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Boadu RO, Dankyi E, Apalangya VA, Osei-Safo D. Aflatoxins in maize and groundnuts on markets in Accra and consumers risk. FOOD ADDITIVES & CONTAMINANTS. PART B, SURVEILLANCE 2024; 17:213-222. [PMID: 38778671 DOI: 10.1080/19393210.2024.2351575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
This study presents the results of aflatoxin contamination of maize and groundnuts in major markets in Accra and assesses the population's exposure to aflatoxins. Raw maize and groundnuts from 6 major markets in Accra were sampled and analysed for their aflatoxin content. A total of 92 samples comprising 48 maize and 44 groundnuts were analysed using high-performance liquid chromatography, after extraction with methanol/water and cleanup on an immunoaffinity column. Total aflatoxins were quantified in 98% of the maize samples and 70% of the groundnut samples, with concentrations ranging from 0.60 to 1065 µg/kg and 0.20 to 627 µg/kg, respectively. Exposure assessment showed an estimated daily intake of 0.436 μg/kg bw/day and 0.0632 μg/kg bw/day for maize and groundnut consumption, respectively, suggesting significant health risks for consumers. The high prevalence and concentrations of aflatoxins call for an urgent need for measures to control exposure of the Ghanaian population.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Enock Dankyi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - Vitus A Apalangya
- Department of Food Processing Engineering, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
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2
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Micro-climatic variations across Malawi have a greater influence on contamination of maize with aflatoxins than with fumonisins. Mycotoxin Res 2022; 39:33-44. [PMID: 36443622 PMCID: PMC10156841 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-022-00471-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Revised: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
This study reports levels of aflatoxin and fumonisin in maize samples (n = 1294) from all agroecological zones (AEZs) in Malawi. Most maize samples (> 75%) were contaminated with aflatoxins and 45% with fumonisins, which co-occurred in 38% of the samples. Total aflatoxins varied across the AEZs, according to mean annual temperature (P < 0.05) of the AEZs. Samples from the lower Shire AEZ (median = 20.8 µg/kg) had higher levels of aflatoxins (P < 0.05) than those from the other AEZs (median = 3.0 µg/kg). Additionally, the majority (75%) of the positive samples from the lower Shire AEZ had aflatoxin levels exceeding the EU regulatory limit (4 µg/kg), whereas 25%, 37%, and 39% of positive samples exceeded the threshold in the mid-elevation, Lake Shore and upper and middle Shire, and highlands AEZs, respectively. The lower Shire AEZ is characterised by higher mean temperatures throughout the year and low erratic rainfall. However, total fumonisins did not show significant variation across AEZs, but all positive samples exceeded 150 µg/kg, required for tolerable daily intake of 1.0 µg/kg body weight per day, established by the European Food Safety Authority Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain. Therefore, results of this study suggest that contamination of maize with aflatoxin responds to micro-climate more than with fumonisins. In addition, the data will be useful to public health policy-makers and stakeholders to articulate and implement monitoring and mitigation programs.
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Sohail Y, Raza N, Shakeel N, Raza H, Manzoor S, Yasmin G, Iqbal A, Manzoor S, Albaqami MD, Mohammad Wabaidur S. Polyaniline-coated nanoparticles of zinc oxide and copper oxide as antifungal agents against Aspergillus parasiticus. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:925451. [PMID: 36247569 PMCID: PMC9559726 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.925451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Aspergillus parasiticus (A. parasiticus) is known for producing aflatoxins and is a major threat to the food industry. Green synthesis of nanoparticles (NPs) is a cost-effective and environment-friendly approach. A variety of NPs have been explored as antifungal agents; however, their antifungal characteristics need to be further enhanced to compete with traditional fungicides. The present work describes the green synthesis of ZnO and CuO NPs by precipitation method using aqueous leaf extract of Manilkara zapota and their surface modification through polyaniline (PANI). Still, there is no published study on the application of PANI-coated particles as antifungal agents against A. parasiticus and hence was the focus of this work. The polymer-coated NPs were synthesized, characterized, and investigated for their antifungal properties against A. parasiticus. Textural and structural characterization of PANI-coated and non-coated ZnO and CuO NPs were confirmed through FT-IR, SEM, and XRD techniques. The PANI-coated NPs presented higher fungal growth inhibition (%) as compared to the non-coated ones. The maximum inhibition of 77 ± 2% (n = 3) was shown by PANI/ZnO NPs at a concentration of 12 mmol L-1 and 72 h of incubation. The non-coated NPs presented a lower inhibition rate with respect to their coated NPs, thus justifying the role of polymeric coating in improving antifungal efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Younas Sohail
- Department of Botany, Emerson University Multan, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Nadeem Raza
- Department of Chemistry, Emerson University Multan, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Nasir Shakeel
- Faculty of Chemistry, Silesian University of Technology, Gilwice, Poland
| | - Hina Raza
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Suryyia Manzoor
- Faculty of Science, Institute of Chemical Sciences, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Ghazala Yasmin
- Faculty of Science, Institute of Chemical Sciences, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Amjad Iqbal
- Silesian University of Technology, Gilwice, Poland
| | - Shamaila Manzoor
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia and LENS, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Munirah D. Albaqami
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
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Chilaka CA, Obidiegwu JE, Chilaka AC, Atanda OO, Mally A. Mycotoxin Regulatory Status in Africa: A Decade of Weak Institutional Efforts. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:442. [PMID: 35878180 PMCID: PMC9321388 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14070442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2022] [Revised: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Food safety problems are a major hindrance to achieving food security, trade, and healthy living in Africa. Fungi and their secondary metabolites, known as mycotoxins, represent an important concern in this regard. Attempts such as agricultural, storage, and processing practices, and creation of awareness to tackle the menace of fungi and mycotoxins have yielded measurable outcomes especially in developed countries, where there are comprehensive mycotoxin legislations and enforcement schemes. Conversely, most African countries do not have mycotoxin regulatory limits and even when available, are only applied for international trade. Factors such as food insecurity, public ignorance, climate change, poor infrastructure, poor research funding, incorrect prioritization of resources, and nonchalant attitudes that exist among governmental organisations and other stakeholders further complicate the situation. In the present review, we discuss the status of mycotoxin regulation in Africa, with emphasis on the impact of weak mycotoxin legislations and enforcement on African trade, agriculture, and health. Furthermore, we discuss the factors limiting the establishment and control of mycotoxins in the region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia Adaku Chilaka
