist in both the left and right hemispheres of the human cortex.

Temperature effect on entrainment, phase shifting, and amplitude of circadian clocks and its molecular bases

Effects of temperature and temperature changes on circadian clocks in cyanobacteria, unicellular algae, and plants, as well as fungi, arthropods, and vertebrates are reviewed. Periodic temperature with periods around 24 h even in the low range of 1-2 degrees C (strong Zeitgeber effect) can entrain all ectothermic (poikilothermic) organisms. This is also reflected by the phase shifts-recorded by phase response curves (PRCs)-that are elicited by step- or pulsewise changes in the temperature. The amount of phase shift (weak or strong type of PRC) depends on the amplitude of the temperature change and on its duration when applied as a pulse. Form and position of the PRC to temperature pulses are similar to those of the PRC to light pulses. A combined high/low temperature and light/dark cycle leads to a stabile phase and maximal amplitude of the circadian rhythm-when applied in phase (i.e., warm/light and cold/dark). When the two Zeitgeber cycles are phase-shifted against each other the phase of the circadian rhythm is determined by either Zeitgeber or by both, depending on the relative strength (amplitude) of both Zeitgeber signals and the sensitivity of the species/individual toward them. A phase jump of the circadian rhythm has been observed in several organisms at a certain phase relationship of the two Zeitgeber cycles. Ectothermic organisms show inter- and intraspecies plus seasonal variations in the temperature limits for the expression of the clock, either of the basic molecular mechanism, and/or the dependent variables. A step-down from higher temperatures or a step-up from lower temperatures to moderate temperatures often results in initiation of oscillations from phase positions that are about 180 degrees different. This may be explained by holding the clock at different phase positions (maximum or minimum of a clock component) or by significantly different levels of clock components at the higher or lower temperatures. Different permissive temperatures result in different circadian amplitudes, that usually show a species-specific optimum. In endothermic (homeothermic) organisms periodic temperature changes of about 24 h often cause entrainment, although with considerable individual differences, only if they are of rather high amplitudes (weak Zeitgeber effects). The same applies to the phase-shifting effects of temperature pulses. Isolated bird pineals and rat suprachiasmatic nuclei tissues on the other hand, respond to medium high temperature pulses and reveal PRCs similar to that of light signals. Therefore, one may speculate that the self-selected circadian rhythm of body temperature in reptiles or the endogenously controlled body temperature in homeotherms (some of which show temperature differences of more than 2 degrees C) may, in itself, serve as an internal entraining system. The so-called heterothermic mammals (undergoing low body temperature states in a daily or seasonal pattern) may be more sensitive to temperature changes. Effects of temperature elevation on the molecular clock mechanisms have been shown in Neurospora (induction of the frequency (FRQ) protein) and in Drosophila (degradation of the period (PER) and timeless (TIM) protein) and can explain observed phase shifts of rhythms in conidiation and locomotor activity, respectively. Temperature changes probably act directly on all processes of the clock mechanism some being more sensitive than the others. Temperature changes affect membrane properties, ion homeostasis, calcium influx, and other signal cascades (cAMP, cGMP, and the protein kinases A and C) (indirect effects) and may thus influence, in particular, protein phosphorylation processes of the clock mechanism. The temperature effects resemble to some degree those induced by light or by light-transducing neurons and their transmitters. In ectothermic vertebrates temperature changes significantly affect the melatonin rhythm, which in turn exerts entraining (phase shifting) functions.

Cellular communication and coupling within the suprachiasmatic nucleus

In mammals, the part of the nervous system responsible for most circadian behavior can be localized to a pair of structures in the hypothalamus known as the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). Importantly, when SCN neurons are removed from the organism and maintained in a brain slice preparation, they continue to generate 24h rhythms in electrical activity, secretion, and gene expression. Previous studies suggest that the basic mechanism responsible for the generation of these rhythms is intrinsic to individual cells in the SCN. If we assume that individual cells in the SCN are competent circadian oscillators, it is obviously important to understand how these cells communicate and remain synchronized with each other. Cell-to-cell communication is clearly necessary for conveying inputs to and outputs from the SCN and may be involved in ensuring the high precision of the observed rhythm. In addition, there is a growing body of evidence that a number of systems-level phenomena could be dependent on the cellular communication between circadian pacemaker neurons. It is not yet known how this cellular synchronization occurs, but it is likely that more than one of the already proposed mechanisms is utilized. The purpose of this review is to summarize briefly the possible mechanisms by which the oscillatory cells in the SCN communicate with each other.

Circadian rhythms in medicine

Circadian (24-hour) rhythms are important to the practice of medicine. The phasing and amplitude of key physiologic and biochemical circadian rhythms contribute to predictable-in-time patterns in the manifestation and exacerbation of most medical conditions. Moreover, body rhythms can significantly affect responses of patients to diagnostic tests and medications. Rhythmicity in the pathophysiology of medical conditions is the rationale for chronotherapeutics--the purposeful variance of the concentration of medicines in synchrony with biological rhythm--determinants of disease activity--to optimize treatment outcomes. This article discusses the concept of biological time structure and its relevance to the practice of medicine, with a focus on neurologic issues.