1
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Kostic L, Leung C, Ahmad Murad K, Kancheva S, Perna S, Lee B, Barker N. Lgr5 marks stem/progenitor cells contributing to epithelial and muscle development in the mouse esophagus. Nat Commun 2024; 15:7145. [PMID: 39164270 PMCID: PMC11335976 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-51559-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2024] [Indexed: 08/22/2024] Open
Abstract
The existence and function of Lgr5+ cells within the developing esophagus remains unknown. Here, we document multiple discrete Lgr5+ populations in the developing mouse esophagus, predominantly within nascent epithelial and external muscle layers. Lgr5 expression initially emerges in the developing proximal embryonic epithelium, but progressively extends distally and persists within the distal epithelium of neonates. Fate mapping and ablation analyses reveal a long-term contribution of epithelial Lgr5+ cells to esophageal organogenesis. Additionally, Lgr5-expressing cells are present in the developing external muscle layer, particularly during the development of the striated component. Fate mapping reveals a significant contribution of these embryonic Lgr5+ cells to the adult muscle layer. Embryonic Lgr5+ epithelial cells are also found to be important for regulating epithelial development, serving as a key source of Wnt6, among other ligands, to promote epithelial cell proliferation and formation of epithelial layers. These findings significantly enhance our understanding of esophageal development and shed light on the involvement of Lgr5+ stem/progenitor cells during organogenesis. Importantly, this study lays the foundation for investigating esophageal diseases related to the Lgr5+ stem/progenitor cell pool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lana Kostic
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology (IMCB), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR)61 Biopolis Drive, Proteos, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Carly Leung
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology (IMCB), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR)61 Biopolis Drive, Proteos, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Katzrin Ahmad Murad
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology (IMCB), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR)61 Biopolis Drive, Proteos, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Snezhina Kancheva
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology (IMCB), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR)61 Biopolis Drive, Proteos, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Stefano Perna
- Centre for Biomedical Informatics, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, 59 Nanyang Drive, Experimental Medicine, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Bernett Lee
- Centre for Biomedical Informatics, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, 59 Nanyang Drive, Experimental Medicine, Singapore, Singapore
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, Immunos, Singapore, Singapore
- Infectious Disease Labs (ID Labs), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, Immunos, Singapore, Singapore
- Khoo Teck Puat Hospital, 90 Yishun Central, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Nick Barker
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology (IMCB), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR)61 Biopolis Drive, Proteos, Singapore, Singapore.
- Department of Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
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2
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Sáenz JB. Follow the Metaplasia: Characteristics and Oncogenic Implications of Metaplasia's Pattern of Spread Throughout the Stomach. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:741574. [PMID: 34869328 PMCID: PMC8633114 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.741574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The human stomach functions as both a digestive and innate immune organ. Its main product, acid, rapidly breaks down ingested products and equally serves as a highly effective microbial filter. The gastric epithelium has evolved mechanisms to appropriately handle the myriad of injurious substances, both exogenous and endogenous, to maintain the epithelial barrier and restore homeostasis. The most significant chronic insult that the stomach must face is Helicobacter pylori (Hp), a stomach-adapted bacterium that can colonize the stomach and induce chronic inflammatory and pre-neoplastic changes. The progression from chronic inflammation to dysplasia relies on the decades-long interplay between this oncobacterium and its gastric host. This review summarizes the functional and molecular regionalization of the stomach at homeostasis and details how chronic inflammation can lead to characteristic alterations in these developmental demarcations, both at the topographic and glandular levels. More importantly, this review illustrates our current understanding of the epithelial mechanisms that underlie the pre-malignant gastric landscape, how Hp adapts to and exploits these changes, and the clinical implications of identifying these changes in order to stratify patients at risk of developing gastric cancer, a leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- José B Sáenz
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
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3