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Julius Maximilian University of Würzburg, Versbacher Str. 9, 97078 Würzburg, Germany;
| | - Jude Ejikeme Obidiegwu
- National Root Crops Research Institute, Umudike, Km 8 Umuahia-Ikot Ekpene Road, Umuahia P.M.B. 7006, Abia State, Nigeria;
| | - Augusta Chinenye Chilaka
- Department of Nutrition and Forage Science, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umuahia P.M.B. 7267, Abia State, Nigeria;
| | | | - Angela Mally
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Julius Maximilian University of Würzburg, Versbacher Str. 9, 97078 Würzburg, Germany;
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Mohebbi A, Nemati M, Mogaddam MRA, Farajzadeh MA, Lotfipour F. Dispersive micro–solid–phase extraction of aflatoxins from commercial soy milk samples using a green vitamin–based metal–organic framework as an efficient sorbent followed by high performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry determination. J Chromatogr A 2022; 1673:463099. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2022.463099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Validation and Application of a Low-Cost Sorting Device for Fumonisin Reduction in Maize. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13090652. [PMID: 34564655 PMCID: PMC8473030 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13090652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Fumonisin mycotoxins are a persistent challenge to human and livestock health in tropical and sub-tropical maize cropping systems, and more efficient methods are needed to reduce their presence in food systems. We constructed a novel, low-cost device for sorting grain, the “DropSort”, and tested its effectiveness on both plastic kernel models and fumonisin-contaminated maize. Sorting plastic kernels of known size and shape enabled us to optimize the sorting performance of the DropSort. The device sorted maize into three distinct fractions as measured by bulk density and 100-kernel weight. The level of fumonisin was lower in the heaviest fractions of maize compared to the unsorted samples. Based on correlations among fumonisin and bulk characteristics of each fraction, we found that light fraction 100-kernel weight could be an inexpensive proxy for unsorted fumonisin concentration. Single kernel analysis revealed significant relationships among kernel fumonisin content and physical characteristics that could prove useful for future sorting efforts. The availability of a low-cost device (materials~USD 300) that can be used to reduce fumonisin in maize could improve food safety in resource-limited contexts in which fumonisin contamination remains a pressing challenge.
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Dzikunoo J, Letsyo E, Adams Z, Asante-Donyinah D, Dzah CS. Ghana's indigenous food technology: A review of the processing, safety, packaging techniques and advances in food science and technology. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Kimanya ME, Routledge MN, Mpolya E, Ezekiel CN, Shirima CP, Gong YY. Estimating the risk of aflatoxin-induced liver cancer in Tanzania based on biomarker data. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0247281. [PMID: 33705417 PMCID: PMC7951873 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0247281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Evidence about the magnitude of the aflatoxin menace can help policy makers appreciate the importance of the problem and strengthen policies to support aflatoxin mitigation measures. In this study, we estimated aflatoxin-induced liver cancer risk in 2016 for Tanzania and used the information to estimate the health burden due to the aflatoxin exposure in the country. The burden of aflatoxin-induced liver cancer was assessed based on available aflatoxin biomarker data from a previous epidemiology study, hepatitis B virus infection prevalence and population size of Tanzania in 2016. The health burden due to aflatoxin-induced liver cancer was estimated using disability adjusted life years (DALYs). The aflatoxin exposures ranged from 15.0-10,926.0 ng/kg bw/day (median, 105.5 ng/kg bw/day). We estimated that in 2016 there were about 1,480 (2.95 per 100,000 persons) new cases of aflatoxin-induced liver cancer in Tanzania and assumed all of them would die within a year. These morbidity and mortality rates led to a total loss of about 56,247.63 DALYs. These results show, quantitatively, the cases of liver cancer and related deaths that could be avoided, and the healthy life years that could be saved, annually, by strengthening measures to control aflatoxin contamination in Tanzania.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin E. Kimanya
- School of Life Sciences and Bioengineering, Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Arusha, Arusha Region, United Republic of Tanzania
| | - Michael N. Routledge
- School of Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Emmanuel Mpolya
- School of Life Sciences and Bioengineering, Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Arusha, Arusha Region, United Republic of Tanzania
| | - Chibundu N. Ezekiel
- Department of Microbiology, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria
| | - Candida P. Shirima
- Tanzania Bureau of Standards, Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam Region, United Republic of Tanzania
| | - Yun Yun Gong
- School of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
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Temba BA, Darnell RE, Gichangi A, Lwezaura D, Pardey PG, Harvey JJ, Karanja J, Massomo SMS, Ota N, Wainaina JM, Fletcher MT, Kriticos DJ. The Influence of Weather on the Occurrence of Aflatoxin B1 in Harvested Maize from Kenya and Tanzania. Foods 2021; 10:foods10020216. [PMID: 33494323 PMCID: PMC7911846 DOI: 10.3390/foods10020216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A study was conducted using maize samples collected from different agroecological zones of Kenya (n = 471) and Tanzania (n = 100) during the 2013 maize harvest season to estimate a relationship between aflatoxin B1 concentration and occurrence with weather conditions during the growing season. The toxins were analysed by the ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method. Aflatoxin B1 incidence ranged between 0-100% of samples in different regions with an average value of 29.4% and aflatoxin concentrations of up to 6075 µg/kg recorded in one sample. Several regression techniques were explored. Random forests achieved the highest overall accuracy of 80%, while the accuracy of a logistic regression model was 65%. Low rainfall occurring during the early stage of the maize plant maturing combined with high temperatures leading up to full maturity provide warning signs of aflatoxin contamination. Risk maps for the two countries for the 2013 season were generated using both random forests and logistic regression models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benigni A. Temba
- College of Veterinary and Medical Sciences, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3000, Morogoro, Tanzania;
- Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Health and Food Sciences Precinct, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia;
| | - Ross E. Darnell
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, GPO Box 2583, Brisbane, QLD 4001, Australia
- Correspondence:
| | - Anne Gichangi
- Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, P.O. Box 57811, Nairobi 00200, Kenya; (A.G.); (J.K.)
