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Strong TA, Esquivel J, Wang Q, Ledon PJ, Wang H, Gaidosh G, Tse D, Pelaez D. Activation of multiple Eph receptors on neuronal membranes correlates with the onset of optic neuropathy. EYE AND VISION (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2023; 10:42. [PMID: 37779186 PMCID: PMC10544557 DOI: 10.1186/s40662-023-00359-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Optic neuropathy is a major cause of irreversible blindness, yet the molecular determinants that contribute to neuronal demise have not been fully elucidated. Several studies have identified 'ephrin signaling' as one of the most dysregulated pathways in the early pathophysiology of optic neuropathy with varied etiologies. Developmentally, gradients in ephrin signaling coordinate retinotopic mapping via repulsive modulation of cytoskeletal dynamics in neuronal membranes. Little is known about the role ephrin signaling plays in the post-natal visual system and its correlation with the onset of optic neuropathy. METHODS Postnatal mouse retinas were collected for mass spectrometry analysis for erythropoietin-producing human hepatocellular (Eph) receptors. Optic nerve crush (ONC) model was employed to induce optic neuropathy, and proteomic changes during the acute phase of neuropathic onset were analyzed. Confocal and super-resolution microscopy determined the cellular localization of activated Eph receptors after ONC injury. Eph receptor inhibitors assessed the neuroprotective effect of ephrin signaling modulation. RESULTS Mass spectrometry revealed expression of seven Eph receptors (EphA2, A4, A5, B1, B2, B3, and B6) in postnatal mouse retinal tissue. Immunoblotting analysis indicated a significant increase in phosphorylation of these Eph receptors 48 h after ONC. Confocal microscopy demonstrated the presence of both subclasses of Eph receptors within the retina. Stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM) super-resolution imaging combined with optimal transport colocalization analysis revealed a significant co-localization of activated Eph receptors with injured neuronal cells, compared to uninjured neuronal and/or injured glial cells, 48 h post-ONC. Eph receptor inhibitors displayed notable neuroprotective effects for retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) after six days of ONC injury. CONCLUSIONS Our findings demonstrate the functional presence of diverse Eph receptors in the postnatal mammalian retina, capable of modulating multiple biological processes. Pan-Eph receptor activation contributes to the onset of neuropathy in optic neuropathies, with preferential activation of Eph receptors on neuronal processes in the inner retina following optic nerve injury. Notably, Eph receptor activation precedes neuronal loss. We observed a neuroprotective effect on RGCs upon inhibiting Eph receptors. Our study highlights the importance of investigating this repulsive pathway in early optic neuropathies and provides a comprehensive characterization of the receptors present in the developed retina of mice, relevant to both homeostasis and disease processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas A Strong
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
- Dr. Nasser Al-Rashid Orbital Vision Research Center, Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1638 NW 10th Avenue, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, USA
| | - Juan Esquivel
- Department of Physics, University of Florida College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Qikai Wang
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
- Dr. Nasser Al-Rashid Orbital Vision Research Center, Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1638 NW 10th Avenue, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Paul J Ledon
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
- Dr. Nasser Al-Rashid Orbital Vision Research Center, Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1638 NW 10th Avenue, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Hua Wang
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
- Dr. Nasser Al-Rashid Orbital Vision Research Center, Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1638 NW 10th Avenue, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Gabriel Gaidosh
- Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - David Tse
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
- Dr. Nasser Al-Rashid Orbital Vision Research Center, Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1638 NW 10th Avenue, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Daniel Pelaez
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA.
- Dr. Nasser Al-Rashid Orbital Vision Research Center, Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1638 NW 10th Avenue, Miami, FL, 33136, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Miami College of Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA.
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, USA.
- Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA.
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Verma M, Chopra M, Kumar H. Unraveling the Potential of EphA4: A Breakthrough Target and Beacon of Hope for Neurological Diseases. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2023; 43:3375-3391. [PMID: 37477786 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-023-01390-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023]
Abstract
Erythropoietin-producing hepatocellular carcinoma A4 (EphA4) is a transmembrane receptor protein which is a part of the most prominent family of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). It serves a crucial role in both physiological, biological, and functional states binding with their ligand like Ephrins. Its abundance in the majority of the body's systems has been reported. Moreover, it draws much attention in the CNS since it influences axonal and vascular guidance. Also, it has a widespread role at the pathological state of various CNS disorders. Reports suggest it obstructs axonal regeneration in various neurodegenerative diseases and neurological disorders. Although, neuro-regeneration is still an open challenge to the modern drug discovery community. Hence, in this review, we will provide information about the role of EphA4 in neurological diseases by which it may emerge as a therapeutic target for CNS disease. We will also provide a glance at numerous signaling pathways that activate or inhibit the EphA4-associated biological processes contributing to the course of neurodegenerative diseases. Thus, this work might serve as a basis for futuristic studies that are related to the target-based drug discovery in the field of neuro-regeneration. Pathological and physiological events associated with EphA4 and Ephrin upregulation and interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meenal Verma
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Ahmedabad, Opposite Air Force Station, Palaj, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, 382355, India
| | - Manjeet Chopra
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Ahmedabad, Opposite Air Force Station, Palaj, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, 382355, India
| | - Hemant Kumar
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Ahmedabad, Opposite Air Force Station, Palaj, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, 382355, India.
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3
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Strong TA, Esquivel J, Wang Q, Ledon PJ, Wang H, Gaidosh G, Tse D, Pelaez D. Activation of Multiple Eph Receptors on Neuronal Membranes Correlates with The Onset of Traumatic Optic Neuropathy. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.06.05.543735. [PMID: 37333178 PMCID: PMC10274644 DOI: 10.1101/2023.06.05.543735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/20/2023]
Abstract
Background Optic neuropathy (ON) is a major cause of irreversible blindness, yet the molecular determinants that contribute to neuronal demise have not been fully elucidated. Several studies have identified 'ephrin signaling' as one of the most dysregulated pathways in the early pathophysiology of ON with varied etiologies. Developmentally, gradients in ephrin signaling coordinate retinotopic mapping via repulsive modulation of cytoskeletal dynamics in neuronal membranes. Little is known about the role ephrin signaling played in the post-natal visual system and its correlation with the onset of optic neuropathy. Methods Postnatal mouse retinas were collected for mass spectrometry analysis for Eph receptors. Optic nerve crush (ONC) model was employed to induce optic neuropathy, and proteomic changes during the acute phase of neuropathic onset were analyzed. Confocal and super-resolution microscopy determined the cellular localization of activated Eph receptors after ONC injury. Eph receptor inhibitors assessed the neuroprotective effect of ephrin signaling modulation. Results Mass spectrometry revealed expression of seven Eph receptors (EphA2, A4, A5, B1, B2, B3, and B6) in postnatal mouse retinal tissue. Immunoblotting analysis indicated a significant increase in phosphorylation of these Eph receptors 48 hours after ONC. Confocal microscopy demonstrated the presence of both subclasses of Eph receptors in the inner retinal layers. STORM super-resolution imaging combined with optimal transport colocalization analysis revealed a significant co-localization of activated Eph receptors with injured neuronal processes, compared to uninjured neuronal and/or injured glial cells, 48 hours post-ONC. Eph receptor inhibitors displayed notable neuroprotective effects after 6 days of ONC injury. Conclusions Our findings demonstrate the functional presence of diverse Eph receptors in the postnatal mammalian retina, capable of modulating multiple biological processes. Pan-Eph receptor activation contributes to the onset of neuropathy in ONs, with preferential activation of Eph receptors on neuronal processes in the inner retina following optic nerve injury. Notably, Eph receptor activation precedes neuronal loss. We observed neuroprotective effects upon inhibiting Eph receptors. Our study highlights the importance of investigating this repulsive pathway in early optic neuropathies and provides a comprehensive characterization of the receptors present in the developed retina of mice, relevant to both homeostasis and disease processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas A. Strong
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States of America
- Dr. Nasser Al-Rashid Orbital Vision Research Center, Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States of America
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine
| | - Juan Esquivel
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States of America
| | - Qikai Wang
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States of America
- Dr. Nasser Al-Rashid Orbital Vision Research Center, Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States of America
| | - Paul J. Ledon
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States of America
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States of America
| | - Hua Wang
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States of America
- Dr. Nasser Al-Rashid Orbital Vision Research Center, Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States of America
| | - Gabriel Gaidosh
- Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States of America
| | - David Tse
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States of America
- Dr. Nasser Al-Rashid Orbital Vision Research Center, Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States of America
| | - Daniel Pelaez
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States of America
- Dr. Nasser Al-Rashid Orbital Vision Research Center, Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States of America
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Miami College of Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, United States of America
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine
- Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States of America
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Carús-Cadavieco M, Berenguer López I, Montoro Canelo A, Serrano-Lope MA, González-de la Fuente S, Aguado B, Fernández-Rodrigo A, Saido TC, Frank García A, Venero C, Esteban JA, Guix F, Dotti CG. Cognitive decline in diabetic mice predisposed to Alzheimer's disease is greater than in wild type. Life Sci Alliance 2023; 6:e202201789. [PMID: 37059474 PMCID: PMC10105330 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.202201789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Revised: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/16/2023] Open
Abstract
In this work, we tested the hypothesis that the development of dementia in individuals with type 2 diabetes (T2DM) requires a genetic background of predisposition to neurodegenerative disease. As a proof of concept, we induced T2DM in middle-aged hAPP NL/F mice, a preclinical model of Alzheimer's disease. We show that T2DM produces more severe behavioral, electrophysiological, and structural alterations in these mice compared with wild-type mice. Mechanistically, the deficits are not paralleled by higher levels of toxic forms of Aβ or by neuroinflammation but by a reduction in γ-secretase activity, lower levels of synaptic proteins, and by increased phosphorylation of tau. RNA-seq analysis of the cerebral cortex of hAPP NL/F and wild-type mice suggests that the former could be more susceptible to T2DM because of defects in trans-membrane transport. The results of this work, on the one hand, confirm the importance of the genetic background in the severity of the cognitive disorders in individuals with T2DM and, on the other hand, suggest, among the involved mechanisms, the inhibition of γ-secretase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Carús-Cadavieco
- Molecular Neuropathology Unit, Physiological and Pathological Processes Program, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa(CBM), CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
| | - Inés Berenguer López
- Molecular Neuropathology Unit, Physiological and Pathological Processes Program, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa(CBM), CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alba Montoro Canelo
- Molecular Neuropathology Unit, Physiological and Pathological Processes Program, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa(CBM), CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
- Escuela Técnica Superior (E.T.S) de Ingeniería Agronómica, Alimentaria y de Biosistemas, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Miguel A Serrano-Lope
- Molecular Neuropathology Unit, Physiological and Pathological Processes Program, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa(CBM), CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Begoña Aguado
- Genomics and NGS Facility, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa(CBM) CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alba Fernández-Rodrigo
- Molecular Neuropathology Unit, Physiological and Pathological Processes Program, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa(CBM), CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
| | - Takaomi C Saido
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Saitama, Japan
| | - Ana Frank García
- Department of Neurology, Division Neurodegenerative Disease, University Hospital La Paz, Madrid, Spain
| | - César Venero