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Zhang Y, Bailey D, Yang P, Kim E, Que J. The development and stem cells of the esophagus. Development 2021; 148:148/6/dev193839. [PMID: 33782045 PMCID: PMC8034879 DOI: 10.1242/dev.193839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The esophagus is derived from the anterior portion of the foregut endoderm, which also gives rise to the respiratory system. As it develops, the esophageal lining is transformed from a simple columnar epithelium into a stratified squamous cell layer, accompanied by the replacement of unspecified mesenchyme with layers of muscle cells. Studies in animal models have provided significant insights into the roles of various signaling pathways in esophageal development. More recent studies using human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) further demonstrate that some of these signaling pathways are conserved in human esophageal development. In addition, a combination of mouse genetics and hPSC differentiation approaches have uncovered new players that control esophageal morphogenesis. In this Review, we summarize these new findings and discuss how the esophagus is established and matures throughout different stages, including its initial specification, respiratory-esophageal separation, epithelial morphogenesis and maintenance. We also discuss esophageal muscular development and enteric nervous system innervation, which are essential for esophageal structure and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongchun Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism & Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic and Developmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, People's Republic of China,Authors for correspondence (; )
| | - Dominique Bailey
- Division of Digestive and Liver Disease, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA,Columbia Center for Human Development, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA,Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Patrick Yang
- Division of Digestive and Liver Disease, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Eugene Kim
- Division of Digestive and Liver Disease, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA,Columbia Center for Human Development, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Jianwen Que
- Division of Digestive and Liver Disease, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA,Columbia Center for Human Development, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA,Authors for correspondence (; )
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4
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MESHIDA KEIKO, LIN STEPHEN, DOMNING DARYLP, REIDENBERG JOYS, WANG PAUL, GILLAND EDWIN. Cetacean Orbital Muscles: Anatomy and Function of the Circular Layers. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2020; 303:1792-1811. [PMID: 31587496 PMCID: PMC7131895 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2019] [Revised: 08/10/2019] [Accepted: 08/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Dissections of cetacean orbits identified two distinct circular muscle layers that are uniquely more elaborate than the orbitalis muscles described in numerous mammals. The circular orbital muscles in cetaceans form layers that lie both external and internal to the rectus extra ocular muscles (EOMs). A cone-shaped external circular muscle (ECM) that invests the external surface of the rectus EOMs was found in all cetacean specimens examined. The cetacean ECM corresponds generally to descriptions of the musculus orbitalis in various mammals but is more strongly developed and has more layers than in noncetaceans. A newly identified internal circular muscle (ICM) is located internal to the rectus EOMs and external to the retractor bulbi (RB). The RB is massive in cetaceans and is encased in a connective tissue layer containing convoluted bundles of blood vessels. The most robust ECM and ICM layers were in sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) where they form complete rings. Surprisingly, histological analysis showed the sperm whale ECM to contain both smooth and striated (skeletal) muscle layers while the ICM appeared to contain solely skeletal muscle fibers. The extreme development of the ECM (orbitalis) and RB suggest a co-evolved system mediating high degrees of protrusion and retraction in cetaceans. We know of no homolog of the ICM but its function seems likely related to the complex vascular structures surrounding and deep to the retractor muscle. Skeletal muscle components in orbital circular muscles appear to be highly derived specializations unknown outside of cetaceans. Anat Rec, 2019. © 2019 American Association for Anatomy Anat Rec, 303:1792-1811, 2020. © 2019 American Association for Anatomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- KEIKO MESHIDA
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, Howard University, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - STEPHEN LIN
- Department of Radiology, College of Medicine, Howard University, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - DARYL P. DOMNING
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, Howard University, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - JOY S. REIDENBERG
- Center for Anatomy and Functional Morphology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York
| | - PAUL WANG
- Department of Radiology, College of Medicine, Howard University, Washington, District of Columbia
- College of Science and Engineering, Fu Jen Catholic University, Taipei, Taiwan, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - EDWIN GILLAND
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, Howard University, Washington, District of Columbia
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5