| | - Deogratias Lwezaura
- Tanzania Agricultural Research Institute, Arusha Road, P.O. Box 1571, Dodoma, Tanzania;
| | - Philip G. Pardey
- Department of Applied Economics, University of Minnesota, 1994 Buford Ave, 248 Ruttan Hall, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA;
| | - Jagger J. Harvey
- Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA;
| | - James Karanja
- Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, P.O. Box 57811, Nairobi 00200, Kenya; (A.G.); (J.K.)
| | - Said M. S. Massomo
- Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, Technology and Environmental Studies, The Open University of Tanzania, P.O. Box 23409, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania;
| | - Noboru Ota
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, GPO Box 100, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia; (N.O.); (D.J.K.)
| | - James M. Wainaina
- Department of Microbiology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43201, USA;
| | - Mary T. Fletcher
- Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Health and Food Sciences Precinct, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia;
| | - Darren J. Kriticos
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, GPO Box 100, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia; (N.O.); (D.J.K.)
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Massomo SM. Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxin contamination in the maize value chain and what needs to be done in Tanzania. SCIENTIFIC AFRICAN 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.sciaf.2020.e00606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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Detection of Total Aflatoxins in Groundnut and Soybean Samples in Yemen Using Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay. J FOOD QUALITY 2019. [DOI: 10.1155/2019/1614502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Aflatoxins are fungal toxins that have mutagenic and carcinogenic effects, especially hepatocellular carcinoma effect. This work aimed to investigate the presence of aflatoxins in groundnuts and soybeans that are consumed in Yemen. The samples were collected from three different regions in Yemen (Sana’a, al-Hodeida, and Aden), and they were divided into two groups. The concentration of total aflatoxins was analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Aflatoxins were determined in 89 groundnut and 65 soybean samples. The results showed that 85.39% (76/89) of groundnut and 72.3% (45/65) of soybean samples were contaminated with aflatoxins. In addition, in 49.44% and 27.6% of the groundnut and soybean samples, total aflatoxins exceed the acceptable level of European Commission (4 μg/kg), while in only 6.2% of soybean samples and 22.47% of groundnut samples, total aflatoxins were beyond the maximum limit of FDA/Yemen standards (20 μg/kg). The results showed that the aflatoxin contamination in the groundnut and soybean samples may be considered a significant risk for public health. The present study is the first to report the data on the presence of aflatoxins in groundnut and soybean samples in Yemen.
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Mousavi Khaneghah A, Eş I, Raeisi S, Fakhri Y. Aflatoxins in cereals: State of the art. J Food Saf 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/jfs.12532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Amin Mousavi Khaneghah
- Faculty of Food Engineering, Department of Food ScienceUniversity of Campinas (UNICAMP) Monteiro Lobato São Paulo Brazil
| | - Ismail Eş
- Department of Material and Bioprocess Engineering, School of Chemical EngineeringUniversity of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas São Paulo Brazil
| | - Susan Raeisi
- Department of Food Science and Technology, College of AgricultureUrmia University Urmia Iran
| | - Yadolah Fakhri
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Student Research CommitteeSchool of Public Health, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences Tehran Iran
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Ezekiel CN, Oyeyemi OT, Oyedele OA, Ayeni KI, Oyeyemi IT, Nabofa W, Nwozichi CU, Dada A. Urinary aflatoxin exposure monitoring in rural and semi-urban populations in Ogun state, Nigeria. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2018; 35:1565-1572. [PMID: 29843566 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2018.1475752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Aflatoxins are a major class of fungal toxins that have food safety importance due to their economic and health impacts. This pilot aflatoxin exposure biomonitoring study on 84 individuals was conducted in a rural (Ilumafon) and a semi-urban community (Ilishan Remo) of Ogun state, Nigeria, to compare aflatoxin exposures among the two population cohorts. First morning urine samples were obtained from the participants, and the urinary aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) levels were measured by a quantitative Helica Biosystems Inc. ELISA kit assay. About 99% (83 out of 84) of the urine samples had detectable AFM1 levels in the range of 0.06 to 0.51 ng mL-1 (median: 0.27 ng mL-1). The mean urinary AFM1 levels were significantly (p = 0.001) higher in the semi-urban population (0.31 ± 0.09 ng mL-1) compared to the rural population (0.24 ± 0.07 ng mL-1). There were, however, no significant differences in mean urinary AFM1 levels of males and females, and among children, adolescents and adults. This study indicates high aflatoxin exposure to the extent of public health concerns in the studied populations. Thus, more efforts are required for aflatoxin exposure monitoring and control in high-risk regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chibundu N Ezekiel
- a Department of Microbiology , Babcock University , Ilishan Remo , Ogun State , Nigeria
| | - Oyetunde T Oyeyemi
- b Department of Basic Sciences , Babcock University , Ilishan Remo , Nigeria
| | | | - Kolawole I Ayeni
- a Department of Microbiology , Babcock University , Ilishan Remo , Ogun State , Nigeria
| | - Ifeoluwa T Oyeyemi
- c Department of Biological Sciences , University of Medical Sciences , Ondo , Nigeria
| | - Williams Nabofa
- d Department of Physiology, Benjamin Carson (Senior) School of Medicine , Babcock University , Ilishan Remo , Nigeria
| | - Chinomso U Nwozichi
- e Department of Adult Health Nursing, School of Nursing , Babcock University , Ilishan Remo , Nigeria
| | - Adeyemi Dada
- f Department of Chemical Pathology , Lagos State University Teaching Hospital , Ikeja , Nigeria
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Abstract
Aflatoxins are widely recognised as important natural contaminants of a wide range of foods, including maize and peanuts (groundnuts), which form part of the staple diet in many countries of the developing world, especially in Africa. There is a frequent misconception based on solubility considerations and developed market surveys that aflatoxins do not occur in peanut oil. Thus, the use of peanut oil in human food is frequently overlooked as a source of aflatoxin exposure, yet artisanal oil extraction from contaminated peanuts in local facilities in the developing world results in carryover of these mycotoxins into the oil. Consequently, these peanut oils can have high contamination levels. This review highlights food safety concerns and addresses inter alia the analytical adaptations required to determine the polar aflatoxins in peanut oil. The determination of aflatoxins in peanut oil was first achieved by thin-layer chromatography, which was later mostly superseded by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detection, or later, by mass spectrometric detection. More recently, a specially modified HPLC method with immunoaffinity column clean-up and fluorescence detection has achieved official method status at AOAC International. In addition, the review deals with toxicology, occurrence and detoxification of contaminated oil. Although various methods have been reported for detoxification of peanut oil, the toxicity of degradation products, the removal of beneficial constituents and the effect on its organoleptic properties need to be considered. This review is intended to draw attention to this often overlooked area of food safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- G.S. Shephard