- Department of Psychobiology, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Madrid, Spain
| | - José A Esteban
- Molecular Neuropathology Unit, Physiological and Pathological Processes Program, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa(CBM), CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
| | - Francesc Guix
- Molecular Neuropathology Unit, Physiological and Pathological Processes Program, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa(CBM), CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
- Department of Bioengineering, Institut Químic de Sarrià (IQS) - Universitat Ramón Llull (URL), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carlos G Dotti
- Molecular Neuropathology Unit, Physiological and Pathological Processes Program, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa(CBM), CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
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5
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Ganguly D, Thomas JA, Ali A, Kumar R. Mechanistic and therapeutic implications of EphA-4 receptor tyrosine kinase in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Eur J Neurosci 2022; 56:5532-5546. [PMID: 34989046 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Erythropoietin-producing hepatoma (Eph) receptors belong to a family of tyrosine kinase receptors that plays a pivotal role in the development of the brain. Eph can be divided broadly into two groups, namely, EphA and EphB, comprising nine and five members, respectively. In recent years, the role of EphA-4 has become increasingly apparent in the onset of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Emerging evidence suggests that EphA-4 results in synaptic dysfunction, which in turn promotes the progression of AD. Moreover, pharmacological or genetic ablation of EphA-4 in the murine model of AD can alleviate the symptoms. The current review summarizes different pathways by which EphA-4 can influence pathogenesis. Since, majority of the studies had reported the protective effect of EphA-4 inhibition during AD, designing therapeutics based on decreasing its enzymatic activity might be necessary for introducing the novel interventions. Therefore, the review described peptide and nanobodies inhibitors of EphA-4 that exhibit the potential to modulate EphA-4 and could be used as lead molecules for the targeted therapy of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devargya Ganguly
- Department of Biotechnology, GITAM Institute of Sciences, GITAM (Deemed to be) University, Vishakhapatnam, India
| | - Joshua Abby Thomas
- Department of Biotechnology, GITAM Institute of Sciences, GITAM (Deemed to be) University, Vishakhapatnam, India
| | - Abid Ali
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
| | - Rahul Kumar
- Department of Biotechnology, GITAM Institute of Sciences, GITAM (Deemed to be) University, Vishakhapatnam, India
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Restrepo LJ, DePew AT, Moese ER, Tymanskyj SR, Parisi MJ, Aimino MA, Duhart JC, Fei H, Mosca TJ. γ-secretase promotes Drosophila postsynaptic development through the cleavage of a Wnt receptor. Dev Cell 2022; 57:1643-1660.e7. [PMID: 35654038 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2022.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Revised: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Developing synapses mature through the recruitment of specific proteins that stabilize presynaptic and postsynaptic structure and function. Wnt ligands signaling via Frizzled (Fz) receptors play many crucial roles in neuronal and synaptic development, but whether and how Wnt and Fz influence synaptic maturation is incompletely understood. Here, we show that Fz2 receptor cleavage via the γ-secretase complex is required for postsynaptic development and maturation. In the absence of γ-secretase, Drosophila neuromuscular synapses fail to recruit postsynaptic scaffolding and cytoskeletal proteins, leading to behavioral deficits. Introducing presenilin mutations linked to familial early-onset Alzheimer's disease into flies leads to synaptic maturation phenotypes that are identical to those seen in null alleles. This conserved role for γ-secretase in synaptic maturation and postsynaptic development highlights the importance of Fz2 cleavage and suggests that receptor processing by proteins linked to neurodegeneration may be a shared mechanism with aspects of synaptic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas J Restrepo
- Department of Neuroscience, Vickie and Jack Farber Institute of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Bluemle Life Sciences Building, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Alison T DePew
- Department of Neuroscience, Vickie and Jack Farber Institute of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Bluemle Life Sciences Building, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Elizabeth R Moese
- Department of Neuroscience, Vickie and Jack Farber Institute of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Bluemle Life Sciences Building, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Stephen R Tymanskyj
- Department of Neuroscience, Vickie and Jack Farber Institute of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Bluemle Life Sciences Building, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Michael J Parisi
- Department of Neuroscience, Vickie and Jack Farber Institute of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Bluemle Life Sciences Building, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Michael A Aimino
- Department of Neuroscience, Vickie and Jack Farber Institute of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Bluemle Life Sciences Building, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Juan Carlos Duhart
- Department of Neuroscience, Vickie and Jack Farber Institute of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Bluemle Life Sciences Building, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Hong Fei
- Department of Neuroscience, Vickie and Jack Farber Institute of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Bluemle Life Sciences Building, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Timothy J Mosca
- Department of Neuroscience, Vickie and Jack Farber Institute of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Bluemle Life Sciences Building, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA.
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Weber TA, Lundkvist J, Wanngren J, Kvartsberg H, Jin S, Larssen P, Wu D, Oliveira DV, Minta K, Brinkmalm G, Zetterberg H, Blennow K, Nordvall G, Winblad B, Portelius E, Karlström H. γ-Secretase modulators show selectivity for γ-secretase-mediated amyloid precursor protein intramembrane processing. J Cell Mol Med 2021; 26:880-892. [PMID: 34931449 PMCID: PMC8817114 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.17146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2020] [Revised: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The aggregation of β‐amyloid peptide 42 results in the formation of toxic oligomers and plaques, which plays a pivotal role in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis. Aβ42 is one of several Aβ peptides, all of Aβ30 to Aβ43 that are produced as a result of γ‐secretase–mediated regulated intramembrane proteolysis of the amyloid precursor protein. γ‐Secretase modulators (GSMs) represent a promising class of Aβ42‐lowering anti‐amyloidogenic compounds for the treatment of AD. Gamma‐secretase modulators change the relative proportion of secreted Aβ peptides, while sparing the γ‐secretase–mediated processing event resulting in the release of the cytoplasmic APP intracellular domain. In this study, we have characterized how GSMs affect the γ‐secretase cleavage of three γ‐secretase substrates, E‐cadherin, ephrin type A receptor 4 (EphA4) and ephrin type B receptor 2 (EphB2), which all are implicated in important contexts of cell signalling. By using a reporter gene assay, we demonstrate that the γ‐secretase–dependent generation of EphA4 and EphB2 intracellular domains is unaffected by GSMs. We also show that γ‐secretase processing of EphA4 and EphB2 results in the release of several Aβ‐like peptides, but that only the production of Aβ‐like proteins from EphA4 is modulated by GSMs, but with an order of magnitude lower potency as compared to Aβ modulation. Collectively, these results suggest that GSMs are selective for γ‐secretase–mediated Aβ production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias A Weber
- Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Science and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Medical Scientific Affairs, Aesculap AG, Tuttlingen, Germany
| | - Johan Lundkvist
- Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Science and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Alzecure Pharma, Huddinge, Sweden.,Sinfonia Biotherapeutics AB, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Johanna Wanngren
- Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Science and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Hlin Kvartsberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Mölndal, Sweden
| | - ShaoBo Jin
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Pia Larssen
- Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Science and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Dan Wu
- Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Science and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Daniel V Oliveira
- Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Science and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Karolina Minta
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Gunnar Brinkmalm
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Henrik Zetterberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Mölndal, Sweden.,Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Institute of Neurology, London, UK.,UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, London, UK
| | - Kaj Blennow
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Gunnar Nordvall
- Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Science and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Alzecure Pharma, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Bengt Winblad
- Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Science and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Theme Aging, Geriatric Clinic, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Erik Portelius
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Helena Karlström
- Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Science and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Theme Aging, Geriatric Clinic, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, Sweden
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8
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Huang H. Proteolytic Cleavage of Receptor Tyrosine Kinases. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11050660. [PMID: 33947097 PMCID: PMC8145142 DOI: 10.3390/biom11050660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are a large family of cell-surface receptors, which are essential components of signal transduction pathways. There are more than fifty human RTKs that can be grouped into multiple RTK subfamilies. RTKs mediate cellular signaling transduction, and they play important roles in the regulation of numerous cellular processes. The dysregulation of RTK signaling is related to various human diseases, including cancers. The proteolytic cleavage phenomenon has frequently been found among multiple receptor tyrosine kinases. More and more information about proteolytic cleavage in RTKs has been discovered, providing rich insight. In this review, we summarize research about different aspects of RTK cleavage, including its relation to cancer, to better elucidate this phenomenon. This review also presents proteolytic cleavage in various members of the RTKs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Huang
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA; or
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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9
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Tamura K, Chiu YW, Shiohara A, Hori Y, Tomita T. EphA4 regulates Aβ production via BACE1 expression in neurons. FASEB J 2020; 34:16383-16396. [PMID: 33090569 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202001510r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Revised: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Several lines of evidence suggest that the aggregation and deposition of amyloid-β peptide (Aβ) initiate the pathology of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Recently, a genome-wide association study demonstrated that a single-nucleotide polymorphism proximal to the EPHA4 gene, which encodes a receptor tyrosine kinase, is associated with AD risk. However, the molecular mechanism of EphA4 in the pathogenesis of AD, particularly in Aβ production, remains unknown. Here, we performed several pharmacological and biological experiments both in vitro and in vivo and demonstrated that EphA4 is responsible for the regulation of Aβ production. Pharmacological inhibition of EphA4 signaling and knockdown of Epha4 led to increased Aβ levels accompanied by increased expression of β-site APP cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1), which is an enzyme responsible for Aβ production. Moreover, EPHA4 overexpression and activation of EphA4 signaling via ephrin ligands decreased Aβ levels. In particular, the sterile-alpha motif domain of EphA4 was necessary for the regulation of Aβ production. Finally, EPHA4 mRNA levels were significantly reduced in the brains of AD patients, and negatively correlated with BACE1 mRNA levels. Our results indicate a novel mechanism of Aβ regulation by EphA4, which is involved in AD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kensuke Tamura
- Laboratory of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yung-Wen Chiu
- Laboratory of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Azusa Shiohara
- Laboratory of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yukiko Hori
- Laboratory of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Taisuke Tomita
- Laboratory of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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10
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Baudet S, Bécret J, Nicol X. Approaches to Manipulate Ephrin-A:EphA Forward Signaling Pathway. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2020; 13:ph13070140. [PMID: 32629797 PMCID: PMC7407804 DOI: 10.3390/ph13070140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Erythropoietin-producing hepatocellular carcinoma A (EphA) receptors and their ephrin-A ligands are key players of developmental events shaping the mature organism. Their expression is mostly restricted to stem cell niches in adults but is reactivated in pathological conditions including lesions in the heart, lung, or nervous system. They are also often misregulated in tumors. A wide range of molecular tools enabling the manipulation of the ephrin-A:EphA system are available, ranging from small molecules to peptides and genetically-encoded strategies. Their mechanism is either direct, targeting EphA receptors, or indirect through the modification of intracellular downstream pathways. Approaches enabling manipulation of ephrin-A:EphA forward signaling for the dissection of its signaling cascade, the investigation of its physiological roles or the development of therapeutic strategies are summarized here.
