1
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Yoo YA, Quan S, Yang W, Guo Q, Rodríguez Y, Chalmers ZR, Dufficy MF, Lackie B, Sagar V, Unno K, Truica MI, Chandel NS, Abdulkadir SA. Asparagine Dependency Is a Targetable Metabolic Vulnerability in TP53-Altered Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer. Cancer Res 2024; 84:3004-3022. [PMID: 38959335 PMCID: PMC11405136 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-23-2910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 03/07/2024] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/05/2024]
Abstract
TP53 tumor suppressor is frequently altered in lethal, castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). However, to date there are no effective treatments that specifically target TP53 alterations. Using transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses, we have shown here that TP53-altered prostate cancer exhibits an increased dependency on asparagine (Asn) and overexpresses Asn synthetase (ASNS), the enzyme catalyzing the synthesis of Asn. Mechanistically, the loss or mutation of TP53 transcriptionally activated ASNS expression, directly and via mTORC1-mediated ATF4 induction, driving de novo Asn biosynthesis to support CRPC growth. TP53-altered CRPC cells were sensitive to Asn restriction by knockdown of ASNS or L-asparaginase treatment to deplete the intracellular and extracellular sources of Asn, respectively, and cell viability was rescued by Asn addition. Notably, pharmacological inhibition of intracellular Asn biosynthesis using a glutaminase inhibitor and depletion of extracellular Asn with L-asparaginase significantly reduced Asn production and effectively impaired CRPC growth. This study highlights the significance of ASNS-mediated metabolic adaptation as a synthetic vulnerability in CRPC with TP53 alterations, providing a rationale for targeting Asn production to treat these lethal prostate cancers. Significance: TP53-mutated castration-resistant prostate cancer is dependent on asparagine biosynthesis due to upregulation of ASNS and can be therapeutically targeted by approaches that deplete intracellular and extracellular asparagine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young A Yoo
- Department of Urology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois
- The Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Songhua Quan
- Department of Urology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois
| | - William Yang
- Department of Urology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Qianyu Guo
- Department of Urology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Yara Rodríguez
- Department of Urology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Zachary R Chalmers
- Department of Urology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Mary F Dufficy
- Department of Urology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Barbara Lackie
- Department of Urology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Vinay Sagar
- Department of Urology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Kenji Unno
- Department of Urology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Mihai I Truica
- Department of Urology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Navdeep S Chandel
- Department of Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Sarki A Abdulkadir
- Department of Urology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois
- Department of Pathology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois
- The Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois
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2
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Chang MC, Staklinski SJ, Merritt ME, Kilberg MS. A method for measurement of human asparagine synthetase (ASNS) activity and application to ASNS protein variants associated with ASNS deficiency. Biol Methods Protoc 2023; 8:bpad026. [PMID: 37965492 PMCID: PMC10641120 DOI: 10.1093/biomethods/bpad026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Human asparagine synthetase (ASNS) catalyzes the conversion of aspartate to asparagine in an ATP-dependent reaction that utilizes glutamine as a nitrogen source while generating glutamate, AMP, and pyrophosphate as additional products. Asparagine Synthetase Deficiency (ASNSD) is an inborn error of metabolism in which children present with homozygous or compound heterozygous mutations in the ASNS gene. These mutations result in ASNS variant protein expression. It is believed that these variant ASNS proteins have reduced enzymatic activity or stability resulting in a lack of sufficient asparagine production for cell function. Reduced asparagine production by ASNS appears to severely hinder fetal brain development. Although a variety of approaches for assaying ASNS activity have been reported, we present here a straightforward method for the in vitro enzymatic analysis by detection of AMP production. Our method overcomes limitations in technical feasibility, signal detection, and reproducibility experienced by prior methods like high-performance liquid chromatography, ninhydrin staining, and radioactive tracing. After purification of FLAG-tagged R49Q, G289A, and T337I ASNS variants from stably expressing HEK 293T cells, this method revealed a reduction in activity of 90, 36, and 96%, respectively. Thus, ASNS protein expression and purification, followed by enzymatic activity analysis, has provided a relatively simple protocol to evaluate structure-function relationships for ASNS variants reported for ASNSD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario C Chang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, United States
| | - Stephen J Staklinski
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, United States
- School of Biological Sciences, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724, United States
| | - Matthew E Merritt
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, United States
| | - Michael S Kilberg
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, United States
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3