- Mycotoxicology and Chemoprevention Research Group, Institute of Biomedical and Microbial Biotechnology, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, P.O. Box 1906, Bellville 7535, South Africa
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On-Farm Demonstrations with a Set of Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) Proved Cost-Effective in Reducing Pre-Harvest Aflatoxin Contamination in Groundnut. AGRONOMY-BASEL 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/agronomy8020010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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16
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Abdel-Latif MS, Elmeleigy KM, Aly TAA, Khattab MS, Mohamed SM. Pathological and biochemical evaluation of coumarin and chlorophyllin against aflatoxicosis in rat. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 69:285-291. [PMID: 28190563 DOI: 10.1016/j.etp.2017.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Accepted: 01/31/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Aflatoxin contamination of animal diet has adverse effects on animal health and productivity. This study was performed to investigate the effect of using coumarin and/or chlorophyllin in rat diet against aflatoxicosis. Fifty-four rats were assigned into 7 groups (6 rats each). G1 was a negative control. G2 received water with coumarin 0.5%. G3 received water with chlorophyllin 0.5%. G4 received water with coumarin 0.5% and chlorophyllin 0.5%. G5-8 fed aflatoxin B1 1000ppb in diet. Group 6-8 were administered similar treatments as G2-4. The experiment ended after 8 weeks. Random glucose, total lipid, total cholesterol, total triglycerides, total protein, serum ALT, AST, creatinine, and urea were measured. Histopathology of liver, kidney and pancreas and immunohistochemical staining of placental glutathione-S-transferase (GST-P) in liver were performed. The glucose serum level, cholesterol, AST, and ALT were elevated in G5 compared to G6-8. The liver and kidney lesions in G5 included vacuolation and necrosis which subsided in G6-8. The necrosis and inflammatory cells infiltration in the pancreas of G5 were absent in G6-8. GST-P positive hepatocytes were abundant in G5, few in G6 and absent in G7 and G8. In conclusion, the chlorophyllin and coumarin possessed protective and anti-carcinogenic effect against aflatoxicosis in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Khaled M Elmeleigy
- Regional Center For Food and Feed, Agriculture Research Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Giza, Egypt
| | - Tahany A A Aly
- Regional Center For Food and Feed, Agriculture Research Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Giza, Egypt
| | - Marwa S Khattab
- Pathology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza Square, Giza, 12211, Egypt.
| | - Sara M Mohamed
- Regional Center For Food and Feed, Agriculture Research Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Giza, Egypt
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Anza-vhudziki M, Ilunga K, Maggy NBM. Nanoscale development and its application in multidisciplinary area: An African perspective. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.5897/ajb2016.15254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
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18
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Bandyopadhyay R, Ortega-Beltran A, Akande A, Mutegi C, Atehnkeng J, Kaptoge L, Senghor A, Adhikari B, Cotty P. Biological control of aflatoxins in Africa: current status and potential challenges in the face of climate change. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2016. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2016.2130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Aflatoxin contamination of crops is frequent in warm regions across the globe, including large areas in sub-Saharan Africa. Crop contamination with these dangerous toxins transcends health, food security, and trade sectors. It cuts across the value chain, affecting farmers, traders, markets, and finally consumers. Diverse fungi within Aspergillus section Flavi contaminate crops with aflatoxins. Within these Aspergillus communities, several genotypes are not capable of producing aflatoxins (atoxigenic). Carefully selected atoxigenic genotypes in biological control (biocontrol) formulations efficiently reduce aflatoxin contamination of crops when applied prior to flowering in the field. This safe and environmentally friendly, effective technology was pioneered in the US, where well over a million acres of susceptible crops are treated annually. The technology has been improved for use in sub-Saharan Africa, where efforts are under way to develop biocontrol products, under the trade name Aflasafe, for 11 African nations. The number of participating nations is expected to increase. In parallel, state of the art technology has been developed for large-scale inexpensive manufacture of Aflasafe products under the conditions present in many African nations. Results to date indicate that all Aflasafe products, registered and under experimental use, reduce aflatoxin concentrations in treated crops by >80% in comparison to untreated crops in both field and storage conditions. Benefits of aflatoxin biocontrol technologies are discussed along with potential challenges, including climate change, likely to be faced during the scaling-up of Aflasafe products. Lastly, we respond to several apprehensions expressed in the literature about the use of atoxigenic genotypes in biocontrol formulations. These responses relate to the following apprehensions: sorghum as carrier, distribution costs, aflatoxin-conscious markets, efficacy during drought, post-harvest benefits, risk of allergies and/or aspergillosis, influence of Aflasafe on other mycotoxins and on soil microenvironment, dynamics of Aspergillus genotypes, and recombination between atoxigenic and toxigenic genotypes in natural conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. Bandyopadhyay
- International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), PMB 5320, Oyo Road, 200001 Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - A. Ortega-Beltran
- International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), PMB 5320, Oyo Road, 200001 Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - A. Akande
- IITA, PMB 82, Garki GPO, Kubwa, Abuja, Nigeria
| | - C. Mutegi
- IITA, ILRI campus, P.O. Box 30772-00100, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - J. Atehnkeng
- IITA, Chitedze Research Station, Off Mchinji Road, P.O. Box 30258, Lilongwe 3, Malawi
| | - L. Kaptoge
- International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), PMB 5320, Oyo Road, 200001 Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - A.L. Senghor
- La Direction de la Protection des Végétaux (DPV), Km 15, Route de Rufisque, en face Forail, BP 20054, Thiaroye-Dakar, Senegal
| | - B.N. Adhikari
- USDA-ARS, School of Plant Sciences, University of Arizona, P.O. Box 210036, Tucson, AZ 85721-0036, USA
| | - P.J. Cotty
- USDA-ARS, School of Plant Sciences, University of Arizona, P.O. Box 210036, Tucson, AZ 85721-0036, USA