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11
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Güner G, Lichtenthaler SF. The substrate repertoire of γ-secretase/presenilin. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2020; 105:27-42. [PMID: 32616437 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2020.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2020] [Revised: 05/17/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
Abstract
The intramembrane protease γ-secretase is a hetero-tetrameric protein complex with presenilin as the catalytic subunit and cleaves its membrane protein substrates within their single transmembrane domains. γ-Secretase is well known for its role in Notch signalling and in Alzheimer's disease, where it catalyzes the formation of the pathogenic amyloid β (Aβ) peptide. However, in the 21 years since its discovery many more substrates and substrate candidates of γ-secretase were identified. Although the physiological relevance of the cleavage of many substrates remains to be studied in more detail, the substrates demonstrate a broad role for γ-secretase in embryonic development, adult tissue homeostasis, signal transduction and protein degradation. Consequently, chronic γ-secretase inhibition may cause significant side effects due to inhibition of cleavage of multiple substrates. This review provides a list of 149 γ-secretase substrates identified to date and highlights by which expeirmental approach substrate cleavage was validated. Additionally, the review lists the cleavage sites where they are known and discusses the functional implications of γ-secretase cleavage with a focus on substrates identified in the recent past, such as CHL1, TREM2 and TNFR1. A comparative analysis demonstrates that γ-secretase substrates mostly have a long extracellular domain and require ectodomain shedding before γ-secretase cleavage, but that γ-secretase is also able to cleave naturally short substrates, such as the B cell maturation antigen. Taken together, the list of substrates provides a resource that may help in the future development of drugs inhibiting or modulating γ-secretase activity in a substrate-specific manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gökhan Güner
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Munich, Germany; Neuroproteomics, School of Medicine, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich, 81675, Munich, Germany
| | - Stefan F Lichtenthaler
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Munich, Germany; Neuroproteomics, School of Medicine, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich, 81675, Munich, Germany; Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Munich, Germany.
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12
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Javier-Torrent M, Marco S, Rocandio D, Pons-Vizcarra M, Janes PW, Lackmann M, Egea J, Saura CA. Presenilin/γ-secretase-dependent EphA3 processing mediates axon elongation through non-muscle myosin IIA. eLife 2019; 8:43646. [PMID: 31577226 PMCID: PMC6774734 DOI: 10.7554/elife.43646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
EphA/ephrin signaling regulates axon growth and guidance of neurons, but whether this process occurs also independently of ephrins is unclear. We show that presenilin-1 (PS1)/γ-secretase is required for axon growth in the developing mouse brain. PS1/γ-secretase mediates axon growth by inhibiting RhoA signaling and cleaving EphA3 independently of ligand to generate an intracellular domain (ICD) fragment that reverses axon defects in PS1/γ-secretase- and EphA3-deficient hippocampal neurons. Proteomic analysis revealed that EphA3 ICD binds to non-muscle myosin IIA (NMIIA) and increases its phosphorylation (Ser1943), which promotes NMIIA filament disassembly and cytoskeleton rearrangement. PS1/γ-secretase-deficient neurons show decreased phosphorylated NMIIA and NMIIA/actin colocalization. Moreover, pharmacological NMII inhibition reverses axon retraction in PS-deficient neurons suggesting that NMIIA mediates PS/EphA3-dependent axon elongation. In conclusion, PS/γ-secretase-dependent EphA3 cleavage mediates axon growth by regulating filament assembly through RhoA signaling and NMIIA, suggesting opposite roles of EphA3 on inhibiting (ligand-dependent) and promoting (receptor processing) axon growth in developing neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Míriam Javier-Torrent
- Institut de Neurociències, Department de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Facultat de Medicina, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sergi Marco
- Institut de Neurociències, Department de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Facultat de Medicina, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Daniel Rocandio
- Institut de Recerca Biomédica de Lleida, Universitat de Lleida, Lleida, Spain
| | - Maria Pons-Vizcarra
- Institut de Neurociències, Department de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Facultat de Medicina, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Peter W Janes
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Victoria, Australia
| | - Martin Lackmann
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Victoria, Australia
| | - Joaquim Egea
- Institut de Recerca Biomédica de Lleida, Universitat de Lleida, Lleida, Spain
| | - Carlos A Saura
- Institut de Neurociències, Department de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Facultat de Medicina, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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13
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Ephrin-A5 potentiates netrin-1 axon guidance by enhancing Neogenin availability. Sci Rep 2019; 9:12009. [PMID: 31427645 PMCID: PMC6700147 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-48519-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Axonal growth cones are guided by molecular cues in the extracellular environment. The mechanisms of combinatorial integration of guidance signals at the growth cone cell membrane are still being unravelled. Limb-innervating axons of vertebrate spinal lateral motor column (LMC) neurons are attracted to netrin-1 via its receptor, Neogenin, and are repelled from ephrin-A5 through its receptor EphA4. The presence of both cues elicits synergistic guidance of LMC axons, but the mechanism of this effect remains unknown. Using fluorescence immunohistochemistry, we show that ephrin-A5 increases LMC growth cone Neogenin protein levels and netrin-1 binding. This effect is enhanced by overexpressing EphA4 and is inhibited by blocking ephrin-A5-EphA4 binding. These effects have a functional consequence on LMC growth cone responses since bath addition of ephrin-A5 increases the responsiveness of LMC axons to netrin-1. Surprisingly, the overexpression of EphA4 lacking its cytoplasmic tail, also enhances Neogenin levels at the growth cone and potentiates LMC axon preference for growth on netrin-1. Since netrins and ephrins participate in a wide variety of biological processes, the enhancement of netrin-1 signalling by ephrins may have broad implications.
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14
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Lee YJ, Ch'ng TH. RIP at the Synapse and the Role of Intracellular Domains in Neurons. Neuromolecular Med 2019; 22:1-24. [PMID: 31346933 DOI: 10.1007/s12017-019-08556-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 07/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Regulated intramembrane proteolysis (RIP) occurs in a cell when transmembrane proteins are cleaved by intramembrane proteases such as secretases to generate soluble protein fragments in the extracellular environment and the cytosol. In the cytosol, these soluble intracellular domains (ICDs) have local functions near the site of cleavage or in many cases, translocate to the nucleus to modulate gene expression. While the mechanism of RIP is relatively well studied, the fate and function of ICDs for most substrate proteins remain poorly characterized. In neurons, RIP occurs in various subcellular compartments including at the synapse. In this review, we summarize current research on RIP in neurons, focusing specifically on synaptic proteins where the presence and function of the ICDs have been reported. We also briefly discuss activity-driven processing of RIP substrates at the synapse and the cellular machinery that support long-distance transport of ICDs from the synapse to the nucleus. Finally, we describe future challenges in this field of research in the context of understanding the contribution of ICDs in neuronal function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Jun Lee
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Clinical Science Building, 11 Mandalay Road, 10-01-01 M, Singapore, 308232, Singapore.,Interdisciplinary Graduate School (IGS), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Toh Hean Ch'ng
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Clinical Science Building, 11 Mandalay Road, 10-01-01 M, Singapore, 308232, Singapore. .,School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore.
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15
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Chen Y, Fu AKY, Ip NY. Synaptic dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease: Mechanisms and therapeutic strategies. Pharmacol Ther 2018; 195:186-198. [PMID: 30439458 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2018.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most prevalent neurodegenerative disease in the elderly population, is characterized by progressive cognitive decline and pathological hallmarks of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. However, its pathophysiological mechanisms are poorly understood, and diagnostic tools and interventions are limited. Here, we review recent research on the amyloid hypothesis and beta-amyloid-induced dysfunction of neuronal synapses through distinct cell surface receptors. We also review how tau protein leads to synaptotoxicity through pathological modification, localization, and propagation. Finally, we discuss experimental therapeutics for AD and propose potential applications of disease-modifying strategies targeting synaptic failure for improved treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Chen
- Division of Life Science, State Key Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience and Molecular Neuroscience Center, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; The Brain Cognition and Brain Disease Institute, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Science, Disease and Drug Development, HKUST Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China.
| | - Amy K Y Fu
- Division of Life Science, State Key Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience and Molecular Neuroscience Center, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Science, Disease and Drug Development, HKUST Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Nancy Y Ip
- Division of Life Science, State Key Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience and Molecular Neuroscience Center, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Science, Disease and Drug Development, HKUST Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China.
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16
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Scilabra SD, Pigoni M, Pravatá V, Schätzl T, Müller SA, Troeberg L, Lichtenthaler SF. Increased TIMP-3 expression alters the cellular secretome through dual inhibition of the metalloprotease ADAM10 and ligand-binding of the LRP-1 receptor. Sci Rep 2018; 8:14697. [PMID: 30279425 PMCID: PMC6168507 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-32910-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Accepted: 08/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-3 (TIMP-3) is a major regulator of extracellular matrix turnover and protein shedding by inhibiting different classes of metalloproteinases, including disintegrin metalloproteinases (ADAMs). Tissue bioavailability of TIMP-3 is regulated by the endocytic receptor low-density-lipoprotein receptor-related protein-1 (LRP-1). TIMP-3 plays protective roles in disease. Thus, different approaches have been developed aiming to increase TIMP-3 bioavailability, yet overall effects of increased TIMP-3 in vivo have not been investigated. Herein, by using unbiased mass-spectrometry we demonstrate that TIMP-3-overexpression in HEK293 cells has a dual effect on shedding of transmembrane proteins and turnover of soluble proteins. Several membrane proteins showing reduced shedding are known as ADAM10 substrates, suggesting that exogenous TIMP-3 preferentially inhibits ADAM10 in HEK293 cells. Additionally identified shed membrane proteins may be novel ADAM10 substrate candidates. TIMP-3-overexpression also increased extracellular levels of several soluble proteins, including TIMP-1, MIF and SPARC. Levels of these proteins similarly increased upon LRP-1 inactivation, suggesting that TIMP-3 increases soluble protein levels by competing for their binding to LRP-1 and their subsequent internalization. In conclusion, our study reveals that increased levels of TIMP-3 induce substantial modifications in the cellular secretome and that TIMP-3-based therapies may potentially provoke undesired, dysregulated functions of ADAM10 and LRP-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone D Scilabra
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Feodor-Lynen Strasse 17, 81377, Munich, Germany. .,Neuroproteomics, School of Medicine, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, 81675, Munich, Germany.
| | - Martina Pigoni
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Feodor-Lynen Strasse 17, 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Veronica Pravatá
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Feodor-Lynen Strasse 17, 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Tobias Schätzl
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Feodor-Lynen Strasse 17, 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Stephan A Müller
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Feodor-Lynen Strasse 17, 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Linda Troeberg
- Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7FY, UK
| | - Stefan F Lichtenthaler
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Feodor-Lynen Strasse 17, 81377, Munich, Germany.,Neuroproteomics, School of Medicine, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, 81675, Munich, Germany.,Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Munich, Germany.,Institute for Advanced Study, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany
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17
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Merilahti JAM, Elenius K. Gamma-secretase-dependent signaling of receptor tyrosine kinases. Oncogene 2018; 38:151-163. [PMID: 30166589 PMCID: PMC6756091 DOI: 10.1038/s41388-018-0465-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Revised: 07/26/2018] [Accepted: 07/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Human genome harbors 55 receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK). At least half of the RTKs have been reported to be cleaved by gamma-secretase-mediated regulated intramembrane proteolysis. The two-step process involves releasing the RTK ectodomain to the extracellular space by proteolytic cleavage called shedding, followed by cleavage in the RTK transmembrane domain by the gamma-secretase complex resulting in release of a soluble RTK intracellular domain. This intracellular domain, including the tyrosine kinase domain, can in turn translocate to various cellular compartments, such as the nucleus or proteasome. The soluble intracellular domain may interact with transcriptional regulators and other proteins to induce specific effects on cell survival, proliferation, and differentiation, establishing an additional signaling mode for the cleavable RTKs. On the other hand, the same process can facilitate RTK turnover and proteasomal degradation. In this review we focus on the regulation of RTK shedding and gamma-secretase cleavage, as well as signaling promoted by the soluble RTK ICDs. In addition, therapeutic implications of increased knowledge on RTK cleavage on cancer drug development are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes A M Merilahti
- Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, 20520, Turku, Finland.,Medicity Research Laboratory, University of Turku, 20520, Turku, Finland.,Turku Doctoral Programme of Molecular Medicine, University of Turku, 20520, Turku, Finland
| | - Klaus Elenius
- Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, 20520, Turku, Finland. .,Medicity Research Laboratory, University of Turku, 20520, Turku, Finland. .,Department of Oncology, Turku University Hospital, 20520, Turku, Finland.
