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Abstract
Neurotrophic factors released by target tissues maintain the survival and differentiation of innervating neurons. The manner by which these target-derived neurotrophic proteins communicate with innervating neurons has been actively pursued for over three decades. The present chapter describes a technique for preparing and maintaining compartmented chambers for culturing neurons derived from either superior cervical ganglia (sympathetic neurons) or dorsal root ganglia (sensory neurons). This system recapitulates the selective stimulation of neuron terminals that occurs in vivo following release of target-derived neurotrophins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen D Skaper
- Department of Pharmacology and Anesthesiology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy.
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Wu HI, Cheng GH, Wong YY, Lin CM, Fang W, Chow WY, Chang YC. A lab-on-a-chip platform for studying the subcellular functional proteome of neuronal axons. LAB ON A CHIP 2010; 10:647-653. [PMID: 20162241 DOI: 10.1039/b918217a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Axons are long, slender processes extending from the cell bodies of neurons and play diverse and crucial roles in the development and function of nervous systems. Here, we describe the development of a chip device that can be used to produce large quantities of axons for proteomic and RNA analyses. On the chip surface, bundles of axons of rat hippocampal neurons in culture are guided to grow in areas distinct and distant from where their cell bodies reside. Fluorescence immunocytochemical studies have confirmed that the areas where these axons are guided to grow are occupied exclusively by axons and not by neuronal somatodendrites or astroglial cells. These axon-occupied parts are easily separated from the remainder of the chip and collected by breaking the chip along the well-positioned linear grooves made on the backside. One- and two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and Western blotting analyses reveal that the axons and whole cells differ in their protein compositions. RT-PCR analyses also indicate that the axons contain only a subset of neuronal RNAs. Furthermore, the chip device could be easily modified to address other issues concerning neuronal axons, such as the molecular composition of the axon substructure, the growth cone and shaft, the degeneration and regeneration processes associated with injured axons and the effects of extrinsic molecules, such as axon guidance cues and cell adhesion molecules, on the axon. With these diverse applications, the chip device described here will serve as a powerful platform for studying the functional proteome of neuronal axons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huei-Ing Wu
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, Republic of China
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Campenot RB, Lund K, Mok SA. Production of compartmented cultures of rat sympathetic neurons. Nat Protoc 2009; 4:1869-87. [DOI: 10.1038/nprot.2009.210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Madduri S, Papaloïzos M, Gander B. Synergistic effect of GDNF and NGF on axonal branching and elongation in vitro. Neurosci Res 2009; 65:88-97. [PMID: 19523996 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2009.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2007] [Revised: 04/23/2009] [Accepted: 06/01/2009] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
There is a clinical need to enhance functional recovery of injured peripheral nerves. Local administration of neurotrophic factors (NTFs) after surgical repair has been proposed for this purpose. Little is known, however, on the optimal local dose and dosing frequency of NTFs in a peripheral nerve defect. For increasing our knowledge on biologically relevant local NTFs concentrations and for making available an in vitro assay for assessing the bioactivity of NTFs in connection with implantable localized delivery systems, we developed in this study a bioassay for NTFs, which is based on dorsal root ganglion (DRG) explants from E9 (9 days old) chicken embryos. Axonal elongation and extent of axonal branching was analyzed microscopically after addition of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and nerve growth factor (NGF), each alone and in combination. GDNF significantly promoted axonal elongation, but only little axonal branching, whereas NGF induced extensive axonal branching with modest axonal elongation. The combination of GDNF and NGF exerted a synergistic effect on the axonal elongation, axonal branching and growth kinetics. GDNF and NGF also enhanced the expression of their respective functional receptors Ret and TrkA on the DRG neurons. This information should be relevant for the development of implants containing NTFs and on drug therapy of damaged peripheral nerves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srinivas Madduri