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Falade TDO, Syed Mohdhamdan SH, Sultanbawa Y, Fletcher MT, Harvey JJW, Chaliha M, Fox GP. In vitro experimental environments lacking or containing soil disparately affect competition experiments of Aspergillus flavus and co-occurring fungi in maize grains. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2016; 33:1241-53. [PMID: 27264786 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2016.1198048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
In vitro experimental environments are used to study interactions between microorganisms, and to predict dynamics in natural ecosystems. This study highlights that experimental in vitro environments should be selected to match closely the natural environment of interest during in vitro studies to strengthen extrapolations about aflatoxin production by Aspergillus and competing organisms. Fungal competition and aflatoxin accumulation were studied in soil, cotton wool or tube (water-only) environments, for Aspergillus flavus competition with Penicillium purpurogenum, Fusarium oxysporum or Sarocladium zeae within maize grains. Inoculated grains were incubated in each environment at two temperature regimes (25 and 30°C). Competition experiments showed interaction between the main effects of aflatoxin accumulation and the environment at 25°C, but not so at 30°C. However, competition experiments showed fungal populations were always interacting with their environments. Fungal survival differed after the 72-h incubation in different experimental environments. Whereas all fungi incubated within the soil environment survived, in the cotton wool environment none of the competitors of A. flavus survived at 30°C. With aflatoxin accumulation, F. oxysporum was the only fungus able to interdict aflatoxin production at both temperatures. This occurred only in the soil environment and fumonisins accumulated instead. Smallholder farmers in developing countries face serious mycotoxin contamination of their grains, and soil is a natural reservoir for the associated fungal propagules, and a drying and storage surface for grains on these farms. Studying fungal dynamics in the soil environment and other environments in vitro can provide insights into aflatoxin accumulation post-harvest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Titilayo D O Falade
- a Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation , University of Queensland , Brisbane , QLD , Australia
| | | | - Yasmina Sultanbawa
- a Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation , University of Queensland , Brisbane , QLD , Australia
| | - Mary T Fletcher
- a Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation , University of Queensland , Brisbane , QLD , Australia
| | - Jagger J W Harvey
- a Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation , University of Queensland , Brisbane , QLD , Australia.,c Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa , International Livestock Research Institute Hub , Nairobi , Kenya
| | - Mridusmita Chaliha
- d Department of Agriculture , Fisheries and Forestry , Brisbane , QLD , Australia
| | - Glen P Fox
- a Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation , University of Queensland , Brisbane , QLD , Australia
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Mngqawa P, Shephard G, Green I, Ngobeni S, de Rijk T, Katerere D. Mycotoxin contamination of home-grown maize in rural northern South Africa (Limpopo and Mpumalanga Provinces). FOOD ADDITIVES & CONTAMINANTS PART B-SURVEILLANCE 2015; 9:38-45. [DOI: 10.1080/19393210.2015.1121928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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21
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22
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C. Menza N, Margaret MW, M. Lucy K. Incidence, Types and Levels of Aflatoxin in Different Peanuts Varieties Produced in Busia and Kisii Central Districts, Kenya. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.4236/ojmm.2015.54026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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23
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Matumba L, Monjerezi M, Biswick T, Mwatseteza J, Makumba W, Kamangira D, Mtukuso A. A survey of the incidence and level of aflatoxin contamination in a range of locally and imported processed foods on Malawian retail market. Food Control 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.09.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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24
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Wagara I, Matasyoh J, Nakavuma J. Isolation of Mycotoxigenic Moulds Contaminating Maize and Groundnuts in Selected Districts of Kenya. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.3923/jm.2014.177.188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Probst C, Bandyopadhyay R, Cotty P. Diversity of aflatoxin-producing fungi and their impact on food safety in sub-Saharan Africa. Int J Food Microbiol 2014; 174:113-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2013] [Revised: 11/21/2013] [Accepted: 12/02/2013] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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26
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Ezekiel C, Adetunji M, Atanda O, Frisvad J, Houbraken J, Samson R. Phenotypic differentiation of species from Aspergillus section Flavi on neutral red desiccated coconut agar. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2014. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2014.1727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In order to facilitate easy and rapid identification of aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus species, the phenotypic traits of Aspergillus section Flavi isolates were examined on neutral red desiccated coconut agar (NRDCA). Phenotype variations in colony morphology and the relationship between colour/intensity of fluorescence and aflatoxin production were assessed. The isolates included 10 Aspergillus minisclerotigenes strains, 11 non-aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus L strains, 29 aflatoxigenic A. flavus L strains and 20 strains each of Aspergillus parasiticus and Aspergillus parvisclerotigenus. The NRDCA medium supported morphological differentiation of the four species based on colony features, conidia type and colour. In particular, the two very closely related minisclerotial species, A. minisclerotigenes and A. parvisclerotigenus, were clearly differentiated by their colony colour on NRDCA. All toxigenic isolates produced aflatoxins in the culture medium in varying quantities. Plates of aflatoxigenic A. flavus L strains fluoresced bluish purple/lavender around the colony on the obverse and pastel blue on the reverse side due to aflatoxin B production while those of A. minisclerotigenes, A. parasiticus and A. parvisclerotigenus fluoresced with a light blue or light turquoise ring around the colony on the obverse and light sky blue or cadet blue on the reverse side depending on the amount of aflatoxin B and G produced. The colour of fluorescence significantly correlated (r=0.95, P=0.001) with the type(s) of aflatoxins produced by the isolates. In addition, the concentration of aflatoxins significantly (r=0.92; P=0.001) influenced the intensity of fluorescence in the aflatoxin-producing species. NRDCA can therefore be used for the rapid identification of Aspergillus section Flavi species based on colonial characteristics, and grouping of species into B and B+G aflatoxin producers within 5 days thus obviating the need for chemical analysis of the culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- C.N. Ezekiel
- Mycology/Mycotoxicology Research Unit, Department of Biosciences and Biotechnology, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria
| | - M.C. Adetunji
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, P.M.B 2240, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria
| | - O.O. Atanda
