Microtubules in hamster platelets

Platelet Physiology

Platelets are the smallest blood cells, numbering 150 to 350 × 109/L in healthy individuals. The ability of activated platelets to adhere to an injured vessel wall and form aggregates was first described in the 19th century. Besides their long-established roles in thrombosis and hemostasis, platelets are increasingly recognized as pivotal players in numerous other pathophysiological processes including inflammation and atherogenesis, antimicrobial host defense, and tumor growth and metastasis. Consequently, profound knowledge of platelet structure and function is becoming more important in research and in many fields of modern medicine. This review provides an overview of platelet physiology focusing particularly on the structure, granules, surface glycoproteins, and activation pathways of platelets.

A circle of life: platelet and megakaryocyte cytoskeleton dynamics in health and disease

Platelets are blood cells derived from megakaryocytes that play a central role in regulating haemostasis and vascular integrity. The microtubule cytoskeleton of megakaryocytes undergoes a critical dynamic reorganization during cycles of endomitosis and platelet biogenesis. Quiescent platelets have a discoid shape maintained by a marginal band composed of microtubule bundles, which undergoes remarkable remodelling during platelet activation, driving shape change and platelet function. Disrupting or enhancing this process can cause platelet dysfunction such as bleeding disorders or thrombosis. However, little is known about the molecular mechanisms underlying the reorganization of the cytoskeleton in the platelet lineage. Recent studies indicate that the emergence of a unique platelet tubulin code and specific pathogenic tubulin mutations cause platelet defects and bleeding disorders. Frequently, these mutations exhibit dominant negative effects, offering valuable insights into both platelet disease mechanisms and the functioning of tubulins. This review will highlight our current understanding of the role of the microtubule cytoskeleton in the life and death of platelets, along with its relevance to platelet disorders.

Differential dynamics of early stages of platelet adhesion and spreading on collagen IV- and fibrinogen-coated surfaces

Background: Upon wound formation, platelets adhere to the neighboring extracellular matrix and spread on it, a process which is critical for physiological wound healing. Multiple external factors, such as the molecular composition of the environment and its mechanical properties, play a key role in this process and direct its speed and outcome. Methods: We combined live cell imaging, quantitative interference reflection microscopy and cryo-electron tomography to characterize, at a single platelet level, the differential spatiotemporal dynamics of the adhesion process to fibrinogen- and collagen IV-functionalized surfaces. Results: Initially, platelets sense both substrates by transient rapid extensions of filopodia. On collagen IV, a short-term phase of filopodial extension is followed by lamellipodia-based spreading. This transition is preceded by the extension of a single or couple of microtubules into the platelet's periphery and their apparent insertion into the core of the filopodia. On fibrinogen surfaces, the filopodia-to-lamellipodia transition was partial and microtubule extension was not observed leading to limited spreading, which could be restored by manganese or thrombin. Conclusions: Based on these results, we propose that interaction with collagen IV stimulate platelets to extend microtubules to peripheral filopodia, which in turn, enhances filopodial-to-lamellipodial transition and overall lamellipodia-based spreading. Fibrinogen, on the other hand, fails to induce these early microtubule extensions, leading to full lamellipodia spreading in only a fraction of the seeded platelets. We further suggest that activation of integrin αIIbβ3 is essential for filopodial-to-lamellipodial transition, based on the capacity of integrin activators to enhance lamellipodia spreading on fibrinogen.

Platelet spherocytosis: a new bleeding disorder

The present study evaluated a child with thrombocytopenia and a rare congenital bleeding disorder associated with platelet spherocytosis. Differential interference phase contrast microscopy (DIC) revealed that his platelets were spherical in form. Examination of thin sections in the electron microscope showed that his platelets were nearly devoid of microtubules (MT) and microtubule coils (MTC) that support the discoid shape in 100% of normal platelets. Immunofluorescence with a monoclonal antibody to tubulin, the precursor protein of MT, revealed bright rings in normal cells and diffuse fluorescence of patient platelets. The brightness of the fluorescence emitted by patient platelets was comparable to the diffuse fluorescence of normal platelets after chilling to dissolve intact MT, suggesting normal and patient cells contained comparable amounts of tubulin. Exposure of patient platelets to Taxol, an agent that stabilizes and induces MT, caused MT formation in 82% of patient platelets and MTC development in 11%, resulting in their conversion to discs. Glycoproteins GPIIb/IIIa and GPIb were present on patient platelets, and the cells contained normal numbers of dense bodies, ruling out storage pool disease. The patient's platelets adhered to and spread normally on glass but failed to undergo rapid, irreversible aggregation when stirred with agents that produced a complete response in normal discoid platelets, even when the patient's platelets were concentrated. The poor response of spherical platelets was associated with failure to become irregular and extend long filopodia. Thus, the spherical shape of patient platelets may contribute to the thrombocytopenia and to the clinical bleeding symptoms.