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18
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Kreitman M, Noronha A, Yarden Y. Irreversible modifications of receptor tyrosine kinases. FEBS Lett 2018; 592:2199-2212. [PMID: 29790151 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.13095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2018] [Revised: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 05/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Each group of the 56 receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK) binds with one or more soluble growth factors and coordinates a vast array of cellular functions. These outcomes are tightly regulated by inducible post-translational events, such as tyrosine phosphorylation, ubiquitination, ectodomain shedding, and regulated intramembrane proteolysis. Because of the delicate balance required for appropriate RTK function, cells may become pathogenic upon dysregulation of RTKs themselves or their post-translational covalent modifications. For example, reduced ectodomain shedding and decreased ubiquitination of the cytoplasmic region, both of which enhance growth factor signals, characterize malignant cells. Whereas receptor phosphorylation and ubiquitination are reversible, proteolytic cleavage events are irreversible, and either modification might alter the subcellular localization of RTKs. Herein, we focus on ectodomain shedding by metalloproteinases (including ADAM family proteases), cleavage within the membrane or cytoplasmic regions of RTKs (by gamma-secretases and caspases, respectively), and complete receptor proteolysis in lysosomes and proteasomes. Roles of irreversible modifications in RTK signaling, pathogenesis, and pharmacology are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Kreitman
- Department of Biological Regulation, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Ashish Noronha
- Department of Biological Regulation, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Yosef Yarden
- Department of Biological Regulation, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
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19
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Merilahti JAM, Ojala VK, Knittle AM, Pulliainen AT, Elenius K. Genome-wide screen of gamma-secretase-mediated intramembrane cleavage of receptor tyrosine kinases. Mol Biol Cell 2017; 28:3123-3131. [PMID: 28904208 PMCID: PMC5662267 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e17-04-0261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2017] [Revised: 08/11/2017] [Accepted: 09/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) have been demonstrated to signal via regulated intramembrane proteolysis, in which ectodomain shedding and subsequent intramembrane cleavage by gamma-secretase leads to release of a soluble intracellular receptor fragment with functional activity. For most RTKs, however, it is unknown whether they can exploit this new signaling mechanism. Here we used a system-wide screen to address the frequency of susceptibility to gamma-secretase cleavage among human RTKs. The screen covering 45 of the 55 human RTKs identified 12 new as well as all nine previously published gamma-secretase substrates. We biochemically validated the screen by demonstrating that the release of a soluble intracellular fragment from endogenous AXL was dependent on the sheddase disintegrin and metalloprotease 10 (ADAM10) and the gamma-secretase component presenilin-1. Functional analysis of the cleavable RTKs indicated that proliferation promoted by overexpression of the TAM family members AXL or TYRO3 depends on gamma-secretase cleavage. Taken together, these data indicate that gamma-secretase-mediated cleavage provides an additional signaling mechanism for numerous human RTKs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes A M Merilahti
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Genetics, University of Turku, 20520 Turku, Finland.,Medicity Research Laboratory, University of Turku, 20520 Turku, Finland.,Turku Doctoral Programme of Molecular Medicine, University of Turku, 20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Veera K Ojala
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Genetics, University of Turku, 20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Anna M Knittle
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Genetics, University of Turku, 20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Arto T Pulliainen
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Genetics, University of Turku, 20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Klaus Elenius
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Genetics, University of Turku, 20520 Turku, Finland .,Medicity Research Laboratory, University of Turku, 20520 Turku, Finland.,Department of Oncology, Turku University Hospital, 20520 Turku, Finland
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20
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Abstract
IMPORTANCE To provide a comprehensive review of knowledge of the genomics of Alzheimer disease (AD) and DNA amyloid β 42 (Aβ42) vaccination as a potential therapy. OBSERVATIONS Genotype-phenotype correlations of AD are presented to provide a comprehensive appreciation of the spectrum of disease causation. Alzheimer disease is caused in part by the overproduction and lack of clearance of Aβ protein. Oligomer Aβ, the most toxic species of Aβ, causes direct injury to neurons, accompanied by enhanced neuroinflammation, astrocytosis and gliosis, and eventually neuronal loss. The strongest genetic evidence supporting this hypothesis derives from mutations in the amyloid precursor protein (APP) gene. A detrimental APP mutation at the β-secretase cleavage site linked to early-onset AD found in a Swedish pedigree enhances Aβ production, in contrast to a beneficial mutation 2 residues away in APP that reduces Aβ production and protects against the onset of sporadic AD. A number of common variants associated with late-onset AD have been identified including apolipoprotein E, BIN1, ABC7, PICALM, MS4A4E/MS4A6A, CD2Ap, CD33, EPHA1, CLU, CR1, and SORL1. One or 2 copies of the apolipoprotein E ε4 allele are a major risk factor for late-onset AD. With DNA Aβ42 vaccination, a Th2-type noninflammatory immune response was achieved with a downregulation of Aβ42-specific effector (Th1, Th17, and Th2) cell responses at later immunization times. DNA Aβ42 vaccination upregulated T regulator cells (CD4+, CD25+, and FoxP3+) and its cytokine interleukin 10, resulting in downregulation of T effectors. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Mutations in APP and PS-1 and PS-2 genes that are associated with early-onset, autosomal, dominantly inherited AD, in addition to the at-risk gene polymorphisms responsible for late-onset AD, all indicate a direct and early role of Aβ in the pathogenesis of AD. A translational result of genomic research has been Aβ-reducing therapies including DNA Aβ42 vaccination as a promising approach to delay or prevent this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger N Rosenberg
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas2Editor, JAMA Neurology
| | | | - Gang Yu
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas
| | - Weiming Xia
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Bedford Veterans Hospital, Bedford, Massachusetts5Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
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21
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Engineering cancer stem-like cells from normal human lung epithelial cells. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0175147. [PMID: 28380052 PMCID: PMC5381922 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0175147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 03/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
It has been proposed that a subpopulation of tumour cells with stem cell-like characteristics, known as cancer stem cells (CSCs), drives tumour initiation and generates tumour heterogeneity, thus leading to cancer metastasis, recurrence, and drug resistance. Although there has been substantial progress in CSC research into many solid tumour types, an understanding of the biology of CSCs in lung cancer remains elusive, mainly because of their heterogeneous origins and high plasticity. Here, we demonstrate that engineered lung cancer cells derived from normal human airway basal epithelial cells possessed CSC-like characteristics in terms of multilineage differentiation potential and strong tumour-initiating ability. Moreover, we established an in vitro 3D culture system that allowed the in vivo differentiation process of the CSC-like cells to be recapitulated. This engineered CSC model provides valuable opportunities for studying the biology of CSCs and for exploring and evaluating novel therapeutic approaches and targets in lung CSCs.