- Department of Biological Sciences, McPherson University, Km 96, Lagos-Ibadan Expressway, Seriki-Sotayo, Ogun State, Nigeria
| | - J.C. Frisvad
- Center for Microbial Biotechnology, Department of Systems Biology, Building 221, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kings Lyngby, Denmark
| | - J. Houbraken
- CBS-KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Uppsalalaan 8, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - R.A. Samson
- CBS-KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Uppsalalaan 8, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands
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27
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Aflatoxins contamination in peanut and peanut products commercially available in retail markets of Punjab, Pakistan. Food Control 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2012.11.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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28
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29
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Warth B, Parich A, Atehnkeng J, Bandyopadhyay R, Schuhmacher R, Sulyok M, Krska R. Quantitation of mycotoxins in food and feed from Burkina Faso and Mozambique using a modern LC-MS/MS multitoxin method. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2012; 60:9352-9363. [PMID: 22835072 DOI: 10.1021/jf302003n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
In this study an LC-MS/MS multitoxin method covering a total of 247 fungal and bacterial metabolites was applied to the analysis of different foods and feedstuffs from Burkina Faso and Mozambique. Overall, 63 metabolites were determined in 122 samples of mainly maize and groundnuts and a few samples of sorghum, millet, rice, wheat, soy, dried fruits, other processed foods and animal feeds. Aflatoxin B(1) was observed more frequently in maize (Burkina Faso, 50% incidence, median = 23.6 μg/kg; Mozambique, 46% incidence, median = 69.9 μg/kg) than in groundnuts (Burkina Faso, 22% incidence, median = 10.5 μg/kg; Mozambique, 14% incidence, median = 3.4 μg/kg). Fumonisin B(1) concentrations in maize were higher in Mozambique (92% incidence, median = 869 μg/kg) than in Burkina Faso (81% incidence, median = 269 μg/kg). In addition, ochratoxin A, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, and other less reported mycotoxins such as citrinin, alternariol, cyclopiazonic acid, sterigmatocystin, moniliformin, beauvericin, and enniatins were detected. Up to 28 toxic fungal metabolites were quantitated in a single sample, emphasizing the great variety of mycotoxin coexposure. Most mycotoxins have not been reported before in either country.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedikt Warth
- Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Austria
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Piekkola S, Turner PC, Abdel-Hamid M, Ezzat S, El-Daly M, El-Kafrawy S, Savchenko E, Poussa T, Woo JCS, Mykkänen H, El-Nezami H. Characterisation of aflatoxin and deoxynivalenol exposure among pregnant Egyptian women. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2012; 29:962-71. [PMID: 22376138 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2012.658442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins such as the aflatoxins and deoxynivalenol (DON) are frequent contaminants of food. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and DON affect the immune system and restrict growth; additionally AFB1 is carcinogenic. To date there are limited descriptive biomarker data concerning maternal exposures during pregnancy, and none on co-exposures to these mycotoxins. This survey was a cross-sectional assessment providing descriptive data on the concentrations of serum aflatoxin-albumin (AF-alb), urinary aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), and urinary DON for 98 pregnant women from Egypt, in relation to diet and socioeconomic status, during the third trimester. AF-alb was detected in 34 of 98 (35%) samples, geometric mean (GM) of positives = 4.9 pg AF-lys mg(-1) albumin (95% confidence interval (CI) = 4.1-5.8 pg mg(-1)), and AFM1 in 44 of 93 (48%) samples, GM of positives = 19.7 pg mg(-1) creatinine (95%CI = 14.8-26.3 pg mg(-1)). AF-alb and AFM1 levels were positively correlated (R = 0.276, p = 0.007). DON was detected in 63 of 93 (68%), GM of positives = 2.8 ng mg(-1) (95%CI = 2.1-3.6 ng mg(-1)). Aflatoxin and DON biomarkers were observed in 41% of the subjects concurrently. The frequency and level of these biomarkers in Egyptian women were modest compared with known high-risk countries. However, this study represents the first biomarker survey to report on the occurrence of DON biomarkers in an African population, in addition to the co-occurrence of these two potent mycotoxins. This combined exposure may be of particular concern during pregnancy given the potential of toxin transfer to the foetus.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Piekkola
- Food and Health Research Centre, Department of Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Public Health and Clinical Nutrition, University of Eastern Finland, PO Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland
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31
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Natural occurrence of Aflatoxin B1 in peanut collected from Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo. Food Control 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2011.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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32
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van der Westhuizen L, Shephard G, Rheeder J, Burger HM, Gelderblom W, Wild C, Gong Y. Optimising sorting and washing of home-grown maize to reduce fumonisin contamination under laboratory-controlled conditions. Food Control 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2010.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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33
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Matumba L, Monjerezi M, Khonga EB, Lakudzala DD. Aflatoxins in sorghum, sorghum malt and traditional opaque beer in southern Malawi. Food Control 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2010.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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34
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Bankole SA, Schollenberger M, Drochner W. Survey of ergosterol, zearalenone and trichothecene contamination in maize from Nigeria. J Food Compost Anal 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfca.2010.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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35
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Liu Y, Wu F. Global burden of aflatoxin-induced hepatocellular carcinoma: a risk assessment. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2010; 118:818-24. [PMID: 20172840 PMCID: PMC2898859 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.0901388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 636] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2009] [Accepted: 02/19/2010] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), or liver cancer, is the third leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide, with prevalence 16-32 times higher in developing countries than in developed countries. Aflatoxin, a contaminant produced by the fungi Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus in maize and nuts, is a known human liver carcinogen. OBJECTIVES We sought to determine the global burden of HCC attributable to aflatoxin exposure. METHODS We conducted a quantitative cancer risk assessment, for which we collected global data on food-borne aflatoxin levels, consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated foods, and hepatitis B virus (HBV) prevalence. We calculated the cancer potency of aflatoxin for HBV-postive and HBV-negative individuals, as well as the uncertainty in all variables, to estimate the global burden of aflatoxin-related HCC. RESULTS Of the 550,000-600,000 new HCC cases worldwide each year, about 25,200-155,000 may be attributable to aflatoxin exposure. Most cases occur in sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, and China where populations suffer from both high HBV prevalence and largely uncontrolled aflatoxin exposure in food. CONCLUSIONS Aflatoxin may play a causative role in 4.6-28.2% of all global HCC cases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Felicia Wu