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Vogt CD, Panoskaltsis-Mortari A. Tissue engineering of the gastroesophageal junction. J Tissue Eng Regen Med 2020; 14:855-868. [PMID: 32304170 DOI: 10.1002/term.3045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The gastroesophageal junction has been of clinical interest for some time due to its important role in preventing reflux of caustic stomach contents upward into the esophagus. Failure of this role has been identified as a key driver in gastroesophageal reflux disease, cancer of the lower esophagus, and aspiration-induced lung complications. Due to the large population burden and significant morbidity and mortality related to reflux barrier dysfunction, there is a pressing need to develop tissue engineering solutions which can replace diseased junctions. While good progress has been made in engineering the bodies of the esophagus and stomach, little has been done for the junction between the two. In this review, we discuss pertinent topics which should be considered as tissue engineers begin to address this anatomical region. The embryological development and adult anatomy and histology are discussed to provide context about the native structures which must be replicated. The roles of smooth muscle structures in the esophagus and stomach, as well as the contribution of the diaphragm to normal anti-reflux function are then examined. Finally, engineering considerations including mechanics and current progress in the field of tissue engineering are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caleb D Vogt
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
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6
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Comai G, Heude E, Mella S, Paisant S, Pala F, Gallardo M, Langa F, Kardon G, Gopalakrishnan S, Tajbakhsh S. A distinct cardiopharyngeal mesoderm genetic hierarchy establishes antero-posterior patterning of esophagus striated muscle. eLife 2019; 8:e47460. [PMID: 31535973 PMCID: PMC6752947 DOI: 10.7554/elife.47460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2019] [Accepted: 08/27/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In most vertebrates, the upper digestive tract is composed of muscularized jaws linked to the esophagus that permits food ingestion and swallowing. Masticatory and esophagus striated muscles (ESM) share a common cardiopharyngeal mesoderm (CPM) origin, however ESM are unusual among striated muscles as they are established in the absence of a primary skeletal muscle scaffold. Using mouse chimeras, we show that the transcription factors Tbx1 and Isl1 are required cell-autonomously for myogenic specification of ESM progenitors. Further, genetic loss-of-function and pharmacological studies point to MET/HGF signaling for antero-posterior migration of esophagus muscle progenitors, where Hgf ligand is expressed in adjacent smooth muscle cells. These observations highlight the functional relevance of a smooth and striated muscle progenitor dialogue for ESM patterning. Our findings establish a Tbx1-Isl1-Met genetic hierarchy that uniquely regulates esophagus myogenesis and identify distinct genetic signatures that can be used as framework to interpret pathologies arising within CPM derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glenda Comai
- Department of Developmental and Stem Cell BiologyInstitut PasteurParisFrance
- CNRS UMR 3738ParisFrance
| | - Eglantine Heude
- Department of Developmental and Stem Cell BiologyInstitut PasteurParisFrance
- CNRS UMR 3738ParisFrance
- Department Adaptation du VivantCNRS/MNHN UMR 7221, Muséum national d’Histoire naturelleParisFrance
| | - Sebastian Mella
- Department of Developmental and Stem Cell BiologyInstitut PasteurParisFrance
- CNRS UMR 3738ParisFrance
| | - Sylvain Paisant
- Department of Developmental and Stem Cell BiologyInstitut PasteurParisFrance
- CNRS UMR 3738ParisFrance
| | - Francesca Pala
- Department of Developmental and Stem Cell BiologyInstitut PasteurParisFrance
- CNRS UMR 3738ParisFrance
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology (LCIM)National Institutes of HealthBethesdaUnited States
| | - Mirialys Gallardo
- Department of Human GeneticsUniversity of UtahSalt Lake CityUnited States
| | - Francina Langa
- Mouse Genetics Engineering CenterInstitut PasteurParisFrance
| | - Gabrielle Kardon
- Department of Human GeneticsUniversity of UtahSalt Lake CityUnited States
| | - Swetha Gopalakrishnan
- Department of Developmental and Stem Cell BiologyInstitut PasteurParisFrance
- CNRS UMR 3738ParisFrance
- Institute of Biotechnology, HiLIFEUniversity of HelsinkiHelsinkiFinland
| | - Shahragim Tajbakhsh
- Department of Developmental and Stem Cell BiologyInstitut PasteurParisFrance
- CNRS UMR 3738ParisFrance
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7
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Huycke TR, Tabin CJ. Chick midgut morphogenesis. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2019; 62:109-119. [PMID: 29616718 DOI: 10.1387/ijdb.170325ct] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The gastrointestinal tract is an essential system of organs required for nutrient absorption. As a simple tube early in development, the primitive gut is patterned along its anterior-posterior axis into discrete compartments with unique morphologies relevant to their functions in the digestive process. These morphologies are acquired gradually through development as the gut is patterned by tissue interactions, both molecular and mechanical in nature, involving all three germ layers. With a focus on midgut morphogenesis, we review work in the chick embryo demonstrating how these molecular signals and mechanical forces sculpt the developing gut tube into its mature form. In particular, we highlight two mechanisms by which the midgut increases its absorptive surface area: looping and villification. Additionally, we review the differentiation and patterning of the intestinal mesoderm into the layers of smooth muscle that mechanically drive peristalsis and the villification process itself. Where relevant, we discuss the mechanisms of chick midgut morphogenesis in the context of experimental data from other model systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler R Huycke
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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8