Blood platelets are assembled principally at the ends of proplatelet processes produced by differentiated megakaryocytes

Megakaryocytes release mature platelets in a complex process. Platelets are known to be released from intermediate structures, designated proplatelets, which are long, tubelike extensions of the megakaryocyte cytoplasm. We have resolved the ultrastructure of the megakaryocyte cytoskeleton at specific stages of proplatelet morphogenesis and correlated these structures with cytoplasmic remodeling events defined by video microscopy. Platelet production begins with the extension of large pseudopodia that use unique cortical bundles of microtubules to elongate and form thin proplatelet processes with bulbous ends; these contain a peripheral bundle of microtubules that loops upon itself and forms a teardrop-shaped structure. Contrary to prior observations and assumptions, time-lapse microscopy reveals proplatelet processes to be extremely dynamic structures that interconvert reversibly between spread and tubular forms. Microtubule coils similar to those observed in blood platelets are detected only at the ends of proplatelets and not within the platelet-sized beads found along the length of proplatelet extensions. Growth and extension of proplatelet processes is associated with repeated bending and bifurcation, which results in considerable amplification of free ends. These aspects are inhibited by cytochalasin B and, therefore, are dependent on actin. We propose that mature platelets are assembled de novo and released only at the ends of proplatelets, and that the complex bending and branching observed during proplatelet morphogenesis represents an elegant mechanism to increase the numbers of proplatelet ends.

Microtubule coils versus the surface membrane cytoskeleton in maintenance and restoration of platelet discoid shape

The discoid form of blood platelets is important to their function in hemostasis. Recent studies have suggested that the spectrin-rich surface membrane cytoskeleton and the cytoplasmic, actin-rich cytoskeleton are responsible for discoid shape, shape change, and recovery after activation or chilling. Earlier studies had suggested that circumferential coils of microtubules supported the disc shape of resting platelets and that their repositioning or reassembly restored disc shape after exposure to low temperature. The present study has used the chilling-rewarming model, together with microtubule stabilizing (taxol) and disassembling (vincristine) agents to retest the relative importance of the surface membrane cytoskeleton and circumferential microtubules in platelet discoid shape and its restoration. Washed platelet samples were rested at 37 degrees C and chilled to 4 degrees C; chilled and rewarmed to 37 degrees C for 60 minutes; or chilled, rewarmed, and exposed to the same cycle in the presence or absence of vincristine or taxol and fixed for study by disseminated interference phase contrast microscopy and electron microscopy. Rhodamine-phalloidin and flow cytometry were used to measure changes in actin filament assembly. Chilling caused loss of disc shape, pseudopod extension, disassembly of microtubule coils, and assembly of new actin filaments. Rewarming resulted in restoration of disc shape, pseudopod retraction, disassembly of new actin filaments, and reassembly of circumferential microtubule coils. Vincristine converted discoid platelets to rounded cells that extended pseudopods when chilled and retracted them when rewarmed, leaving spheres that could undergo the same sequence of changes when chilled and rewarmed again. Taxol prevented cold-induced disassembly of microtubules and limited pseudopod formation. Rewarming caused retraction of pseudopods on taxol-treated, discoid cells. Cytochalasin B, an agent that blocks new actin filament assembly, alone or in combination with taxol, inhibited the cold-induced shape change but not dilation of the open canalicular system. Rewarming eliminated open canalicular system dilation and restored lentiform appearance. The results indicate that microtubule coils are the major structural elements responsible for disc shape and its restoration after submaximal stimulation or rewarming of chilled platelets.