- Address correspondence to F. Wu, Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, 100 Technology Dr., Rm 560, Pittsburgh, PA 15219 USA. Telephone: (412) 624-1306. Fax: (412) 624-3040. E-mail:
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36
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Kimanya ME, De Meulenaer B, Tiisekwa B, Ndomondo-Sigonda M, Devlieghere F, Van Camp J, Kolsteren P. Co-occurrence of fumonisins with aflatoxins in home-stored maize for human consumption in rural villages of Tanzania. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2010; 25:1353-64. [PMID: 19680843 DOI: 10.1080/02652030802112601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
This study determined maize-user practices that influence the presence of fumonisin and aflatoxin contamination of maize in food consumed in the rural areas of Tanzania. Samples of the 2005 maize harvest in Tanzania were collected from 120 households and examined for fumonisins and aflatoxins. Information on whether the maize was sorted to remove defective (visibly damaged or mouldy) maize before storage and whether the damaged and mouldy maize or the non-dehulled maize was used as food was also collected. In addition, the percentage of defective kernels in the samples was determined. Ninety per cent of the households sorted out defective maize, 45% consumed the defective maize and 30% consumed non-dehulled maize. In 52% of the samples fumonisins were determined at levels up to 11,048 microg kg(-1) (median = 363 microg kg(-1)) and in 15% exceeded 1000 microg kg(-1); the maximum tolerable limit (MTL) for fumonisins in maize for human consumption in other countries. Aflatoxins were detected in 18% of the samples at levels up to 158 microg kg(-1) (median = 24 microg kg(-1)). Twelve per cent of the samples exceeded the Tanzanian limit for total aflatoxins (10 microg kg(-1)). Aflatoxins co-occurred with fumonisins in 10% of the samples. The percentage defective kernels (mean = 22%) correlated positively (r = 0.39) with the fumonisin levels. Tanzanians are at a risk of exposure to fumonisins and aflatoxins in maize. There is a need for further research on fumonisin and aflatoxin exposure in Tanzania to develop appropriate control strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Kimanya
- Tanzania Food and Drugs Authority, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
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37
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Probst C, Schulthess F, Cotty PJ. Impact of Aspergillus section Flavi community structure on the development of lethal levels of aflatoxins in Kenyan maize (Zea mays). J Appl Microbiol 2009; 108:600-10. [PMID: 19674186 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2009.04458.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To evaluate the potential role of fungal community structure in predisposing Kenyan maize to severe aflatoxin contamination by contrasting aflatoxin-producing fungi resident in the region with repeated outbreaks of lethal aflatoxicosis to those in regions without a history of aflatoxicosis. METHODS AND RESULTS Fungi belonging to Aspergillus section Flavi were isolated from maize samples from three Kenyan provinces between 2004 and 2006. Frequencies of identified strains and aflatoxin-producing abilities were assessed, and the data were analysed by statistical means. Most aflatoxin-producing fungi belonged to Aspergillus flavus. The two major morphotypes of A. flavus varied greatly between provinces, with the S strain dominant in both soil and maize within aflatoxicosis outbreak regions and the L strain dominant in nonoutbreak regions. CONCLUSIONS Aspergillus community structure is an important factor in the development of aflatoxins in maize in Kenya and, as such, is a major contributor to the development of aflatoxicosis in the Eastern Province. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Since 1982, deaths caused by aflatoxin-contaminated maize have repeatedly occurred in the Eastern Province of Kenya. The current study characterized an unusual fungal community structure associated with the lethal contamination events. The results will be helpful in developing aflatoxin management practices to prevent future outbreaks in Kenya.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Probst
- Department of Plant Sciences, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
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38
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Shephard GS. Aflatoxin analysis at the beginning of the twenty-first century. Anal Bioanal Chem 2009; 395:1215-24. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-009-2857-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2009] [Revised: 05/15/2009] [Accepted: 05/19/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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39
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Shephard GS. Risk assessment of aflatoxins in food in Africa. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2008; 25:1246-56. [PMID: 18608489 DOI: 10.1080/02652030802036222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Aflatoxins are secondary metabolites of the fungi Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, occur widely on many staple foods and cause a broad range of detrimental health effects in animals and humans. As a consequence, maximum tolerated levels (MTLs) have been legislated in many countries. However, in developing countries where food safety compliance can be low and significant levels of the food supply are locally consumed by the producers or purchased at local markets, more comprehensive strategies are required. In this regard, risk analysis with its components of risk assessment, risk management and risk communication, is an important tool in dealing with food safety issues. Risk assessment for aflatoxin B(1) in Africa has been performed using the carcinogenic potency, established by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) and applying it to typical food products and consumption across the continent, to illustrate the significant health implications caused by the intake of high levels of contaminated foods. Highlighted in this assessment is the fact that even low levels of contamination, which might of themselves fall within legislated limits, can have serious health implications due to high levels of consumption, i.e. meeting a MTL does not of itself guarantee food safety. Recent developments have highlighted the growth retardation and immune suppression caused by aflatoxin exposure in human populations in west Africa. Using the limited data available on both these health effects, a first step has been taken to incorporate them into a risk assessment paradigm quantifying the risk of immunosuppression, malnutrition and stunting in children exposed to aflatoxins and highlighting again how excessive consumption of foods meeting MTLs can carry significant health risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gordon S Shephard
- PROMEC Unit, Medical Research Council, Tygerberg 7505, South Africa.