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Holeček M. Aspartic Acid in Health and Disease. Nutrients 2023; 15:4023. [PMID: 37764806 PMCID: PMC10536334 DOI: 10.3390/nu15184023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Revised: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Aspartic acid exists in L- and D-isoforms (L-Asp and D-Asp). Most L-Asp is synthesized by mitochondrial aspartate aminotransferase from oxaloacetate and glutamate acquired by glutamine deamidation, particularly in the liver and tumor cells, and transamination of branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs), particularly in muscles. The main source of D-Asp is the racemization of L-Asp. L-Asp transported via aspartate-glutamate carrier to the cytosol is used in protein and nucleotide synthesis, gluconeogenesis, urea, and purine-nucleotide cycles, and neurotransmission and via the malate-aspartate shuttle maintains NADH delivery to mitochondria and redox balance. L-Asp released from neurons connects with the glutamate-glutamine cycle and ensures glycolysis and ammonia detoxification in astrocytes. D-Asp has a role in brain development and hypothalamus regulation. The hereditary disorders in L-Asp metabolism include citrullinemia, asparagine synthetase deficiency, Canavan disease, and dicarboxylic aminoaciduria. L-Asp plays a role in the pathogenesis of psychiatric and neurologic disorders and alterations in BCAA levels in diabetes and hyperammonemia. Further research is needed to examine the targeting of L-Asp metabolism as a strategy to fight cancer, the use of L-Asp as a dietary supplement, and the risks of increased L-Asp consumption. The role of D-Asp in the brain warrants studies on its therapeutic potential in psychiatric and neurologic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milan Holeček
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine in Hradec Králové, Charles University, Šimkova 870, 500 03 Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
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4
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Lefin N, Miranda J, Beltrán JF, Belén LH, Effer B, Pessoa A, Farias JG, Zamorano M. Current state of molecular and metabolic strategies for the improvement of L-asparaginase expression in heterologous systems. Front Pharmacol 2023; 14:1208277. [PMID: 37426818 PMCID: PMC10323146 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1208277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Heterologous expression of L-asparaginase (L-ASNase) has become an important area of research due to its clinical and food industry applications. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the molecular and metabolic strategies that can be used to optimize the expression of L-ASNase in heterologous systems. This article describes various approaches that have been employed to increase enzyme production, including the use of molecular tools, strain engineering, and in silico optimization. The review article highlights the critical role that rational design plays in achieving successful heterologous expression and underscores the challenges of large-scale production of L-ASNase, such as inadequate protein folding and the metabolic burden on host cells. Improved gene expression is shown to be achievable through the optimization of codon usage, synthetic promoters, transcription and translation regulation, and host strain improvement, among others. Additionally, this review provides a deep understanding of the enzymatic properties of L-ASNase and how this knowledge has been employed to enhance its properties and production. Finally, future trends in L-ASNase production, including the integration of CRISPR and machine learning tools are discussed. This work serves as a valuable resource for researchers looking to design effective heterologous expression systems for L-ASNase production as well as for enzymes production in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolás Lefin
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Science and Engineering Faculty, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
| | - Javiera Miranda
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Science and Engineering Faculty, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
| | - Jorge F. Beltrán
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Science and Engineering Faculty, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
| | - Lisandra Herrera Belén
- Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Santo Tomas, Santiago, Chile
| | - Brian Effer
- Center of Excellence in Translational Medicine and Scientific and Technological Bioresource Nucleus, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
| | - Adalberto Pessoa
- Department of Biochemical and Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Jorge G. Farias
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Science and Engineering Faculty, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
| | - Mauricio Zamorano
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Science and Engineering Faculty, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
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5
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Blachier J, Cleret A, Guerin N, Gil C, Fanjat JM, Tavernier F, Vidault L, Gallix F, Rama N, Rossignol R, Piedrahita D, Andrivon A, Châlons-Cottavoz M, Aguera K, Gay F, Horand F, Laperrousaz B. L-asparaginase anti-tumor activity in pancreatic cancer is dependent on its glutaminase activity and resistance is mediated by glutamine synthetase. Exp Cell Res 2023; 426:113568. [PMID: 36967104 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2023.113568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023]
Abstract
l-Asparaginase is a cornerstone of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) therapy since lymphoblasts lack asparagine synthetase (ASNS) and rely on extracellular asparagine availability for survival. Resistance mechanisms are associated with increased ASNS expression in ALL. However, the association between ASNS and l-Asparaginase efficacy in solid tumors remains unclear, thus limiting clinical development. Interestingly, l-Asparaginase also has a glutaminase co-activity that is crucial in pancreatic cancer where KRAS mutations activate glutamine metabolism. By developing l-Asparaginase-resistant pancreatic cancer cells and using OMICS approaches, we identified glutamine synthetase (GS) as a marker of resistance to l-Asparaginase. GS is the only enzyme able to synthesize glutamine, and its expression also correlates with l-Asparaginase efficacy in 27 human cell lines from 11 cancer indications. Finally, we further demonstrated that GS inhibition prevents cancer cell adaptation to l-Asparaginase-induced glutamine starvation. These findings could pave the way to the development of promising drug combinations to overcome l-Asparaginase resistance.