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22
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Kemmerling N, Wunderlich P, Theil S, Linnartz-Gerlach B, Hersch N, Hoffmann B, Heneka MT, de Strooper B, Neumann H, Walter J. Intramembranous processing by γ-secretase regulates reverse signaling of ephrin-B2 in migration of microglia. Glia 2017; 65:1103-1118. [PMID: 28370426 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2015] [Revised: 03/14/2017] [Accepted: 03/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The Eph-ephrin system plays pivotal roles in cell adhesion and migration. The receptor-like functions of the ephrin ligands allow the regulation of intracellular processes via reverse signaling. γ-Secretase mediated processing of ephrin-B has previously been linked to activation of Src, a kinase crucial for focal adhesion and podosome phosphorylation. Here, we analyzed the role of γ-secretase in the stimulation of reverse ephrin-B2 signaling in the migration of mouse embryonic stem cell derived microglia. The proteolytic generation of the ephrin-B2 intracellular domain (ICD) by γ-secretase stimulates Src and focal adhesion kinase (FAK). Inhibition of γ-secretase decreased the phosphorylation of Src and FAK, and reduced cell motility. These effects were associated with enlargement of the podosomal surface. Interestingly, expression of ephrin-B2 ICD could rescue these effects, indicating that this proteolytic fragment mediates the activation of Src and FAK, and thereby regulates podosomal dynamics in microglial cells. Together, these results identify γ-secretase as well as ephrin-B2 as regulators of microglial migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadja Kemmerling
- Department of Neurology, University of Bonn, Bonn, 53127, Germany
| | | | - Sandra Theil
- Department of Neurology, University of Bonn, Bonn, 53127, Germany
| | | | - Nils Hersch
- Institute of Complex Systems, ICS-7 Biomechanics, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Jülich, 52425, Germany
| | - Bernd Hoffmann
- Institute of Complex Systems, ICS-7 Biomechanics, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Jülich, 52425, Germany
| | - Michael T Heneka
- Department of Neurology, University of Bonn, Bonn, 53127, Germany.,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Bonn, 53127, Germany
| | - Bart de Strooper
- KULeuven Centre for Human Genetics, Leuven, 3000, Belgium.,Centre for Brain and Disease, VIB (Flanders Institute for Biotechnology), Leuven, 3000, Belgium
| | - Harald Neumann
- Institute of Reconstructive Neurobiology, University of Bonn, Bonn, 53127, Germany
| | - Jochen Walter
- Department of Neurology, University of Bonn, Bonn, 53127, Germany
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23
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Rosenberger AFN, Hilhorst R, Coart E, García Barrado L, Naji F, Rozemuller AJM, van der Flier WM, Scheltens P, Hoozemans JJM, van der Vies SM. Protein Kinase Activity Decreases with Higher Braak Stages of Alzheimer's Disease Pathology. J Alzheimers Dis 2016; 49:927-43. [PMID: 26519433 PMCID: PMC4927853 DOI: 10.3233/jad-150429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by a long pre-clinical phase (20–30 years), during which significant brain pathology manifests itself. Disease mechanisms associated with pathological hallmarks remain elusive. Most processes associated with AD pathogenesis, such as inflammation, synaptic dysfunction, and hyper-phosphorylation of tau are dependent on protein kinase activity. The objective of this study was to determine the involvement of protein kinases in AD pathogenesis. Protein kinase activity was determined in postmortem hippocampal brain tissue of 60 patients at various stages of AD and 40 non-demented controls (Braak stages 0-VI) using a peptide-based microarray platform. We observed an overall decrease of protein kinase activity that correlated with disease progression. The phosphorylation of 96.7% of the serine/threonine peptides and 37.5% of the tyrosine peptides on the microarray decreased significantly with increased Braak stage (p-value <0.01). Decreased activity was evident at pre-clinical stages of AD pathology (Braak I-II). Increased phosphorylation was not observed for any peptide. STRING analysis in combination with pathway analysis and identification of kinases responsible for peptide phosphorylation showed the interactions between well-known proteins in AD pathology, including the Ephrin-receptor A1 (EphA1), a risk gene for AD, and sarcoma tyrosine kinase (Src), which is involved in memory formation. Additionally, kinases that have not previously been associated with AD were identified, e.g., protein tyrosine kinase 6 (PTK6/BRK), feline sarcoma oncogene kinase (FES), and fyn-associated tyrosine kinase (FRK). The identified protein kinases are new biomarkers and potential drug targets for early (pre-clinical) intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea F N Rosenberger
- Alzheimer Center & Department of Neurology, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Pathology, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Riet Hilhorst
- PamGene International BV, 's-Hertogenbosch, The Netherlands
| | - Elisabeth Coart
- International Drug Development Institute, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | | | - Faris Naji
- PamGene International BV, 's-Hertogenbosch, The Netherlands
| | - Annemieke J M Rozemuller
- Department of Pathology, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wiesje M van der Flier
- Alzheimer Center & Department of Neurology, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Philip Scheltens
- Alzheimer Center & Department of Neurology, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen J M Hoozemans
- Department of Pathology, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Saskia M van der Vies
- Department of Pathology, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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24
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Johnson C, Segovia B, Kandpal RP. EPHA7 and EPHA10 Physically Interact and Differentially Co-localize in Normal Breast and Breast Carcinoma Cell Lines, and the Co-localization Pattern Is Altered in EPHB6-expressing MDA-MB-231 Cells. Cancer Genomics Proteomics 2016; 13:359-368. [PMID: 27566654 PMCID: PMC5070625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2016] [Accepted: 06/27/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Erythropoietin-producing hepatocellular carcinoma cell (EPH) receptors comprise the most abundant receptor tyrosine kinase family characterized to date in mammals including humans. These proteins are involved in axon guidance, tissue organization, vascular development and the intricate process of various diseases including cancer. These diverse functions of EPH receptors are attributed, in part, to their abilities for heterodimerization. While the interacting partners of kinase-deficient EPHB6 receptor have been characterized, the interaction of the kinase-dead EPHA10 with any other receptor has not been identified. By using co-immunoprecipitation, we demonstrated physical interaction between kinase-deficient EPHA10 with kinase-sufficient EPHA7 receptor. Immunocytochemical analyses have revealed that these two receptors co-localize on the cell surface, and soluble portions of the receptors exist as a complex in the cytoplasm as well as the nuclei. While EPHA7 and EPHA10 co-localize similarly on the membrane in MCF10A and MCF7 cells, they were differentially co-localized in MDA-MB-231 cells stably transfected with empty pcDNA vector (MDA-MB-231-PC) or an expression construct of EPHB6 (MDA-MB-231-B6). The full-length isoforms of these receptors were co-localized on the cell surface, and the soluble forms were present as a complex in the cytoplasm as well as the nucleus in MDA-MB-231-PC cells. MDA-MB-231-B6 cells, on the other hand, were distinguished by the absence of any signal in the nuclei. Our results represent the first demonstration of physical interaction between EPHA10 and EPHA7 and their cellular co-localization. Furthermore, these observations also suggest gene-regulatory functions of the complex of the soluble forms of these receptors in breast carcinoma cells of differential invasiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Candace Johnson
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA, U.S.A
| | - Briana Segovia
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA, U.S.A
| | - Raj P Kandpal
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA, U.S.A.
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25
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Blain JF, Bursavich MG, Freeman EA, Hrdlicka LA, Hodgdon HE, Chen T, Costa DE, Harrison BA, Kapadnis S, Murphy DA, Nolan S, Tu Z, Tang C, Burnett DA, Patzke H, Koenig G. Characterization of FRM-36143 as a new γ-secretase modulator for the potential treatment of familial Alzheimer's disease. ALZHEIMERS RESEARCH & THERAPY 2016; 8:34. [PMID: 27572246 PMCID: PMC5004293 DOI: 10.1186/s13195-016-0199-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2016] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Background Familial Alzheimer’s disease (FAD) is caused by mutations in the amyloid precursor protein (APP) or presenilin (PS). Most PS mutations, which account for the majority of FAD cases, lead to an increased ratio of longer to shorter forms of the amyloid beta (Aβ) peptide. The therapeutic rationale of γ-secretase modulators (GSMs) for Alzheimer’s disease is based on this genetic evidence as well as on enzyme kinetics measurements showing changes in the processivity of the γ-secretase complex. This analysis suggests that GSMs could potentially offset some of the effects of PS mutations on APP processing, thereby addressing the root cause of early onset FAD. Unfortunately, the field has generated few, if any, molecules with good central nervous system (CNS) drug-like properties to enable proof-of-mechanism studies. Method We characterized the novel GSM FRM-36143 using multiple cellular assays to determine its in vitro potency and off-target activity as well as its potential to reverse the effect of PS mutations. We also tested its efficacy in vivo in wild-type mice and rats. Results FRM-36143 has much improved CNS drug-like properties compared to published GSMs. It has an in vitro EC50 for Aβ42 of 35 nM in H4 cells, can reduce Aβ42 to 58 % of the baseline in rat cerebrospinal fluid, and also increases the non-amyloidogenic peptides Aβ37 and Aβ38. It does not inhibit Notch processing, nor does it inhibit 24-dehydrocholesterol reductase (DHCR24) activity. Most interestingly, it can reverse the effects of presenilin mutations on APP processing in vitro. Conclusions FRM-36143 possesses all the characteristics of a GSM in terms of Aβ modulation Because FRM-36143 was able to reverse the effect of PS mutations, we suggest that targeting patients with this genetic defect would be the best approach at testing the efficacy of a GSM in the clinic. While the amyloid hypothesis is still being tested with β-site APP-cleaving enzyme inhibitors and monoclonal antibodies in sporadic AD, we believe it is not a hypothesis for FAD. Since GSMs can correct the molecular defect caused by PS mutations, they have the promise to provide benefits to the patients when treated early enough in the course of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Emily A Freeman
- FORUM Pharmaceuticals Inc, 225 2nd Avenue, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA
| | - Lori A Hrdlicka
- FORUM Pharmaceuticals Inc, 225 2nd Avenue, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA
| | | | - Ting Chen
- FORUM Pharmaceuticals Inc, 225 2nd Avenue, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA
| | - Don E Costa
- FORUM Pharmaceuticals Inc, 225 2nd Avenue, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA
| | - Bryce A Harrison
- FORUM Pharmaceuticals Inc, 225 2nd Avenue, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA
| | | | - Deirdre A Murphy
- FORUM Pharmaceuticals Inc, 225 2nd Avenue, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA
| | - Scott Nolan
- FORUM Pharmaceuticals Inc, 225 2nd Avenue, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA
| | - Zhiming Tu
- FORUM Pharmaceuticals Inc, 225 2nd Avenue, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA
| | - Cuyue Tang
- FORUM Pharmaceuticals Inc, 225 2nd Avenue, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA
| | - Duane A Burnett
- FORUM Pharmaceuticals Inc, 225 2nd Avenue, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA
| | - Holger Patzke
- FORUM Pharmaceuticals Inc, 225 2nd Avenue, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA
| | - Gerhard Koenig
- FORUM Pharmaceuticals Inc, 225 2nd Avenue, Waltham, MA, 02451, USA
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26
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Dendrigraft polylysine coated‐poly(glycolic acid) fibrous scaffolds for hippocampal neurons. J Biomed Mater Res A 2016; 104:2744-50. [DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.35807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Revised: 05/27/2016] [Accepted: 06/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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27
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Carroll CM, Li YM. Physiological and pathological roles of the γ-secretase complex. Brain Res Bull 2016; 126:199-206. [PMID: 27133790 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2016] [Revised: 04/19/2016] [Accepted: 04/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Gamma-secretase (GS) is an enzyme complex that cleaves numerous substrates, and it is best known for cleaving amyloid precursor protein (APP) to form amyloid-beta (Aβ) peptides. Aberrant cleavage of APP can lead to Alzheimer's disease, so much research has been done to better understand GS structure and function in hopes of developing therapeutics for Alzheimer's. Therefore, most of the attention in this field has been focused on developing modulators that reduce pathogenic forms of Aβ while leaving Notch and other GS substrates intact, but GS provides multiple avenues of modulation that could improve AD pathology. GS has complex regulation, through its essential subunits and other associated proteins, providing other targets for AD drugs. Therapeutics can also alter GS trafficking and thereby improve cognition, or move beyond Aβ entirely, effecting Notch and neural stem cells. GS also cleaves substrates that affect synaptic morphology and function, presenting another window by which GS modulation could improve AD pathology. Taken together, GS presents a unique cross road for neural processes and an ideal target for AD therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney M Carroll
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, NY, United States; Program of Neuroscience, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, NY, United States.
| | - Yue-Ming Li
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, NY, United States; Program of Neuroscience, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, NY, United States; Program of Pharmacology, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, NY, United States
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28
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Bursavich MG, Harrison BA, Blain JF. Gamma Secretase Modulators: New Alzheimer's Drugs on the Horizon? J Med Chem 2016; 59:7389-409. [PMID: 27007185 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.5b01960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The rapidly aging population desperately requires new therapies for Alzheimer's disease. Despite years of pharmaceutical research, limited clinical success has been realized, with several failed disease modification therapies in recent years. On the basis of compelling genetic evidence, the pharmaceutical industry has put a large emphasis on brain beta amyloid (Aβ) either through its removal via antibodies or by targeting the proteases responsible for its production. In this Perspective, we focus on the development of small molecules that improve the activity of one such protease, gamma secretase, through an allosteric binding site to preferentially increase the concentration of the shorter non-amyloidogenic Aβ species. After a few early failures due to poor drug-like properties, the industry is now on the cusp of delivering gamma secretase modulators for clinical proof-of-mechanism studies that combine potency and efficacy with improved drug-like properties such as lower cLogP, high central nervous system multiparameter optimization scores, and high sp(3) character.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew G Bursavich
- FORUM Pharmaceuticals , 225 Second Avenue, Waltham, Massachusetts 02451, United States
| | - Bryce A Harrison
- FORUM Pharmaceuticals , 225 Second Avenue, Waltham, Massachusetts 02451, United States
| | - Jean-François Blain
- FORUM Pharmaceuticals , 225 Second Avenue, Waltham, Massachusetts 02451, United States
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29
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Dines M, Lamprecht R. The Role of Ephs and Ephrins in Memory Formation. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2015; 19:pyv106. [PMID: 26371183 PMCID: PMC4851260 DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyv106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2015] [Accepted: 09/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to efficiently store memories in the brain is a fundamental process and its impairment is associated with multiple human mental disorders. Evidence indicates that long-term memory formation involves alterations of synaptic efficacy produced by modifications in neural transmission and morphology. The Eph receptors and their cognate ephrin ligands have been shown to be involved in these key neuronal processes by regulating events such as presynaptic transmitter release, postsynaptic glutamate receptor conductance and trafficking, synaptic glutamate reuptake, and dendritic spine morphogenesis. Recent findings show that Ephs and ephrins are needed for memory formation in different organisms. These proteins participate in the formation of various types of memories that are subserved by different neurons and brain regions. Ephs and ephrins are involved in brain disorders and diseases with memory impairment symptoms, including Alzheimer's disease and anxiety. Drugs that agonize or antagonize Ephs/ephrins signaling have been developed and could serve as therapeutic agents to treat such diseases. Ephs and ephrins may therefore induce cellular alterations mandatory for memory formation and serve as a target for pharmacological intervention for treatment of memory-related brain diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Raphael Lamprecht
- Sagol Department of Neurobiology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Haifa, Israel.