Cytoskeletal reorganization of human platelets induced by the protein phosphatase 1/2 A inhibitors okadaic acid and calyculin A

Okadaic acid (OA) and calyculin A (CLA), which are potent and specific inhibitors of serine/threonine protein phosphatases type 1 and 2A, have been shown to induce drastic changes in platelet morphology. The aim of this study was to analyse the molecular mechanisms of OA- or CLA-induced cytoskeletal reorganization, with a specific focus on microtubules and actin filaments. Confocal fluorescence microscopy revealed that OA or CLA altered the distribution of microtubules from marginal band arrangements to homogeneous patterns, consistent with the transmission-electron-microscopic finding that microtubules were fragmented and redistributed into pseudopod-like processes. In thrombin-activated platelets, OA or CLA induced extremely long pseudopods containing an array of microtubules and actin filaments, and a condensed mass of actin filaments in the centre of platelets. OA or CLA induced the constriction of actin filaments without an increase in filamentous (F)-actin, and also rather significantly inhibited actin polymerization in thrombin-activated platelets. Furthermore, neither OA or CLA enhanced phosphorylation of myosin light chain (MLC). By immunoprecipitation of platelet lysate with anti-alpha-tubulin antibody, a 90 kDa protein was co-precipitated with tubulin and was predominantly phosphorylated in the presence of OA. As the time-dependent phosphorylation of 90 kDa protein correlated well with the reorganization of microtubules, these data suggest that phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of this protein might play a role in the regulation of microtubule organization. These findings indicate that OA or CLA induces reorganization of microtubules and actin filaments via the phosphorylation of a microtubule-associated 90 kDa protein and an MLC-phosphorylation-independent mechanism. mechanism.

Immunogold staining of microtubules in resting and activated platelets

A circumferential microtubule is known to support the discoid form of resting platelets, but its fate following exposure of the cells to aggregating agents is uncertain. The present study has employed an immunocytochemical approach to follow the fate of the circumferential microtubule in activated platelets. Monoclonal antibodies to tubulin and to vinculin and a polyclonal antibody to actin were incubated with isolated microtubule coils and stained with staphylococcal protein A coupled to immunogold in order to test their specificity. Thin sections of glycolmethacrylate embedded platelets before and after exposure to thrombin for 15, 30 and 60 s were stained with antibodies to tubulin and actin. Immunogold particles showed a high specificity for isolated MT coils stained for tubulin, modest intensity for actin, and none for vinculin. Gold particles were randomly distributed in thin sections of resting and activated platelets stained for actin. Immunogold was limited to the circumferential microtubule in resting platelets and constricted coils in thrombin-activated cells. The number of gold particles in areas of cytoplasm away from microtubules in platelets stained with antitubulin antibody increased slightly following thrombin activation, but the change was not significant. Results support the concept that microtubule coils supporting the discoid form of resting platelets do not dissolve following exposure of the cells to potent agonists.

Isolation of microtubule coils from platelets after exposure to aggregating agents

The discoid shape of human blood platelets is supported by a circumferential microtubule (MT) organized in many loops or coils. A recent study reported from the authors' laboratory demonstrated that significant numbers of MT rings could be isolated from resting platelets by simultaneous exposure to detergent and a small amount of fixative. This method has been used in the present investigation to determine the number of MT coils obtained from platelets after activation by ADP, thrombin, and the calcium ionophore, A23187. Concentrations of the agonists that caused shape change and internal transformation in parallel samples did not influence the frequency of MT rings present in activated samples after treatment with fixative and detergent. As many or more MT coils were present 5, 15, 30, 60, 90, and 120 seconds after addition of an agonist as from the control. Statistical analysis revealed no significant difference between the number of isolated coils from controls and activated platelets at any time during early activation. Immunofluorescence microscopic examination of platelets stained with a monoclonal antibody to tubulin at intervals of 5, 15, 30, 60, 90, and 120 seconds after activation on glass surfaces confirmed the suggestion that platelet MTs are resistant to disassembly during the early response to stimulation.

Micropipette aspiration of human platelets after exposure to aggregating agents

The present study examined the influence of activation on platelet deformability. Aspiration of cells after exposure to thrombin, adenosine 5' -diphosphate, or the calcium ionophore A23187 at concentrations producing shape change and stickiness revealed significant changes from control cells. At the lowest negative pressure, 4 X 10(-2) dynes/cm (-1 cm H2O), there were no differences in lengths of membrane segments aspirated from control and activated platelets. Each subsequent increase in negative pressure up to 35 X 10(-2) dynes/cm (-7.5 cm H2O) resulted in significantly longer aspirated segments on activated cells compared to control cells. Greater negative pressures did not cause further increases in lengths of membrane segments drawn into the pipette. Thus, activation, which results in constriction of the circumferential microtubule, makes more membrane available for aspiration as negative pressure is increased. In both control and activated platelets, the microtubule coils served as a barrier to further lengthening of aspirated membrane segments as negative pressure was increased beyond 35 X 10(-2) dynes (-7.5 cm H2O).