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Jaslove JM, Nelson CM. Smooth muscle: a stiff sculptor of epithelial shapes. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2018; 373:20170318. [PMID: 30249770 PMCID: PMC6158200 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2017.0318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Smooth muscle is increasingly recognized as a key mechanical sculptor of epithelia during embryonic development. Smooth muscle is a mesenchymal tissue that surrounds the epithelia of organs including the gut, blood vessels, lungs, bladder, ureter, uterus, oviduct and epididymis. Smooth muscle is stiffer than its adjacent epithelium and often serves its morphogenetic function by physically constraining the growth of a proliferating epithelial layer. This constraint leads to mechanical instabilities and epithelial morphogenesis through buckling. Smooth muscle stiffness alone, without smooth muscle cell shortening, seems to be sufficient to drive epithelial morphogenesis. Fully understanding the development of organs that use smooth muscle stiffness as a driver of morphogenesis requires investigating how smooth muscle develops, a key aspect of which is distinguishing smooth muscle-like tissues from one another in vivo and in culture. This necessitates a comprehensive appreciation of the genetic, anatomical and functional markers that are used to distinguish the different subtypes of smooth muscle (for example, vascular versus visceral) from similar cell types (including myofibroblasts and myoepithelial cells). Here, we review how smooth muscle acts as a mechanical driver of morphogenesis and discuss ways of identifying smooth muscle, which is critical for understanding these morphogenetic events.This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Mechanics of Development'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob M Jaslove
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, 303 Hoyt Laboratory, William Street, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Celeste M Nelson
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, 303 Hoyt Laboratory, William Street, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Princeton University, 303 Hoyt Laboratory, William Street, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
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9
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Inoue SI, Takahara S, Yoshikawa T, Niihori T, Yanai K, Matsubara Y, Aoki Y. Activated Braf induces esophageal dilation and gastric epithelial hyperplasia in mice. Hum Mol Genet 2018; 26:4715-4727. [PMID: 28973166 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddx354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2017] [Accepted: 08/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Germline mutations in BRAF are a major cause of cardio-facio-cutaneous (CFC) syndrome, which is characterized by heart defects, characteristic craniofacial dysmorphology and dermatologic abnormalities. Patients with CFC syndrome also commonly show gastrointestinal dysfunction, including feeding and swallowing difficulties and gastroesophageal reflux. We have previously found that knock-in mice expressing a Braf Q241R mutation exhibit CFC syndrome-related phenotypes, such as growth retardation, craniofacial dysmorphisms, congenital heart defects and learning deficits. However, it remains unclear whether BrafQ241R/+ mice exhibit gastrointestinal dysfunction. Here, we report that BrafQ241R/+ mice have neonatal feeding difficulties and esophageal dilation. The esophagus tissues from BrafQ241R/+ mice displayed incomplete replacement of smooth muscle with skeletal muscle and decreased contraction. Furthermore, the BrafQ241R/+ mice showed hyperkeratosis and a thickened muscle layer in the forestomach. Treatment with MEK inhibitors ameliorated the growth retardation, esophageal dilation, hyperkeratosis and thickened muscle layer in the forestomach in BrafQ241R/+ mice. The esophageal dilation with aberrant skeletal-smooth muscle boundary in BrafQ241R/+ mice were recovered after treatment with the histone H3K27 demethylase inhibitor GSK-J4. Our results provide clues to elucidate the pathogenesis and possible treatment of gastrointestinal dysfunction and failure to thrive in patients with CFC syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Shingo Takahara
- Department of Medical Genetics.,Department of Cardiovascular Surgery
| | - Takeo Yoshikawa
- Department of Pharmacology, Tohoku University School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | | | - Kazuhiko Yanai
- Department of Pharmacology, Tohoku University School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Yoichi Matsubara
- Department of Medical Genetics.,National Research Institute for Child Health and Development, Tokyo, Japan
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10
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Jia X, Min L, Zhu S, Zhang S, Huang X. Loss of sonic hedgehog gene leads to muscle development disorder and megaesophagus in mice. FASEB J 2018; 32:5703-5715. [DOI: 10.1096/fj.201701581r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Xueting Jia
- Department of GastroenterologyNational Clinical Research Center for Digestive Diseases, Beijing Digestive Disease CenterBeijing Key Laboratory for Precancerous Lesion of Digestive Diseases
- Department of StomatologyBeijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Li Min
- Department of GastroenterologyNational Clinical Research Center for Digestive Diseases, Beijing Digestive Disease CenterBeijing Key Laboratory for Precancerous Lesion of Digestive Diseases
| | - Shengtao Zhu
- Department of GastroenterologyNational Clinical Research Center for Digestive Diseases, Beijing Digestive Disease CenterBeijing Key Laboratory for Precancerous Lesion of Digestive Diseases
| | - Shutian Zhang
- Department of GastroenterologyNational Clinical Research Center for Digestive Diseases, Beijing Digestive Disease CenterBeijing Key Laboratory for Precancerous Lesion of Digestive Diseases