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6
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Chang MC, Staklinski SJ, Malut VR, Pierre GL, Kilberg MS, Merritt ME. Metabolomic Profiling of Asparagine Deprivation in Asparagine Synthetase Deficiency Patient-Derived Cells. Nutrients 2023; 15:1938. [PMID: 37111157 PMCID: PMC10145675 DOI: 10.3390/nu15081938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Revised: 04/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The natural amino acid asparagine (Asn) is required by cells to sustain function and proliferation. Healthy cells can synthesize Asn through asparagine synthetase (ASNS) activity, whereas specific cancer and genetically diseased cells are forced to obtain asparagine from the extracellular environment. ASNS catalyzes the ATP-dependent synthesis of Asn from aspartate by consuming glutamine as a nitrogen source. Asparagine Synthetase Deficiency (ASNSD) is a disease that results from biallelic mutations in the ASNS gene and presents with congenital microcephaly, intractable seizures, and progressive brain atrophy. ASNSD often leads to premature death. Although clinical and cellular studies have reported that Asn deprivation contributes to the disease symptoms, the global metabolic effects of Asn deprivation on ASNSD-derived cells have not been studied. We analyzed two previously characterized cell culture models, lymphoblastoids and fibroblasts, each carrying unique ASNS mutations from families with ASNSD. Metabolomics analysis demonstrated that Asn deprivation in ASNS-deficient cells led to disruptions across a wide range of metabolites. Moreover, we observed significant decrements in TCA cycle intermediates and anaplerotic substrates in ASNS-deficient cells challenged with Asn deprivation. We have identified pantothenate, phenylalanine, and aspartate as possible biomarkers of Asn deprivation in normal and ASNSD-derived cells. This work implies the possibility of a novel ASNSD diagnostic via targeted biomarker analysis of a blood draw.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario C. Chang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Stephen J. Staklinski
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
- School of Biological Sciences, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724, USA
| | - Vinay R. Malut
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Geraldine L. Pierre
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Michael S. Kilberg
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Matthew E. Merritt
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
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7
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Asparaginase: How to Better Manage Toxicities in Adults. Curr Oncol Rep 2023; 25:51-61. [PMID: 36449117 DOI: 10.1007/s11912-022-01345-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review aims to help oncologists who predominantly treat adults better understand and manage asparaginase associated toxicities and prevent unnecessary discontinuation or reluctance of its use. RECENT FINDINGS Given the data supporting the benefit of incorporating multiple doses of asparaginase in pediatric type regimens, it is prudent to promote deeper understanding of this drug, particularly its toxicities, and its use so as to optimize treatment of ALL. Although asparaginase is associated with a variety of toxicities, the vast majority are not life threatening and do not preclude repeat dosing of this important drug. Understanding the pharmacology and toxicity profile of asparaginase is critical to dosing asparaginase appropriately in order to minimize these toxicities.