The organization of microtubules and microtubule coils in giant platelet disorders

Normal human platelets are characteristically discoid in shape. The lentiform appearance is supported by a circumferential band of microtubules lying just under the cell membrane along its greatest circumference. Some of the cells from patients with giant platelet disorders are also disk-shaped, but the majority of their huge platelets are spherical. In the present study platelets from patients with the Gray platelet syndrome (GPS), May-Hegglin anomaly (MHA), and Epstein's syndrome (ES) were examined in thin sections and negatively stained whole mounts, and by indirect immunofluorescence with a monoclonal antibody to tubulin for determination of the organization of their microtubule systems. Many GPS platelets and some ES and MHA platelets were discoid and contained circumferential bundles of microtubules. The number of coils in the band was increased 10-20-fold. Giant spherical platelets also contained increased numbers of individual microtubules and coils, but they were not organized into circumferential bundles. Immunofluorescence revealed an organization of assembled tubulin in the huge cells, suggestive of balls of yarn. Failure of the microtubules to organize into a circumferential band may explain why the majority of the huge cells have a spherical form.

Morphometry of platelet internal contraction

Blood platelets have a characteristic discoid shape supported by a circumferential band of microtubules. Following stimulation by aggregating agents or foreign surfaces, platelets lose their discoid form, extend pseudopods, and undergo a process of internal reorganization. Randomly dispersed cytoplasmic organelles become concentrated in cell centers within rings of microtubules and masses of microfilaments. Questions have been raised about this process and its contractile nature by studies demonstrating that platelet microtubules dissolve within seconds after activation and reassemble several minutes later in new locations. Earlier investigations showed that Taxol, a microtubule-stabilizing agent, did not inhibit platelet shape change, internal transformation, secretion, aggregation, or clot retraction. In the present study the diameters of microtubule coils in discoid platelets treated or not treated with Taxol and in platelets activated by thrombin, ADP, and a foreign surface were measured. The results of the study reveal no significant differences in diameters of microtuble rings in control or Taxol-treated cells. However, after activation by ADP, thrombin, or the grid surface, the diameter of coiled microtubules decreased by 30% or more. The results support the concept that internal transformation is a contractile event.

Influence of a microtubule stabilizing agent on platelet structural physiology

Unstimulated blood platelets have a characteristic discoid form supported by a circumferential band of microtubules. After exposure to aggregating agents, platelets lose their lentiform shape and become irregularly convoluted, with many pseudopods. The changes in surface contour are associated with a process of internal transformation. Randomly dispersed granules are concentrated in cell centers and enclosed within tight-fitting rings of microtubules and microfilaments. The mechanism involved in the shift of circumferential microtubules into rings encircling clumped granules is uncertain. Recent studies have suggested that microtubules are disassembled shortly after stimulation and reassemble in new locations a few minutes later. Taxol, a microtubule stabilizing agent, has been used in the present study to evaluate the disassembly-reassembly hypothesis of internal transformation in activated platelets. Stabilization of microtubules by taxol did not injure platelet biochemistry or structure. Concentrations of taxol that protected platelet microtubules from dissociation by cold or vincristine did not inhibit platelet shape change, pseudopod formation, internal transformation, secretion, aggregation, or clot retraction. The number of microtubules wrapped around centrally clumped granules, present in pseudopods or spread through the cytoplasm, was equal to or greater than that found in untreated platelets following activation and aggregation. Though it is possible that microtubules dissolve in platelets following activation, the results of this study demonstrate that such an event is not essential for any aspect of the physiologic response of platelets in hemostasis.

Ultrastructural physiology of platelets with randomly dispersed rather than circumferential band microtubules