| | - Xiaofeng Huang
- Department of StomatologyBeijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
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11
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Ikeda Y, Zabbarova I, Schaefer CM, Bushnell D, De Groat WC, Kanai A, Bates CM. Fgfr2 is integral for bladder mesenchyme patterning and function. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2017; 312:F607-F618. [PMID: 28052872 DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00463.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2016] [Revised: 12/19/2016] [Accepted: 12/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
While urothelial signals, including sonic hedgehog (Shh), drive bladder mesenchyme differentiation, it is unclear which pathways within the mesenchyme are critical for its development. Studies have shown that fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (Fgfr2) is necessary for kidney and ureter mesenchymal development. Our objective was to determine the role of Fgfr2 in bladder mesenchyme. We used Tbx18cre mice to delete Fgfr2 in bladder mesenchyme (Fgfr2BM-/-). We performed three-dimensional reconstructions, quantitative real-time PCR, in situ hybridization, immunolabeling, ELISAs, immunoblotting, void stain on paper, ex vivo bladder sheet assays, and in vivo decerebrated cystometry. Compared with controls, embryonic (E) day 16.5 (E16.5) Fgfr2BM-/- bladders have thin muscle layers with reduced α-smooth muscle actin levels and thickened lamina propria with increased collagen expression that intrudes into muscle. From postnatal (P) day 1 (P1) to P30, Fgfr2BM-/- bladders demonstrate progressive muscle loss and increased collagen expression. Postnatal Fgfr2BM-/- bladder sheets exhibit decreased contractility and increased passive stretch tension compared with controls. In vivo cystometry revealed high baseline and threshold pressures and shortened intercontractile intervals in Fgfr2BM-/- bladders compared with controls. Mechanistically, while Shh expression appears normal, mRNA and protein readouts of hedgehog activity are increased in E16.5 Fgfr2BM-/- bladders compared with controls. Moreover, E16.5Fgfr2BM-/- bladders exhibit higher levels of Cdo and Boc, hedgehog coreceptors that enhance sensitivity to Shh, than controls. Fgfr2 is critical for bladder mesenchyme patterning by virtue of its role in modulation of hedgehog signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Ikeda
- Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - I Zabbarova
- Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - C M Schaefer
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - D Bushnell
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - W C De Groat
- Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,Department of Pharmacology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; and
| | - A Kanai
- Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,Department of Pharmacology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; and
| | - C M Bates
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; .,Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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12
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Zhang Y, Jiang M, Kim E, Lin S, Liu K, Lan X, Que J. Development and stem cells of the esophagus. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2016; 66:25-35. [PMID: 28007661 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2016.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2016] [Revised: 12/16/2016] [Accepted: 12/16/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The esophagus is derived from the anterior portion of the developmental intermediate foregut, a structure that also gives rise to other organs including the trachea, lung, and stomach. Genetic studies have shown that multiple signaling pathways (e.g. Bmp) and transcription factors (e.g. SOX2) are required for the separation of the esophagus from the neighboring respiratory system. Notably, some of these signaling pathways and transcription factors continue to play essential roles in the subsequent morphogenesis of the esophageal epithelium which undergoes a simple columnar-to-stratified squamous conversion. Reactivation of the relevant signaling pathways has also been associated with pathogenesis of esophageal diseases that affect the epithelium and its stem cells in adults. In this review we will summarize these findings. We will also discuss new data regarding the cell-of-origin for the striated and smooth muscles surrounding the esophagus and how they are differentiated from the mesenchyme during development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongchun Zhang
- Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases and Center for Human Development, Department of Medicine, Columbia University, NY 10032, USA
| | - Ming Jiang
- Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases and Center for Human Development, Department of Medicine, Columbia University, NY 10032, USA
| | - Eugene Kim
- Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases and Center for Human Development, Department of Medicine, Columbia University, NY 10032, USA
| | - Sijie Lin
- Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases and Center for Human Development, Department of Medicine, Columbia University, NY 10032, USA
| | - Kuancan Liu
- Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases and Center for Human Development, Department of Medicine, Columbia University, NY 10032, USA; Institute for Laboratory Medicine, Fuzhou General Hospital, PLA, Fuzhou, Fujian 350025, PR China
| | - Xiaopeng Lan
- Institute for Laboratory Medicine, Fuzhou General Hospital, PLA, Fuzhou, Fujian 350025, PR China
| | - Jianwen Que
- Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases and Center for Human Development, Department of Medicine, Columbia University, NY 10032, USA.