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30
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Abstract
Proteases regulate a myriad of cell functions, both in normal and disease states. In addition to protein turnover, they regulate a range of signaling processes, including those mediated by Eph receptors and their ephrin ligands. A variety of proteases is reported to directly cleave Ephs and/or ephrins under different conditions, to promote receptor and/or ligand shedding, and regulate receptor/ligand internalisation and signaling. They also cleave other adhesion proteins in response to Eph-ephrin interactions, to indirectly facilitate Eph-mediated functions. Proteases thus contribute to Eph/ephrin mediated changes in cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions, in cell morphology and in cell migration and invasion, in a manner which appears to be tightly regulated by, and co-ordinated with, Eph signaling. This review summarizes the current literature describing the function and regulation of protease activities during Eph/ephrin-mediated cell signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lakmali Atapattu
- a Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology ; Monash University , Victoria ; Australia
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31
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Tadeu AMB, Lin S, Hou L, Chung L, Zhong M, Zhao H, Horsley V. Transcriptional profiling of ectoderm specification to keratinocyte fate in human embryonic stem cells. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0122493. [PMID: 25849374 PMCID: PMC4388500 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0122493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2014] [Accepted: 02/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, several studies have shed light into the processes that regulate epidermal specification and homeostasis. We previously showed that a broad-spectrum γ-secretase inhibitor DAPT promoted early keratinocyte specification in human embryonic stem cells triggered to undergo ectoderm specification. Here, we show that DAPT accelerates human embryonic stem cell differentiation and induces expression of the ectoderm protein AP2. Furthermore, we utilize RNA sequencing to identify several candidate regulators of ectoderm specification including those involved in epithelial and epidermal development in human embryonic stem cells. Genes associated with transcriptional regulation and growth factor activity are significantly enriched upon DAPT treatment during specification of human embryonic stem cells to the ectoderm lineage. The human ectoderm cell signature identified in this study contains several genes expressed in ectodermal and epithelial tissues. Importantly, these genes are also associated with skin disorders and ectodermal defects, providing a platform for understanding the biology of human epidermal keratinocyte development under diseased and homeostatic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Mafalda Baptista Tadeu
- Yale University, Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, New Haven, CT, 06511, United States of America
| | - Samantha Lin
- Yale University, Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, New Haven, CT, 06511, United States of America
| | - Lin Hou
- Yale University, Department of Biostatistics, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, 06520, United States of America
| | - Lisa Chung
- Yale University, Department of Biostatistics, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, 06520, United States of America
| | - Mei Zhong
- Yale University, Yale Stem Cell Center, Genomics Facility, New Haven, CT, 06520, United States of America
| | - Hongyu Zhao
- Yale University, Department of Biostatistics, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, 06520, United States of America
| | - Valerie Horsley
- Yale University, Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, New Haven, CT, 06511, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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32
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Lefort R. Reversing synapse loss in Alzheimer's disease: Rho-guanosine triphosphatases and insights from other brain disorders. Neurotherapeutics 2015; 12:19-28. [PMID: 25588580 PMCID: PMC4322073 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-014-0328-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a monumental public health crisis with no effective cure or treatment. To date, therapeutic strategies have focused almost exclusively on upstream signaling events in the disease, namely on β-amyloid and amyloid precursor protein processing, and have, unfortunately, yielded few, if any, promising results. An alternative approach may be to target signaling events downstream of β-amyloid and even tau. However, with so many pathways already linked to the disease, understanding which ones are "drivers" versus "passengers" in the pathogenesis of the disease remains a tremendous challenge. Given the critical roles of Rho-guanosine triphosphatases (GTPases) in regulating the actin cytoskeleton and spine dynamics, and the strong association between spine abnormalities and cognition, it is not surprising that mutations in a number of genes involved in Rho-GTPase signaling have been implicated in several brain disorders, including schizophrenia and autism. And now, there is mounting literature implicating Rho-GTPase signaling in AD pathogenesis as well. Here, I review this evidence, with a particular emphasis on the regulators of Rho-GTPase signaling, namely guanine nucleotide exchange factors and GTPase-activating proteins. Several of these have been linked to various aspects of AD, and each offers a novel potential therapeutic target for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger Lefort
- The Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, and Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, 10032, USA,
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33
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Gucciardo E, Sugiyama N, Lehti K. Eph- and ephrin-dependent mechanisms in tumor and stem cell dynamics. Cell Mol Life Sci 2014; 71:3685-710. [PMID: 24794629 PMCID: PMC11113620 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-014-1633-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2013] [Revised: 03/31/2014] [Accepted: 04/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The erythropoietin-producing hepatocellular (Eph) receptors comprise the largest family of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). Initially regarded as axon-guidance and tissue-patterning molecules, Eph receptors have now been attributed with various functions during development, tissue homeostasis, and disease pathogenesis. Their ligands, ephrins, are synthesized as membrane-associated molecules. At least two properties make this signaling system unique: (1) the signal can be simultaneously transduced in the receptor- and the ligand-expressing cell, (2) the signaling outcome through the same molecules can be opposite depending on cellular context. Moreover, shedding of Eph and ephrin ectodomains as well as ligand-dependent and -independent receptor crosstalk with other RTKs, proteases, and adhesion molecules broadens the repertoire of Eph/ephrin functions. These integrated pathways provide plasticity to cell-microenvironment communication in varying tissue contexts. The complex molecular networks and dynamic cellular outcomes connected to the Eph/ephrin signaling in tumor-host communication and stem cell niche are the main focus of this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Gucciardo
- Research Programs Unit, Genome-Scale Biology, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki, P.O.B. 63, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Nami Sugiyama
- Research Programs Unit, Genome-Scale Biology, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki, P.O.B. 63, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Biosystems Science and Bioengineering, ETH Zurich, Mattenstrasse 26, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Kaisa Lehti
- Research Programs Unit, Genome-Scale Biology, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki, P.O.B. 63, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
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Henley DB, Sundell KL, Sethuraman G, Dowsett SA, May PC. Safety profile of semagacestat, a gamma-secretase inhibitor: IDENTITY trial findings. Curr Med Res Opin 2014; 30:2021-32. [PMID: 24983746 DOI: 10.1185/03007995.2014.939167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Semagacestat, a γ-secretase inhibitor, demonstrated an unfavorable risk-benefit profile in a Phase 3 study of patients with Alzheimer's disease (IDENTITY trials), and clinical development was halted. To assist in future development of γ-secretase inhibitors, we report detailed safety findings from the IDENTITY study, with emphasis on those that might be mechanistically linked to γ-secretase inhibition. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS The IDENTITY trial was a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of semagacestat (100 mg and 140 mg), in which 1537 patients age 55 years and older with probable Alzheimer's disease were randomized. Treatment-emergent adverse events (TEAEs) are reported by body system along with pertinent laboratory, vital sign, and ECG findings. RESULTS Semagacestat treatment was associated with increased reporting of suspected Notch-related adverse events (gastrointestinal, infection, and skin cancer related). Other relevant safety findings associated with semagacestat treatment included cognitive and functional worsening, skin-related TEAEs, renal and hepatic changes, increased QT interval, and weight loss. With few exceptions, differences between semagacestat and placebo treatment groups were no longer significant after cessation of treatment with active drug. CONCLUSIONS Many of these safety findings can be attributed to γ-secretase inhibition, and may be valuable to researchers developing γ-secretase inhibitors.
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35
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Romain G, Opacka-Juffry J. Cerebral ageing-the role of insulin and insulin-like growth factor signalling: A review. World J Neurol 2014; 4:12-22. [DOI: 10.5316/wjn.v4.i3.12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2014] [Revised: 11/11/2014] [Accepted: 12/01/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cerebral ageing is a complex biological process associated with progressing cerebrovascular disease and neuronal death. It does not always, however, associate with a functional decline, as the ageing mammalian brain retains considerable functional plasticity which supports successful cerebral ageing where age-related cognitive decline is modest. On the contrary, pathological cerebral ageing results in memory impairment and cognitive deterioration, with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) being a florid example. Trophic/growth factors promote brain plasticity; among them are peptides which belong to the insulin family. Preclinical research suggests that the evolutionarily conserved brain insulin/insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) signalling system controls lifespan and protects against some features of AD such as neurodegeneration-related accumulation of toxic proteins and cognitive deficiencies, as observed in animal models. Insulin and IGF-1 activate cell signalling mechanisms which play protective and regenerative roles; abnormalities in the insulin/IGF-1 system may trigger a cascade of neurodegeneration in AD. AD patients show cerebral resistance to insulin which associates with IGF-I resistance and dysregulation of insulin/IGF-1 receptors as well as cognitive deterioration. This review is focused on the roles of the insulin/IGF-1 signalling system in cerebral ageing and its potential involvement in neurodegeneration in the human brain as seen against the background of preclinical evidence.
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EphA4 receptor shedding regulates spinal motor axon guidance. Curr Biol 2014; 24:2355-65. [PMID: 25264256 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2014.08.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Revised: 07/22/2014] [Accepted: 08/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Proteolytic processing of axon guidance receptors modulates their expression and functions. Contact repulsion by membrane-associated ephrins and Eph receptors was proposed to be facilitated by ectodomain cleavage, but whether this phenomenon is required for axon guidance in vivo is unknown. RESULTS In support of established models, we find that cleavage of EphA4 promotes cell-cell and growth cone-cell detachment in vitro. Unexpectedly, however, a cleavage resistant isoform of EphA4 is as effective as a wild-type EphA4 in redirecting motor axons in limbs. Mice in which EphA4 cleavage is genetically abolished have motor axon guidance defects, suggesting an important role of EphA4 cleavage in nonneuronal tissues such as the limb mesenchyme target of spinal motor neurons. Indeed, we find that blocking EphA4 cleavage increases expression of full-length EphA4 in limb mesenchyme, which-via cis-attenuation-apparently reduces the effective concentration of ephrinAs capable of triggering EphA4 forward signaling in the motor axons. CONCLUSIONS We propose that EphA4 cleavage is required to establish the concentration differential of active ephrins in the target tissue that is required for proper axon guidance. Our study reveals a novel mechanism to regulate guidance decision at an intermediate target based on the modulation of ligand availability by the proteolytic processing of the receptor.