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
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Vogt L, Schrimpf SP, Meskenaite V, Frischknecht R, Kinter J, Leone DP, Ziegler U, Sonderegger P. Calsyntenin-1, a proteolytically processed postsynaptic membrane protein with a cytoplasmic calcium-binding domain. Mol Cell Neurosci 2001; 17:151-66. [PMID: 11161476 DOI: 10.1006/mcne.2000.0937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In a screen for proteins released from synapse-forming spinal cord neurons, we found the proteolytically cleaved N-terminal fragment of a transmembrane protein localized in the postsynaptic membrane of both excitatory and inhibitory synapses. We termed this protein calsyntenin-1, because it binds synaptic Ca2+ with its cytoplasmic domain. By binding Ca2+, calsyntenin-1 may modulate Ca2+-mediated postsynaptic signals. Proteolytic cleavage of calsyntenin-1 in its extracellular moiety generates a transmembrane stump that is internalized and accumulated in the spine apparatus of spine synapses. Therefore, the synaptic Ca2+ modulation by calsyntenin-1 may be subject to regulation by extracellular proteolysis in the synaptic cleft. Thus, calsyntenin-1 may link extracellular proteolysis in the synaptic cleft and postsynaptic Ca2+ signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Vogt
- Institute of Biochemistry, Institute of Anatomy, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, Zurich, CH-8057, Switzerland
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Wu X, Ritter B, Schlattjan JH, Lessmann V, Heumann R, Dietzel ID. Protein expression patterns of identified neurons and of sprouting cells from the leech central nervous system. JOURNAL OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2000; 44:320-32. [PMID: 10942885 DOI: 10.1002/1097-4695(20000905)44:3<320::aid-neu3>3.0.co;2-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
It has previously been shown that cephalic, segmental, and caudal ganglia from the medicinal leech show differences in their protein composition. Here we studied whether the neuronal reorganization that occurs in cultured segmental ganglia from the medicinal leech is accompanied by detectable changes in the protein expression pattern. Using silver-stained two-dimensional gels we showed that after 5 and 12 days in culture changes in the protein patterns can be detected in isolated ganglia. The changes observed in the two-dimensional gels occurred concomitantly with a sprouting of serotoninergic neurites and a decreased transmitter content of dopaminergic neurites as shown by using the glyoxylic acid condensation reaction. In addition, we present evidence that Retzius cells, which can be identified by their characteristic morphology and action potential waveform, exhibit biochemically unique properties with respect to their protein expression pattern.
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Affiliation(s)
- X Wu
- Lehrstuhl für Molekulare Neurobiochemie, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Gebäude NC7-170, Universitätsstrasse 150, D-44780 Bochum, Germany
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Osterwalder T, Contartese J, Stoeckli ET, Kuhn TB, Sonderegger P. Neuroserpin, an axonally secreted serine protease inhibitor. EMBO J 1996; 15:2944-53. [PMID: 8670795 PMCID: PMC450235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
We have identified and chromatographically purified an axonally secreted glycoprotein of CNS and PNS neurons. Several peptides derived from it were microsequenced. Based on these sequences, a fragment of the corresponding cDNA was amplified and used as a probe to isolate a full length cDNA from a chicken brain cDNA library. Because the deduced amino acid sequence qualified the protein as a novel member of the serpin family of serine protease inhibitors, we called it neuroserpin. Analysis of the primary structural features further characterized neuroserpin as a heparin-independent, functional inhibitor of a trypsin-like serine protease. In situ hybridization revealed a predominantly neuronal expression during the late stages of neurogenesis and in the adult brain in regions which exhibit synaptic plasticity. Thus, neuroserpin might function as an axonally secreted regulator of the local extracellular proteolysis involved in the reorganization of the synaptic connectivity during development and synapse plasticity in the adult.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Osterwalder