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13
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Ye M, Zhang Q, Xu X, Zhang Q, Ge Y, Geng P, Yan J, Luo L, Sun Y, Liang X. Loss of JAM-C leads to impaired esophageal innervations and megaesophagus in mice. Dis Esophagus 2016; 29:864-871. [PMID: 26123848 DOI: 10.1111/dote.12383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Megaesophagus is a disease where peristalsis fails to occur properly and esophagus is enlarged. The etiology and mechanism of megaesophagus are not well understood. In this study, we reported that junctional adhesion molecule C (JAM-C) knockout mice on a C57/B6 background developed progressive megaesophagus from embryonic day (E) 15.5 onward with complete penetrance. JAM-C knockout mice exhibited a significant reduction in the number of nerve fibers/ganglia in the wall of the esophagus. However, histological analysis revealed that the esophageal wall thickness and structure of JAM-C knockout mice at embryonic stages and young adult were comparable to that of control littermates. Thus, megaesophagus observed in JAM-C knockout mice could be attributed, at least in part, to impaired esophageal innervations. Our data suggest JAM-C as a potential candidate gene for human megaesophagus, and JAM-C knockout mice might serve as a model for the study of human megaesophagus.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Ye
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, East Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200120, China
| | - Q Zhang
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, East Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200120, China
| | - X Xu
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Q Zhang
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, East Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200120, China
| | - Y Ge
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, East Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200120, China
| | - P Geng
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, East Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200120, China
| | - J Yan
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, East Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200120, China
| | - L Luo
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, East Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200120, China
| | - Y Sun
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, East Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200120, China
| | - X Liang
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, East Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200120, China.
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14
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Krauss RS, Chihara D, Romer AI. Embracing change: striated-for-smooth muscle replacement in esophagus development. Skelet Muscle 2016; 6:27. [PMID: 27504178 PMCID: PMC4976477 DOI: 10.1186/s13395-016-0099-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2016] [Accepted: 07/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The esophagus functions to transport food from the oropharyngeal region to the stomach via waves of peristalsis and transient relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter. The gastrointestinal tract, including the esophagus, is ensheathed by the muscularis externa (ME). However, while the ME of the gastrointestinal tract distal to the esophagus is exclusively smooth muscle, the esophageal ME of many vertebrate species comprises a variable amount of striated muscle. The esophageal ME is initially composed only of smooth muscle, but its developmental maturation involves proximal-to-distal replacement of smooth muscle with striated muscle. This fascinating phenomenon raises two important questions: what is the developmental origin of the striated muscle precursor cells, and what are the cellular and morphogenetic mechanisms underlying the process? Studies addressing these questions have provided controversial answers. In this review, we discuss the development of ideas in this area and recent work that has shed light on these issues. A working model has emerged that should permit deeper understanding of the role of ME development and maturation in esophageal disorders and in the functional and evolutionary underpinnings of the variable degree of esophageal striated myogenesis in vertebrate species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert S Krauss
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1020, New York, NY 10029 USA
| | - Daisuke Chihara
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1020, New York, NY 10029 USA
| | - Anthony I Romer
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1020, New York, NY 10029 USA ; Present address: Department of Genetics and Development, Columbia University, 701 West 168th Street, HHSC 1602, New York, NY 10032 USA
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15
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Chihara D, Romer AI, Bentzinger CF, Rudnicki MA, Krauss RS. PAX7 is required for patterning the esophageal musculature. Skelet Muscle 2015; 5:39. [PMID: 26635949 PMCID: PMC4668666 DOI: 10.1186/s13395-015-0068-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2015] [Accepted: 11/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The mammalian esophageal musculature is unique in that it makes a transition from smooth to skeletal muscle, with most of this process occurring after birth. In order to better understand the mechanisms that control esophageal musculature development, we investigated the roles in this process of the paired box transcription factor, PAX7, a principal regulator of skeletal myogenic progenitor cells. Previous studies showed that Pax7 is important for determining the esophageal muscle composition. Results We characterized the postnatal development of the esophageal musculature in Pax7−/− mice