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Rosenberger AFN, Rozemuller AJM, van der Flier WM, Scheltens P, van der Vies SM, Hoozemans JJM. Altered distribution of the EphA4 kinase in hippocampal brain tissue of patients with Alzheimer's disease correlates with pathology. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2014; 2:79. [PMID: 25027113 PMCID: PMC4149234 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-014-0079-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2014] [Accepted: 06/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Synaptic dysfunction occurs early in the progression of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and correlates with memory decline. There is emerging evidence that deregulation of Erythropoietin-producing hepatocellular (Eph) receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK) signaling contributes to the aberrant synaptic functions associated with neurodegeneration. The Eph receptor A4 is highly expressed in human adult hippocampal brain tissue and was previously linked to cognitive impairment in a transgenic mouse model for AD. Whether EphA4 levels are altered in AD brain remains elusive. Therefore we investigated the protein levels and localization of EphA4 in human hippocampus derived from AD (n = 29) as well as non-demented control cases (n = 19). The total EphA4 protein levels were not changed in AD patients compared to control cases. However, immunohistochemical localization of EphA4 revealed an altered distribution in AD compared to control hippocampus. EphA4 immunoreactivity was observed in plaque-like structures in AD cases. Double-labelling with phosphorylated tau and amyloid beta indicates that EphA4 co-localizes with neuritic plaques in AD. This altered distribution pattern was observed at early stages (Braak stage II) and correlates with the hallmarks of AD pathology suggesting a reduced availability of EphA4 that is likely to contribute to synaptic dysfunction that occurs early in AD.
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Yang X, Hou D, Jiang W, Zhang C. Intercellular protein-protein interactions at synapses. Protein Cell 2014; 5:420-44. [PMID: 24756565 PMCID: PMC4026422 DOI: 10.1007/s13238-014-0054-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2014] [Accepted: 03/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemical synapses are asymmetric intercellular junctions through which neurons send nerve impulses to communicate with other neurons or excitable cells. The appropriate formation of synapses, both spatially and temporally, is essential for brain function and depends on the intercellular protein-protein interactions of cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) at synaptic clefts. The CAM proteins link pre- and post-synaptic sites, and play essential roles in promoting synapse formation and maturation, maintaining synapse number and type, accumulating neurotransmitter receptors and ion channels, controlling neuronal differentiation, and even regulating synaptic plasticity directly. Alteration of the interactions of CAMs leads to structural and functional impairments, which results in many neurological disorders, such as autism, Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the functions of CAMs during development and in the mature neural system, as well as in the pathogenesis of some neurological disorders. Here, we review the function of the major classes of CAMs, and how dysfunction of CAMs relates to several neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofei Yang
- Key Laboratory of Cognitive Science, Laboratory of Membrane Ion Channels and Medicine, College of Biomedical Engineering, South-Central University for Nationalities, Wuhan, 430074 China
| | - Dongmei Hou
- Key Laboratory of Cognitive Science, Laboratory of Membrane Ion Channels and Medicine, College of Biomedical Engineering, South-Central University for Nationalities, Wuhan, 430074 China
- State Key Laboratory of Biomembrane and Membrane Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871 China
- PKU-IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, Beijing, 100871 China
| | - Wei Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Cognitive Science, Laboratory of Membrane Ion Channels and Medicine, College of Biomedical Engineering, South-Central University for Nationalities, Wuhan, 430074 China
- State Key Laboratory of Biomembrane and Membrane Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871 China
- PKU-IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, Beijing, 100871 China
| | - Chen Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Biomembrane and Membrane Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871 China
- PKU-IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, Beijing, 100871 China
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M. Vargas L, Leal N, Estrada LD, González A, Serrano F, Araya K, Gysling K, Inestrosa NC, Pasquale EB, Alvarez AR. EphA4 activation of c-Abl mediates synaptic loss and LTP blockade caused by amyloid-β oligomers. PLoS One 2014; 9:e92309. [PMID: 24658113 PMCID: PMC3962387 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0092309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2013] [Accepted: 02/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The early stages of Alzheimer's disease are characterised by impaired synaptic plasticity and synapse loss. Here, we show that amyloid-β oligomers (AβOs) activate the c-Abl kinase in dendritic spines of cultured hippocampal neurons and that c-Abl kinase activity is required for AβOs-induced synaptic loss. We also show that the EphA4 receptor tyrosine kinase is upstream of c-Abl activation by AβOs. EphA4 tyrosine phosphorylation (activation) is increased in cultured neurons and synaptoneurosomes exposed to AβOs, and in Alzheimer-transgenic mice brain. We do not detect c-Abl activation in EphA4-knockout neurons exposed to AβOs. More interestingly, we demonstrate EphA4/c-Abl activation is a key-signalling event that mediates the synaptic damage induced by AβOs. According to this results, the EphA4 antagonistic peptide KYL and c-Abl inhibitor STI prevented i) dendritic spine reduction, ii) the blocking of LTP induction and iii) neuronal apoptosis caused by AβOs. Moreover, EphA4-/- neurons or sh-EphA4-transfected neurons showed reduced synaptotoxicity by AβOs. Our results are consistent with EphA4 being a novel receptor that mediates synaptic damage induced by AβOs. EphA4/c-Abl signalling could be a relevant pathway involved in the early cognitive decline observed in Alzheimer's disease patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina M. Vargas
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Laboratorio de Señalización Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, P. Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Nancy Leal
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Laboratorio de Señalización Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, P. Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Lisbell D. Estrada
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Laboratorio de Señalización Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, P. Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Adrian González
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Laboratorio de Señalización Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, P. Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Felipe Serrano
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Centro de Envejecimiento y Regeneración (CARE), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, P. Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Katherine Araya
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Millenium Nucleus in Stress and Addiction, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, P. Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Katia Gysling
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Millenium Nucleus in Stress and Addiction, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, P. Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Nibaldo C. Inestrosa
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Centro de Envejecimiento y Regeneración (CARE), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, P. Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Elena B. Pasquale
- Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Alejandra R. Alvarez
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Laboratorio de Señalización Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, P. Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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Li Y, Wang H, Wang X, Liu Z, Wan Q, Wang G. Differential expression of hippocampal EphA4 and ephrinA3 in anhedonic-like behavior, stress resilience, and antidepressant drug treatment after chronic unpredicted mild stress. Neurosci Lett 2014; 566:292-7. [PMID: 24631563 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2014.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2013] [Revised: 02/22/2014] [Accepted: 03/04/2014] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Stress exposure is one of the major risk factors of depression, but the mechanism is not understood. While some individuals show resilience to stress exposure, antidepressants only partially reduce stress-induced depression in both humans and rodents. Stress could dysregulate the remodeling of neuronal dendrites and spines in hippocampus while antidepressants could recover the deficiency induced by stress. EphA4 and its ligand ephrinA3 are critical in the remodeling of neuronal dendrites and spines, but the relationship between ephrinA3/EphA4, stress-induced depression and antidepressants treatment is largely unknown. Based on a rat chronic unpredicted mild stress (CUMS) model, we investigated ephrinA3/EphA4 expression in stress susceptibility, stress resilience, treatment response and treatment resistance in rats. CUMS led to downregulation of EphA4 expression and upregulation of ephrinA3 expression in the hippocampus of stress-susceptible rats, but not in stress-resilient rats. Dysregulated EphA4 and ephrinA3 can be rescued by fluoxetine administration in drug responders, but not in fluoxetine resistant rats. These data provide insights into the potential role of EphA4 and ephrinA3 after stressor exposure, stress adaptation, fluoxetine response and drug treatment refraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Li
- Department of Psychiatry, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Jiefang Road 238#, Wuhan 430060, Hubei, PR China
| | - Huiling Wang
- Department of Psychiatry, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Jiefang Road 238#, Wuhan 430060, Hubei, PR China; Institute of Neuropsychiatry, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, PR China
| | - Xiaoping Wang
- Department of Psychiatry, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Jiefang Road 238#, Wuhan 430060, Hubei, PR China; Institute of Neuropsychiatry, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, PR China
| | - Zhongchun Liu
- Department of Psychiatry, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Jiefang Road 238#, Wuhan 430060, Hubei, PR China; Institute of Neuropsychiatry, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, PR China
| | - Qirong Wan
- Department of Psychiatry, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Jiefang Road 238#, Wuhan 430060, Hubei, PR China
| | - Gaohua Wang
- Department of Psychiatry, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Jiefang Road 238#, Wuhan 430060, Hubei, PR China; Institute of Neuropsychiatry, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, PR China.
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Impaired spatial memory in mice lacking CD3ζ is associated with altered NMDA and AMPA receptors signaling independent of T-cell deficiency. J Neurosci 2014; 33:18672-85. [PMID: 24259588 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3028-13.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The immunoreceptor-associated protein CD3ζ is known for its role in immunity and has also been implicated in neuronal development and synaptic plasticity. However, the mechanism by which CD3ζ regulates synaptic transmission remains unclear. In this study, we showed that mice lacking CD3ζ exhibited defects in spatial learning and memory as examined by the Barnes maze and object location memory tasks. Given that peripheral T cells have been shown to support cognitive functions and neural plasticity, we generated CD3ζ(-/-) mice in which the peripheral T cells were repopulated to a normal level by syngeneic bone marrow transplantation. Using this approach, we showed that T-cell replenishment in CD3ζ(-/-) mice did not restore spatial memory defects, suggesting that the cognitive deficits in CD3ζ(-/-) mice were most likely mediated through a T-cell-independent mechanism. In support of this idea, we showed that CD3ζ proteins were localized to glutamatergic postsynaptic sites, where they interacted with the NMDAR subunit GluN2A. Loss of CD3ζ in brain decreased GluN2A-PSD95 association and GluN2A synaptic localization. This effect was accompanied by a reduced interaction of GluN2A with the key NMDAR downstream signaling protein calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII). Using the glycine-induced, NMDA-dependent form of chemical long-term potentiation (LTP) in cultured cortical neurons, we showed that CD3ζ was required for activity-dependent CaMKII autophosphorylation and for the synaptic recruitment of the AMPAR subunit GluA1. Together, these results support the model that the procognitive function of CD3ζ may be mediated through its involvement in the NMDAR downstream signaling pathway leading to CaMKII-dependent LTP induction.