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, Switzerland
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Multicompartment Cell Cultures for Studies of Neuronal Interactions. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1991. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-185257-3.50025-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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Ruegg MA, Stoeckli ET, Lanz RB, Streit P, Sonderegger P. A homologue of the axonally secreted protein axonin-1 is an integral membrane protein of nerve fiber tracts involved in neurite fasciculation. J Cell Biol 1989; 109:2363-78. [PMID: 2509484 PMCID: PMC2115876 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.109.5.2363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Axonin-1 is a glycoprotein that is released from axons of cultured neurons (Stoeckli, E. T., P. F. Lemkin, T. B. Kuhn, M. A. Ruegg, M. Heller, and P. Sonderegger. 1989. Eur. J. Biochem. 180:249-258). It has recently been purified from the ocular vitreous fluid of the chicken embryo (Ruegg, M. A., E. T. Stoeckli, T. B. Kuhn, M. Heller, R. Zuellig, and P. Sonderegger. 1989. EMBO (Eur. Mol. Biol. Organ.) J. 8:55-63). Immunohistochemistry localized axonin-1 prevalently in developing nerve fiber tracts. The presence of anti-axonin-1 Fab fragments during axon growth in vitro resulted in antibody binding to the axonal surfaces and in a marked perturbation of the fasciculation pattern. Hence, a fraction of axonin-1 is associated with axonal membranes and, by operational criteria, qualifies as a cell adhesion molecule. The major proportion of membrane-associated axonin-1 co-solubilized with the integral membrane proteins. By physico-chemical, immunological, and protein-chemical criteria, the integral membrane form was found to be highly similar to soluble axonin-1. In common with a number of other cell adhesion molecules, both soluble and membrane-bound axonin-1 express the L2/HNK-1 and the L3 epitopes. Radioactive pulse-chase and double-labeling experiments revealed that the released form was not derived from the membrane-bound form by shedding from the membrane surface, but directly secreted from an intracellular pool. Due to its high degree of similarity to the membrane-associated form and the presence of the L2/HNK-1 and L3 epitopes, reported to be ligands in adhesive cell interactions, adhesive properties are postulated for secreted axonin-1. As a soluble adhesive protein, it may function as a regulator of cell adhesion around its most likely site of secretion, the growth cone.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A Ruegg
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, Switzerland
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Stoeckli ET, Lemkin PF, Kuhn TB, Ruegg MA, Heller M, Sonderegger P. Identification of proteins secreted from axons of embryonic dorsal-root-ganglia neurons. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1989; 180:249-58. [PMID: 2924765 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb14640.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Secretion of proteins from the growth cone has been implicated in axon growth and synapse formation and might be involved in the transmission of a variety of axon-derived regulatory signals during neurogenesis. In order to identify axonally secreted proteins, dorsal-root-ganglia neurons from chicken embryos were cultured in a compartmentalized cell culture system that allows separate access to neuronal cell somas and axons. The proteins synthesized by the neurons were metabolically labeled by addition of [35S]methionine to the compartment containing the cell somas; the proteins released from the axons were harvested from the culture medium of the axonal compartment. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis revealed two axonally secreted proteins with apparent molecular mass of 132-140 kDa and 54-60 kDa; they were termed axonin-1 and axonin-2, respectively. Both axonins were found to be secreted from a variety of neuronal cell cultures, but not from any of the nonneuronal cultures investigated, and hence might be neuron-specific. Virtual absence of these proteins from the axonal protein pattern suggests constitutive secretion. The information acquired on coordinates and spot morphology of these proteins in two-dimensional gel electrophoresis provides a useful assay for their purification.