by analyzing morphology, muscle composition, and the expression of markers of myogenesis, cell proliferation, and apoptosis. Pax7−/− mice displayed megaesophagus with a severe defect in the postnatal developmental process whereby esophageal smooth muscle is replaced by skeletal muscle. Pax7−/− esophagi have substantially reduced skeletal muscle, most likely due to diminished proliferation and premature differentiation of skeletal muscle precursor cells. This impaired the proximal-to-distal progression of skeletal myogenesis and indirectly affected the patterning of the smooth muscle-containing portion of the esophageal musculature. Conclusions Postnatal patterning of the esophageal musculature appears to require robust, PAX7-dependent cell proliferation to drive the proximal-to-distal progression of skeletal myogenesis. This process in turn influences distal smooth muscle morphogenesis and development of the mature pattern of the esophageal musculature. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13395-015-0068-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Chihara
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029 USA
| | - Anthony I Romer
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029 USA ; Graduate School of Biological Sciences, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA ; Present address: Department of Genetics and Development, Columbia University, 701 West 168th Street, HHSC 1602, New York, NY 10032 USA
| | - C Florian Bentzinger
- Regenerative Medicine Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, 501 Smyth Road, Ottawa, K1H 8L6 ON Canada ; Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, 451 Smyth Road, Ottawa, K1H 8M5 ON Canada ; Present address: Nestlé Institute of Health Sciences, EPFL Campus, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Michael A Rudnicki
- Regenerative Medicine Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, 501 Smyth Road, Ottawa, K1H 8L6 ON Canada ; Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, 451 Smyth Road, Ottawa, K1H 8M5 ON Canada
| | - Robert S Krauss
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029 USA ; Graduate School of Biological Sciences, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA
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16
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A Cranial Mesoderm Origin for Esophagus Striated Muscles. Dev Cell 2015; 34:694-704. [PMID: 26387456 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2015.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2015] [Revised: 06/08/2015] [Accepted: 07/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The esophagus links the oral cavity to the stomach and facilitates the transfer of bolus. Using genetic tracing and mouse mutants, we demonstrate that esophagus striated muscles (ESMs) are not derived from somites but are of cranial origin. Tbx1 and Isl1 act as key regulators of ESMs, which we now identify as a third derivative of cardiopharyngeal mesoderm that contributes to second heart field derivatives and head muscles. Isl1-derived ESM progenitors colonize the mouse esophagus in an anterior-posterior direction but are absent in the developing chick esophagus, thus providing evolutionary insight into the lack of ESMs in avians. Strikingly, different from other myogenic regions, in which embryonic myogenesis establishes a scaffold for fetal fiber formation, ESMs are established directly by fetal myofibers. We propose that ESM progenitors use smooth muscle as a scaffold, thereby bypassing the embryonic program. These findings have important implications in understanding esophageal dysfunctions, including dysphagia, and congenital disorders, such as DiGeorge syndrome.
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17
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Chen J, Hou N, Zhang C, Teng Y, Cheng X, Li Z, Ren J, Zeng J, Li R, Wang W, Yang X, Lan Y. Smooth Muscle Hgs Deficiency Leads to Impaired Esophageal Motility. Int J Biol Sci 2015; 11:794-802. [PMID: 26078721 PMCID: PMC4466460 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.12248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2015] [Accepted: 04/13/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
As a master component of endosomal sorting complex required for transport proteins, hepatocyte growth factor-regulated tyrosine kinase substrate (Hgs) participates multiple cellular behaviors. However, the physiological role of Hgs in smooth muscle cells (SMCs) is by far unknown. Here we explored the in vivo function of Hgs in SMCs by using a conditional gene knockout strategy. Hgs deficiency in SMCs uniquely led to a progressive dilatation of esophagus with a remarkable thinning muscle layer. Of note, the mutant esophagus showed a decreased contractile responsiveness to potassium chloride and acetylcholine stimulation. Furthermore, an increase in the inhibitory neurites along with an intense infiltration of T lymphocytes in the mucosa and muscle layer were observed. Consistently, Hgs deficiency in SMCs resulted in a disturbed expression of a set of genes involved in neurotrophin and inflammation, suggesting that defective SMC might be a novel source for excessive production of cytokines and chemokines which may trigger the neuronal dysplasia and ultimately contribute to the compromised esophageal motility. The data suggest potential implications in the pathogenesis of related diseases such as gastroesophageal reflux disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jicheng Chen
- 1. Model Organism Division, E-institutes of Shanghai Universities, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai 200025, China ; 2. State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disorders, Genetic Laboratory of Development and Disease, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Ning Hou
- 2. State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disorders, Genetic Laboratory of Development and Disease, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Chong Zhang