Annular bundles of microtubules supporting the discoid shape of blood platelets are temperature-labile. Chilling causes loss of platelet form and complete disappearance of microtubules. In a previous report the author demonstrated that the microtubule-stabilizing agent taxol caused reassembly of microtubules in chilled platelets. However, the microtubules were dispersed singly or in short bundles throughout the cytoplasm. In the present study the author has used this unusual feature of taxol treatment to prepare platelets with randomly dispersed microtubules and compare their physiology with control platelets containing circumferential bands. Platelets with randomly dispersed tubules responded in the same manner as control platelets to identical concentrations of aggregating agents. Secretion measured simultaneously with aggregation was also unaffected by dispersal of the coiled tubule making up the annular band into many single elements or short bundles. Examination in the electron microscope revealed that platelets with randomly dispersed tubules developed shape change and internal transformation comparable to those of control cells following stimulation by aggregating agents. However, centrally clustered organelles in cells with dispersed tubular elements were not encircled by a tight ring of microtubules. Instead, the tubular elements were concentrated in masses or bundles between centrally clustered organelles. The results of this study suggest that it does not matter whether microtubules are organized as a single structure, coiled on itself to produce a circumferential band, or as many single tubules or bundles of tubular elements spread throughout the cell. As long as microtubules are present, internal transformation will develop and platelet function, including shape change, internal contraction, secretion and irreversible aggregation, will not be significantly impaired.

Influence of taxol on the response of platelets to chilling

Platelets have a characteristic lenslike appearance in circulating blood. In vitro studies have shown that the discoid shape is supported by a circumferential band of microtubules. Early studies demonstrated that chilling caused platelets to lose their disklike form and become irregularly convoluted with multiple pseudopods. The cold-induced shape change was associated with disappearance of the annular band of microtubules. Rewarming caused reassembly of the circumferential bundle and recovery of platelet discoid form. The present study has examined the influence of taxol, a microtubule stabilizing agent, on the response of platelets to low temperature. Taxol-treatment protected platelet microtubules from disassembly in the cold and preserved the discoid shape of most platelets. Addition of taxol to platelets prechilled to remove microtubules and maintained in the cold resulted in assembly of tubular polymers at low temperature. Brief exposure to taxol in the cold did not prevent recovery of platelet discoid shape on rewarming to 37 degrees C. However, the bundle of tubules was often located in the central axis, rather than in a circumferential band. Longer incubation with taxol at low temperature resulted in assembly of radiating bundles of tubules. On rewarming, these cells remained irregular in form and did not develop circumferential bands.

Microtubules in mammalian erythroblasts. Are marginal bands present?

The purpose of this study was to determine if marginal bands, such as those present in mature nucleated red blood cells of other non-mammalian vertebrates and in primitive mammalian erythrocytes are present in definitive mammalian erythroblasts. In a small number of erythroblasts examined from mouse spleen, a bundle of 5-8 microtubules could be seen. These microtubules appeared similar to those previously identified by others as marginal band microtubules in liver and marrow erythroblasts. However, it was difficult to distinguish these bundles from remnants of mitotic spindle microtubules, or bundles of microtubules which extend to the midbody, a structure which is seen quite frequently in sections of erythroid cells. Triton extraction, a process which renders cytoskeletal elements such as microtubules more visible, also failed to confirm the presence of conventional marginal bands in these cells. It is suggested that use of the term "marginal band" be restricted to those cases in which it can be unequivocally demonstrated that a bundle of microtubules encircles the perimeter of the cell.

The porcine endothelial cell in tissue culture

Endothelial cells from porcine aorta and inferior vena cava have been harvested, using trypsin, EDTA or collagenase, and grown in tissue culture. Growth-behaviour, cytology, scanning and electronmicroscopy findings are reported. It is hoped that this technique will prove useful in the investigation of atherosclerosis.

The dense bodies of human platelets. Origin of serotonin storage particles from platelet granules

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Effects of colchicine and vinca alkaloids on human platelets. II. Changes in the dense tubular system and formation of an unusual inclusion in incubated cells

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Effects of colchicine and Vinca alkaloids on human platelets. I. Influence on platelet microtubules and contractile function

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Resolution and organization of platelet-rich mural thrombi in carotid arteries of swine

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The ultrastructure of early platelet aggregation in vivo

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A "microtubule" in a bacterium

A study of the anchorage of the flagella in swarmers of Proteus mirabilis led to the incidental observation of microtubules. These microtubules were found in thin sections and in whole mount preparations of cells from which most of the content had been released by osmotic shock before staining negatively with potassium phosphotungstate (PTA). The microtubules are in negatively stained preparations about 200 A wide, i.e. somewhat thicker than the flagella (approximately 130 A). They are thus somewhat thinner than most microtubules recorded for other cells. They are referred to as microtubules because of their smooth cylindrical wall, or cortex, surrounding a hollow core which is readily filled with PTA when stained negatively. Since this is probably the first time that such a structure is described inside a bacterium, we do not know for certain whether it represents a normal cell constituent or an abnormality, for instance of the type of "polysheaths" (16).