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Sonderegger P, Lemkin PF, Lipkin LE, Nelson PG. Coordinate regulation of the expression of axonal proteins by the axonal microenvironment. Dev Biol 1986; 118:222-32. [PMID: 3770300 DOI: 10.1016/0012-1606(86)90090-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The axonal functions that act in the formation of the neuronal network have been shown to occur in close interdependence with the tissue that surrounds the growing axons. However, little is known about the molecular building blocks underlying axonal functions, although more than 400 axonal proteins have been identified. In view of the existence of such a large number of axonal proteins, we have initiated a project to determine the molecules involved in the implementation of particular axonal functions by a selective approach. On the assumption that plasticity in the expression of axonal functions in response to specific features of the local axonal environment may be based on changes in the expression of particular axonal proteins, the axonal proteins of dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons were screened for those whose expression responds to environmental influences. DRG neurons were grown in a compartmental cell system that offers separate access to neuronal somas and to their axons and the axons were locally exposed to different populations of cells from the peripheral or central nervous system. The axonal proteins were metabolically labeled and subjected to two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. Computerized quantitation of the individual axonal proteins revealed that the cocultured cells modulate the synthesis of a few axonal proteins of DRG neurons differentially. The data on the abundance of the newly expressed proteins under varying local environmental conditions were condensed as expression profiles. Comparison of expression profiles and cluster analysis of quantitative gel analysis data revealed that the environmentally modulated proteins subdivide into clusters with common distinct expression profiles under the influence of nonneuronal cells from the peripheral nervous system, nonneuronal cells of the central nervous system, and spinal cord cells, which are composed of neurons and nonneuronal cells. By means of this new, characteristic attribute assigned to environmentally modulated axonal proteins, working hypotheses were made as to their functional role.
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Greenberger LM, Pfenninger KH. Membrane glycoproteins of the nerve growth cone: diversity and growth regulation of oligosaccharides. J Cell Biol 1986; 103:1369-82. [PMID: 3771641 PMCID: PMC2114336 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.103.4.1369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
A subcellular fraction prepared from fetal rat brain and enriched in growth cone membranes is analyzed for its lectin-binding proteins. Growth-associated glycoproteins are identified by comparing the growth cone glycoproteins with those of synaptosomes. Protein was resolved in one- or two-dimensional gels, electroblotted, and blots probed with radioiodinated concanavalin A, wheat germ agglutinin, and Ricinus communis agglutinins I and II. In one-dimensional gels, each lectin recognizes approximately 20 polypeptides (with substantial overlap) most of which migrate diffusely and have relatively high molecular masses (range 30-200 kD). The seven major Coomassie-staining proteins of the membrane fraction (34-52 kD) are not the major lectin-binding proteins. In two-dimensional gels, the lectin-binding proteins are either streaked across the pH gradient or exist as multiple spots, indicating broad charge heterogeneity. Seven wheat germ agglutinin- and Ricinus communis agglutinin II-binding glycoproteins are present in greater abundance in growth cone fractions compared with synaptosomes. Most notably, an acidic, sialic acid-rich protein (27-30 kD, pI 4.0; termed gp27-30) is most abundant at postnatal day 4, but absent from adult brain. The protein's very acidic isoelectric point is due, at least in part, to its high sialic acid content. Growth regulation of specific protein-linked oligosaccharides suggests that they play a special role in growth cone function. In addition, the great diversity of growth cone glycoproteins from whole brain suggests glycoprotein heterogeneity among growth cones from different neuron types.
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Schlosshauer B. Membrane proteins and glycoproteins specific to central nervous system axons and growth cones. Brain Res 1985; 351:237-44. [PMID: 3995349 DOI: 10.1016/0165-3806(85)90195-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The specific functions of axons with growth cones might be correlated with a specific molecular composition differing from that of the perikarya. Thus axons with growth cones and cell perikaryal fractions were isolated by microdissection from neural retina explants of 6-day-old chick embryos. The protein composition of the minute amount of material available was analyzed with a two-dimensional micro-gel electrophoresis system in combination with various labeling procedures for surface- and glycoproteins. All methods showed, besides common features, proteins specific for axons with growth cones and for cell bodies.
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Fishman MC, Nelson PG. Activity and Competition-Dependent Synapse Repression in Culture. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 1984; 181:247-52. [PMID: 6549424 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4684-4868-9_19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/05/2023]
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