- 1. Model Organism Division, E-institutes of Shanghai Universities, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai 200025, China ; 2. State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disorders, Genetic Laboratory of Development and Disease, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Yan Teng
- 2. State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disorders, Genetic Laboratory of Development and Disease, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Xuan Cheng
- 2. State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disorders, Genetic Laboratory of Development and Disease, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Zhenhua Li
- 2. State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disorders, Genetic Laboratory of Development and Disease, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Jie Ren
- 3. Department of Cardiovascular Electrophysiology Research, College of Basic Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Jian Zeng
- 2. State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disorders, Genetic Laboratory of Development and Disease, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Rui Li
- 2. State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disorders, Genetic Laboratory of Development and Disease, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Wei Wang
- 3. Department of Cardiovascular Electrophysiology Research, College of Basic Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Xiao Yang
- 1. Model Organism Division, E-institutes of Shanghai Universities, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai 200025, China ; 2. State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disorders, Genetic Laboratory of Development and Disease, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Yu Lan
- 2. State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disorders, Genetic Laboratory of Development and Disease, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing 100071, China
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18
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Walker KA, Ikeda Y, Zabbarova I, Schaefer CM, Bushnell D, De Groat WC, Kanai A, Bates CM. Fgfr2 is integral for bladder mesenchyme patterning and function. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2015; 308:F888-98. [PMID: 25656370 DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00624.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2014] [Accepted: 02/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
While urothelial signals, including sonic hedgehog (Shh), drive bladder mesenchyme differentiation, it is unclear which pathways within the mesenchyme are critical for its development. Studies have shown that fibroblast growth factor receptor (Fgfr)2 is necessary for kidney and ureter mesenchymal development. The objective of the present study was to determine the role of Fgfr2 in the bladder mesenchyme. We used Tbx18cre mice to delete Fgfr2 in the bladder mesenchyme (Fgfr2(BM-/-)). We performed three-dimensional reconstructions, quantitative real-time PCR, in situ hybridization, immunolabeling, ELISAs, immunoblot analysis, void stain on paper, ex vivo bladder sheet assays, and in vivo decerebrated cystometry. Compared with control bladders, embryonic day 16.5 (E16.5) Fgfr2(BM-/-) bladders had thin muscle layers with less α-smooth muscle actin and thickened lamina propria with increased collagen type Ia and IIIa that intruded into the muscle. The reciprocal changes in mutant layer thicknesses appeared partly due to a cell fate switch. From postnatal days 1 to 30, Fgfr2(BM-/-) bladders demonstrated progressive muscle loss and increased collagen expression. Postnatal Fgfr2(BM-/-) bladder sheets exhibited decreased agonist-mediated contractility and increased passive stretch tension versus control bladder sheets. Cystometry revealed high baseline and threshold pressures and shortened intercontractile intervals in Fgfr2(BM-/-) versus control bladders. Mechanistically, whereas Shh expression appeared normal, mRNA and protein readouts of hedgehog activity were increased in E16.5 Fgfr2(BM-/-) versus control bladders. Moreover, E16.5 Fgfr2(BM-/-) bladders exhibited higher levels of Cdo and Boc, hedgehog coreceptors that enhance sensitivity to Shh, compared with control bladders. In conclusion, loss of Fgfr2 in the bladder mesenchyme leads to abnormal bladder morphology and decreased compliance and contractility.
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Affiliation(s)
- K A Walker
- Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Y Ikeda
- Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - I Zabbarova
- Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - C M Schaefer
- Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - D Bushnell
- Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - W C De Groat
- Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Pharmacology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; and
| | - A Kanai
- Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Pharmacology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; and
| | - C M Bates
- Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Division of Nephrology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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19
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Noe E, Tabeling C, Doehn JM, Naujoks J, Opitz B, Hippenstiel S, Witzenrath M, Klopfleisch R. Juvenile megaesophagus in PKCα-deficient mice is associated with an increase in the segment of the distal esophagus lined by smooth muscle cells. Ann Anat 2014; 196:365-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2014.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Revised: 03/31/2014] [Accepted: 04/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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