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40
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Phillips TD, Afriyie-Gyawu E, Williams J, Huebner H, Ankrah NA, Ofori-Adjei D, Jolly P, Johnson N, Taylor J, Marroquin-Cardona A, Xu L, Tang L, Wang JS. Reducing human exposure to aflatoxin through the use of clay: a review. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2008; 25:134-45. [PMID: 18286403 DOI: 10.1080/02652030701567467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Innovative sorption strategies for the detoxification of aflatoxins have been developed. NovaSil clay (NS) has been shown to prevent aflatoxicosis in a variety of animals when included in their diet. Results have shown that NS clay binds aflatoxins with high affinity and high capacity in the gastrointestinal tract, resulting in a notable reduction in the bioavailability of these toxins without interfering with the utilization of vitamins and other micronutrients. This strategy is being evaluated as a potential remedy for acute aflatoxicosis, and as a sustainable human intervention for aflatoxins via the diet. Phase I and II clinical trials confirmed the apparent safety of NS for further study in humans. A recent study in Ghanaians at high risk for aflatoxicosis has indicated that NS (at a dose level of 0.25%) is effective in decreasing biomarkers of aflatoxin exposure and does not interfere with the levels of serum vitamins A and E, and iron and zinc. In summary, enterosorption strategies/therapies based on NS clay are promising for the management of aflatoxins and as a sustainable public health intervention. The NS clay remedy is novel, inexpensive and easily disseminated. Based on the present research, aflatoxin sequestering clays should be rigorously evaluated in vitro and in vivo, and should meet the following criteria: (1) favourable thermodynamic characteristics of mycotoxin sorption, (2) tolerable levels of priority metals, dioxins/furans and other hazardous contaminants, (3) safety and efficacy in multiple animal species, (4) safety and efficacy in long-term studies, and (5) negligible interactions with vitamins, iron and zinc and other micronutrients.
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Affiliation(s)
- T D Phillips
- Department of VIBS-MS 4458, Texas A&M University, Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College Station, TX 77843, USA.
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Jørgensen TR. Identification and toxigenic potential of the industrially important fungi, Aspergillus oryzae and Aspergillus sojae. J Food Prot 2007; 70:2916-34. [PMID: 18095455 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x-70.12.2916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Mold strains belonging to the species Aspergillus oryzae and Aspergillus sojae are highly valued as koji molds in the traditional preparation of fermented foods, such as miso, sake, and shoyu, and as protein production hosts in modern industrial processes. A. oryzae and A. sojae are relatives of the wild molds Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. All four species are classified to the A. flavus group. Strains of the A. flavus group are characterized by a high degree of morphological similarity. Koji mold species are generally perceived of as being nontoxigenic, whereas wild molds are associated with the carcinogenic aflatoxins. Thus, reliable identification of individual strains is very important for application purposes. This review considers the pheno- and genotypic markers used in the classification of A. flavus group strains and specifically in the identification of A. oryzae and A. sojae strains. Separation of A. oryzae and A. sojae from A. flavus and A. parasiticus, respectively, is inconsistent, and both morphologic and molecular evidence support conspecificity. The high degree of identity is reflected by the divergent identification of reference cultures maintained in culture collections. As close relatives of aflatoxin-producing wild molds, koji molds possess an aflatoxin gene homolog cluster. Some strains identified as A. oryzae and A. sojae have been implicated in aflatoxin production. Identification of a strain as A. oryzae or A. sojae is no guarantee of its inability to produce aflatoxins or other toxic metabolites. Toxigenic potential must be determined specifically for individual strains. The species taxa, A. oryzae and A. sojae, are currently conserved by societal issues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas R Jørgensen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, 5230 Odense M, Denmark.
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Dash B, Afriyie-Gyawu E, Huebner HJ, Porter W, Wang JS, Jolly PE, Phillips TD. Determinants of the variability of aflatoxin-albumin adduct levels in Ghanaians. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2007; 70:58-66. [PMID: 17162498 DOI: 10.1080/15287390600748880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a multifactorial disease with various host and environmental factors involved in its etiology. Of these, aflatoxin exposure has been established as an important risk factor in the development of HCC; the presence of aflatoxin-albumin (AA) adducts in the blood serves as a valuable biomarker of human exposure. In this study, the relationship between a variety of different HCC host factors and the incidence of AA adduct levels was examined in a Ghanaian population at high risk for HCC. These factors included age, gender, hepatitis virus B (HVB) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) status, and genetic polymorphisms in both microsomal epoxide hydrolase (mEH) and glutathione S-transferases (GSTs). Blood samples were analyzed for AA adducts and HBV and HCV status. GSTM1 and GSTT1 deletion polymorphisms and mEH exon 3 and exon 4 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were determined from urine samples. In univariate analysis, age, HBV and HVC status, and GSTT1 and mEH exon 3 genotypes were not associated with AA adduct levels. However, mean adduct levels were significantly higher in both females and individuals typed heterozygous for mEH exon 4 (vs. wild types). Stratification analysis also showed that gender along with mEH exon 4 genotype and HBV status had a significant effect on adduct levels. Both females typed HBsAg+ and males with mEH exon 4 heterozygote genotypes showed significantly higher adduct levels as compared to the HBsAg- and wild types, respectively. Understanding the relationships between these host factors and the variability in aflatoxin-adduct levels may help in identifying susceptible populations in developing countries and for targeting specific public health interventions for the prevention of aflatoxicoses in populations with HCC and chronic liver diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Dash
- Faculty of Toxicology, Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA
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