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8
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Timofeev VI, Zhukhlistova NE, Kuranova IP. Effect of V23Q and K24T Mutations on the Mobility of Atoms in L-Asparaginase from Wolinella succinigenes. CRYSTALLOGR REP+ 2022. [DOI: 10.1134/s1063774522020237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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9
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Vetro C, Duminuco A, Gozzo L, Maugeri C, Parisi M, Brancati S, Longo L, Vitale DC, Romano GL, Ciuni R, Mauro E, Fiumara PF, Palumbo GAM, Drago F, Raimondo FD. Pegylated asparaginase-induced liver injury, a case-based review and data from pharmacovigilance. J Clin Pharmacol 2022; 62:1142-1150. [PMID: 35342960 DOI: 10.1002/jcph.2052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Accepted: 03/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia has changed since introducing the asparaginase drug and its pegylated form, i.e., pegasparaginase. Several trials have demonstrated a clear advantage in using this drug in adolescents and young adults, up to 60 years. However, this drug possesses a unique plethora of side effects, spanning from pancreatitis to coagulopathy, including hepatotoxicity. This could be of mild intensity but can lead to life-threatening sequelae, up to death. Here, we report a case of a 59 years old patient affected by acute lymphoblastic leukemia, who eventually died cause of pegasparaginase-related hepatotoxicity. A review of the available literature will be provided, including epidemiology, pathophysiology and possible therapeutic interventions. In the end, an analysis of the Italian pharmacovigilance database will be presented, where hepatotoxicity has been reported in 32 cases (10% of reported adverse events, including 3 deaths related to drug-induced liver damage). This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Calogero Vetro
- Haematology Unit, A.O.U. Policlinico "G.Rodolico" - S.Marco, Catania, Italy
| | - Andrea Duminuco
- Postgraduate School of Hematology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Lucia Gozzo
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit/Regional Pharmacovigilance Centre, Catania, Italy
| | - Cinzia Maugeri
- Haematology Unit, A.O.U. Policlinico "G.Rodolico" - S.Marco, Catania, Italy
| | - Marina Parisi
- Haematology Unit, A.O.U. Policlinico "G.Rodolico" - S.Marco, Catania, Italy
| | - Serena Brancati
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit/Regional Pharmacovigilance Centre, Catania, Italy
| | - Laura Longo
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit/Regional Pharmacovigilance Centre, Catania, Italy
| | | | - Giovanni Luca Romano
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Roberto Ciuni
- Department of Chirurgia Generale e Specialità Medico-Chirurgiche, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Elisa Mauro
- Haematology Unit, A.O.U. Policlinico "G.Rodolico" - S.Marco, Catania, Italy
| | | | - Giuseppe Alberto Maria Palumbo
- Haematology Unit, A.O.U. Policlinico "G.Rodolico" - S.Marco, Catania, Italy.,Postgraduate School of Hematology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Department of Scienze Mediche Chirurgiche e Tecnologie Avanzate "G.F. Ingrassia", University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Drago
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit/Regional Pharmacovigilance Centre, Catania, Italy.,Centre for Research and Consultancy in HTA and Drug Regulatory Affairs (CERD) University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Francesco Di Raimondo
- Haematology Unit, A.O.U. Policlinico "G.Rodolico" - S.Marco, Catania, Italy.,Department of Chirurgia Generale e Specialità Medico-Chirurgiche, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
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10
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Sindhu R, Manonmani HK. L-asparaginase mediated therapy in L-asparagine auxotrophic cancers: A review. Anticancer Agents Med Chem 2022; 22:2393-2410. [PMID: 34994334 DOI: 10.2174/1871520622666220106103336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Revised: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Microbial L-asparaginase is the most effective first-line therapeutic used in the treatment protocols of paediatric and adult leukemia. Leukemic cell's auxotrophy for L-asparagine is exploited as a therapeutic strategy to mediate cell death through metabolic blockade of L-asparagine using L-asparaginase. Escherichia coli and Erwinia chrysanthemi serve as the major enzyme deriving sources accepted in clinical practise and the enzyme has bestowed improvements in patient outcomes over the last 40 years. However, an array of side effects generated by the native enzymes due to glutamine co-catalysis and short serum stays augmenting frequent dosages, intended a therapeutic switch towards the development of biobetter alternatives for the enzyme including the formulations resulting in sustained local depletion of L-asparagine. In addition, the treatment with L-asparaginase in few cancer types has proven to elicit drug-induced cytoprotective autophagy mechanisms and therefore warrants concern. Although the off-target glutamine hydrolysis has been viewed in contributing the drug-induced secondary responses in cells deficient with asparagine synthetase machinery, the beneficial role of glutaminase-asparaginase in proliferative regulation of asparagine prototrophic cells has been looked forward. The current review provides an overview on the enzyme's clinical applications in leukemia and possible therapeutic implications in other solid tumours, recent advancements in drug formulations, and discusses the aspects of two-sided roles of glutaminase-asparaginases and drug-induced cytoprotective autophagy mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sindhu R
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Life Sciences, JSS-AHER, Mysuru-570015, Karnataka, India