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Jurisch-Yaksi N, Sannerud R, Annaert W. A fast growing spectrum of biological functions of γ-secretase in development and disease. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2013; 1828:2815-27. [PMID: 24099003 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2013.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2013] [Revised: 04/03/2013] [Accepted: 04/11/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
γ-secretase, which assembles as a tetrameric complex, is an aspartyl protease that proteolytically cleaves substrate proteins within their membrane-spanning domain; a process also known as regulated intramembrane proteolysis (RIP). RIP regulates signaling pathways by abrogating or releasing signaling molecules. Since the discovery, already >15 years ago, of its catalytic component, presenilin, and even much earlier with the identification of amyloid precursor protein as its first substrate, γ-secretase has been commonly associated with Alzheimer's disease. However, starting with Notch and thereafter a continuously increasing number of novel substrates, γ-secretase is becoming linked to an equally broader range of biological processes. This review presents an updated overview of the current knowledge on the diverse molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways controlled by γ-secretase, with a focus on organ development, homeostasis and dysfunction. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Intramembrane Proteases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Jurisch-Yaksi
- Laboratory for Membrane Trafficking, VIB-Center for the Biology of Disease & Department for Human Genetics (KU Leuven), Leuven, Belgium
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44
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Lee H, Lee EJ, Song YS, Kim E. Long-term depression-inducing stimuli promote cleavage of the synaptic adhesion molecule NGL-3 through NMDA receptors, matrix metalloproteinases and presenilin/γ-secretase. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2013; 369:20130158. [PMID: 24298159 PMCID: PMC3843889 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2013.0158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Long-term depression (LTD) reduces the functional strength of excitatory synapses through mechanisms that include the removal of AMPA glutamate receptors from the postsynaptic membrane. LTD induction is also known to result in structural changes at excitatory synapses, including the shrinkage of dendritic spines. Synaptic adhesion molecules are thought to contribute to the development, function and plasticity of neuronal synapses largely through their trans-synaptic adhesions. However, little is known about how synaptic adhesion molecules are altered during LTD. We report here that NGL-3 (netrin-G ligand-3), a postsynaptic adhesion molecule that trans-synaptically interacts with the LAR family of receptor tyrosine phosphatases and intracellularly with the postsynaptic scaffolding protein PSD-95, undergoes a proteolytic cleavage process. NGL-3 cleavage is induced by NMDA treatment in cultured neurons and low-frequency stimulation in brain slices and requires the activities of NMDA glutamate receptors, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and presenilin/γ-secretase. These results suggest that NGL-3 is a novel substrate of MMPs and γ-secretase and that NGL-3 cleavage may regulate synaptic adhesion during LTD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyejin Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), , Daejeon 305-701, Korea
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45
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Lai WB, Wang BJ, Hu MK, Hsu WM, Her GM, Liao YF. Ligand-dependent activation of EphA4 signaling regulates the proteolysis of amyloid precursor protein through a Lyn-mediated pathway. Mol Neurobiol 2013; 49:1055-68. [PMID: 24217950 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-013-8580-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2013] [Accepted: 10/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease is the most common dementia afflicting the elderly in modern society. This disease arises from the neurotoxicity elicited by abnormal aggregates of amyloid-β (Aβ) protein. Such aggregates form through the cleavage of amyloid precursor protein (APP) by β-secretase and the subsequent proteolysis of the APP C-terminal fragment (APP-βCTF or C99) by γ-secretase to yield Aβ and APP intracellular domain (AICD). Recent evidence suggests that C99 and AICD may exert harmful effects on cells, suggesting that the proteolytic products of APP, including Aβ, C99, and AICD, could play a pivotal role in neuronal viability. Here, we demonstrate that ligand-activated EphA4 signaling governs the proteostasis of C99, AICD, and Aβ, without significantly affecting γ-secretase activity. EphA4 induced accumulation of C99 and AICD through a Lyn-dependent pathway; activation of this pathway triggered phosphorylation of EphA4, resulting in positive feedback of C99 and AICD proteostasis. Inhibition of EphA4 by dasatinib, a receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor, effectively suppressed C99 and AICD accumulation. Furthermore, EphA4 signaling controlled C99 and AICD proteolysis through the ubiquitin-proteasome system. In conclusion, we have identified an EphA4-Lyn pathway that is essential for the metabolism of APP and its proteolytic derivatives, thereby providing novel pharmacological targets for the development of anti-Aβ therapeutics for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Bin Lai
- Graduate Institute of Life Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
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46
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The role of γ-secretase in hippocampal synaptic transmission and activity-dependent synaptic plasticity. Neurosci Lett 2013; 554:16-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2013.08.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2013] [Revised: 08/08/2013] [Accepted: 08/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Lisabeth EM, Falivelli G, Pasquale EB. Eph receptor signaling and ephrins. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2013; 5:5/9/a009159. [PMID: 24003208 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a009159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 281] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The Eph receptors are the largest of the RTK families. Like other RTKs, they transduce signals from the cell exterior to the interior through ligand-induced activation of their kinase domain. However, the Eph receptors also have distinctive features. Instead of binding soluble ligands, they generally mediate contact-dependent cell-cell communication by interacting with surface-associated ligands-the ephrins-on neighboring cells. Eph receptor-ephrin complexes emanate bidirectional signals that affect both receptor- and ephrin-expressing cells. Intriguingly, ephrins can also attenuate signaling by Eph receptors coexpressed in the same cell. Additionally, Eph receptors can modulate cell behavior independently of ephrin binding and kinase activity. The Eph/ephrin system regulates many developmental processes and adult tissue homeostasis. Its abnormal function has been implicated in various diseases, including cancer. Thus, Eph receptors represent promising therapeutic targets. However, more research is needed to better understand the many aspects of their complex biology that remain mysterious.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika M Lisabeth
- Cancer Center, Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
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48
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Abstract
Changes in brain circuits occur within specific paradigms of action in the adult brain. These paradigms include changes in behavioral activity patterns, alterations in environmental experience, and direct brain injury. Each of these paradigms can produce axonal sprouting, dendritic morphology changes, and alterations in synaptic connectivity. Activity-, experience-, and injury-dependent plasticity alter neuronal network function and behavioral output, and in the case of brain injury, may produce neurological recovery. The molecular substrate for adult neuronal plasticity overlaps in these three paradigms in key signaling pathways. These common pathways for adult plasticity suggest common mechanisms for activity-, experience-, and injury-dependent plasticity. These common pathways may also interact to enhance or impede each other during adult recovery of function after injury. This review focuses on common molecular changes evoked during the process of adult neuronal plasticity, with a focus on neural repair in stroke.
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Rogers K, Felsenstein KM, Hrdlicka L, Tu Z, Albayya F, Lee W, Hopp S, Miller MJ, Spaulding D, Yang Z, Hodgdon H, Nolan S, Wen M, Costa D, Blain JF, Freeman E, De Strooper B, Vulsteke V, Scrocchi L, Zetterberg H, Portelius E, Hutter-Paier B, Havas D, Ahlijanian M, Flood D, Leventhal L, Shapiro G, Patzke H, Chesworth R, Koenig G. Modulation of γ-secretase by EVP-0015962 reduces amyloid deposition and behavioral deficits in Tg2576 mice. Mol Neurodegener 2012; 7:61. [PMID: 23249765 PMCID: PMC3573960 DOI: 10.1186/1750-1326-7-61] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2012] [Accepted: 12/14/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background A hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease is the presence of senile plaques in human brain primarily containing the amyloid peptides Aβ42 and Aβ40. Many drug discovery efforts have focused on decreasing the production of Aβ42 through γ-secretase inhibition. However, identification of γ-secretase inhibitors has also uncovered mechanism-based side effects. One approach to circumvent these side effects has been modulation of γ-secretase to shift Aβ production to favor shorter, less amyloidogenic peptides than Aβ42, without affecting the overall cleavage efficiency of the enzyme. This approach, frequently called γ-secretase modulation, appears more promising and has lead to the development of new therapeutic candidates for disease modification in Alzheimer’s disease. Results Here we describe EVP-0015962, a novel small molecule γ-secretase modulator. EVP-0015962 decreased Aβ42 in H4 cells (IC50 = 67 nM) and increased the shorter Aβ38 by 1.7 fold at the IC50 for lowering of Aβ42. AβTotal, as well as other carboxyl-terminal fragments of amyloid precursor protein, were not changed. EVP-0015962 did not cause the accumulation of other γ-secretase substrates, such as the Notch and ephrin A4 receptors, whereas a γ-secretase inhibitor reduced processing of both. A single oral dose of EVP-0015962 (30 mg/kg) decreased Aβ42 and did not alter AβTotal peptide levels in a dose-dependent manner in Tg2576 mouse brain at an age when overt Aβ deposition was not present. In Tg2576 mice, chronic treatment with EVP-0015962 (20 or 60 mg/kg/day in a food formulation) reduced Aβ aggregates, amyloid plaques, inflammatory markers, and cognitive deficits. Conclusions EVP-0015962 is orally bioavailable, detected in brain, and a potent, selective γ-secretase modulator in vitro and in vivo. Chronic treatment with EVP-0015962 was well tolerated in mice and lowered the production of Aβ42, attenuated memory deficits, and reduced Aβ plaque formation and inflammation in Tg2576 transgenic animals. In summary, these data suggest that γ-secretase modulation with EVP-0015962 represents a viable therapeutic alternative for disease modification in Alzheimer’s disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn Rogers
- EnVivo Pharmaceuticals, Inc, 500 Arsenal Street, Watertown, MA 02472, USA
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Ge T, Feng J, Hibar DP, Thompson PM, Nichols TE. Increasing power for voxel-wise genome-wide association studies: the random field theory, least square kernel machines and fast permutation procedures. Neuroimage 2012; 63:858-73. [PMID: 22800732 PMCID: PMC3635688 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2012] [Revised: 07/04/2012] [Accepted: 07/07/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Imaging traits are thought to have more direct links to genetic variation than diagnostic measures based on cognitive or clinical assessments and provide a powerful substrate to examine the influence of genetics on human brains. Although imaging genetics has attracted growing attention and interest, most brain-wide genome-wide association studies focus on voxel-wise single-locus approaches, without taking advantage of the spatial information in images or combining the effect of multiple genetic variants. In this paper we present a fast implementation of voxel- and cluster-wise inferences based on the random field theory to fully use the spatial information in images. The approach is combined with a multi-locus model based on least square kernel machines to associate the joint effect of several single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) with imaging traits. A fast permutation procedure is also proposed which significantly reduces the number of permutations needed relative to the standard empirical method and provides accurate small p-value estimates based on parametric tail approximation. We explored the relation between 448,294 single nucleotide polymorphisms and 18,043 genes in 31,662 voxels of the entire brain across 740 elderly subjects from the Alzheimer's disease neuroimaging initiative (ADNI). Structural MRI scans were analyzed using tensor-based morphometry (TBM) to compute 3D maps of regional brain volume differences compared to an average template image based on healthy elderly subjects. We find method to be more sensitive compared with voxel-wise single-locus approaches. A number of genes were identified as having significant associations with volumetric changes. The most associated gene was GRIN2B, which encodes the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptor NR2B subunit and affects both the parietal and temporal lobes in human brains. Its role in Alzheimer's disease has been widely acknowledged and studied, suggesting the validity of the approach. The various advantages over existing approaches indicate a great potential offered by this novel framework to detect genetic influences on human brains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian Ge
- Centre for Computational Systems Biology and School of Mathematical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Department of Computer Science, The University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
| | - Jianfeng Feng
- Centre for Computational Systems Biology and School of Mathematical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Department of Computer Science, The University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
| | - Derrek P. Hibar
- Laboratory of Neuro Imaging, Department of Neurology, UCLA School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Paul M. Thompson
- Laboratory of Neuro Imaging, Department of Neurology, UCLA School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Thomas E. Nichols
- Department of Statistics & Warwick Manufacturing Group, The University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
- Oxford Centre for Functional MRI of the Brain (FMRIB), Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Oxford University, UK
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