| | - H K Manonmani
- Food Protectants and Infestation Control Department, CSIR-Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysuru-570020, Karnataka, India
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11
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Sidhu J, Gogoi MP, Agarwal P, Mukherjee T, Saha D, Bose P, Roy P, Phadke Y, Sonawane B, Paul P, Saha V, Krishnan S. Unsatisfactory quality of E. coli asparaginase biogenerics in India: Implications for clinical outcomes in acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2021; 68:e29046. [PMID: 33939263 PMCID: PMC7613163 DOI: 10.1002/pbc.29046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The biotherapeutic asparaginase is a cornerstone of therapy in acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL). With limited access to the original native Escherichia coli-derived asparaginase (EcASNase), a variety of EcASNase biogenerics are used in low-middle-income countries (LMICs). The variable quality of these biogenerics potentially influences clinical outcomes. PROCEDURE Seven biogeneric EcASNases (P1-P7) marketed widely in India were evaluated, with P2 as an exemplar for in vivo monitoring. Therapeutic activity of P2 (10,000 IU/m2 /dose, intramuscular, every 72 hours) was monitored during induction therapy, and drug-related toxicities recorded. Molecular identity, purity and in vitro drug activity of seven biogenerics were characterised using multimodal analyses, and findings compared with reference EcASNase (R). RESULTS In patients (N = 62) receiving P2, subtherapeutic asparaginase activity (<100 U/L) was observed in 66% (46/70) of trough timepoints (72 hours postdose) during induction. Twelve patients (19%), 11 with high-risk ALL, developed hypersensitivity. Isoforms of EcASNase were identified in all seven biogenerics. All generic products contained impurities with batch-to-batch variability. These included high levels of protein aggregates and host cell protein contamination. In vitro assays of EcASNase activity and leukaemia cell line cytotoxicity were not discriminatory. CONCLUSIONS Our findings confirm widespread concerns over the unsatisfactory quality and therapeutic activity of native EcASNase biogenerics marketed in LMICs. Appropriate use of these products requires monitored studies to identify clinical suitability and determine appropriate dosing and schedule. For large parts of the world, assured access to high-quality asparaginases remains an unmet therapeutic need.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasmeet Sidhu
- Department of Paediatric Haematology and Oncology, Tata Medical Center, Kolkata, India,Tata Translational Cancer Research Centre, Tata Medical Center, Kolkata, India
| | - Manash Pratim Gogoi
- Tata Translational Cancer Research Centre, Tata Medical Center, Kolkata, India
| | - Praveen Agarwal
- Gennova Vaccine Formulation and Research Centre, Pune, India
| | | | - Debparna Saha
- Tata Translational Cancer Research Centre, Tata Medical Center, Kolkata, India
| | - Priyanka Bose
- Tata Translational Cancer Research Centre, Tata Medical Center, Kolkata, India
| | - Prakriti Roy
- Tata Translational Cancer Research Centre, Tata Medical Center, Kolkata, India
| | - Yogesh Phadke
- Gennova Vaccine Formulation and Research Centre, Pune, India
| | - Bhatu Sonawane
- Gennova Vaccine Formulation and Research Centre, Pune, India
| | - Pritha Paul
- Tata Translational Cancer Research Centre, Tata Medical Center, Kolkata, India,Division of Cancer Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester,UK
| | - Vaskar Saha
- Department of Paediatric Haematology and Oncology, Tata Medical Center, Kolkata, India,Tata Translational Cancer Research Centre, Tata Medical Center, Kolkata, India,Division of Cancer Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester,UK
| | - Shekhar Krishnan
- Department of Paediatric Haematology and Oncology, Tata Medical Center, Kolkata, India,Tata Translational Cancer Research Centre, Tata Medical Center, Kolkata, India,Division of Cancer Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester,UK
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12
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Cioni P, Gabellieri E, Campanini B, Bettati S, Raboni S. Use of Exogenous Enzymes in Human Therapy: Approved Drugs and Potential Applications. Curr Med Chem 2021; 29:411-452. [PMID: 34259137 DOI: 10.2174/0929867328666210713094722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The development of safe and efficacious enzyme-based human therapies has increased greatly in the last decades, thanks to remarkable advances in the understanding of the molecular mechanisms responsible for different diseases, and the characterization of the catalytic activity of relevant exogenous enzymes that may play a remedial effect in the treatment of such pathologies. Several enzyme-based biotherapeutics have been approved by FDA (the U.S. Food and Drug Administration) and EMA (the European Medicines Agency) and many are undergoing clinical trials. Apart from enzyme replacement therapy in human genetic diseases, which is not discussed in this review, approved enzymes for human therapy find applications in several fields, from cancer therapy to thrombolysis and the treatment, e.g., of clotting disorders, cystic fibrosis, lactose intolerance and collagen-based disorders. The majority of therapeutic enzymes are of microbial origin, the most convenient source due to fast, simple and cost-effective production and manipulation. The use of microbial recombinant enzymes has broadened prospects for human therapy but some hurdles such as high immunogenicity, protein instability, short half-life and low substrate affinity, still need to be tackled. Alternative sources of enzymes, with reduced side effects and improved activity, as well as genetic modification of the enzymes and novel delivery systems are constantly searched. Chemical modification strategies, targeted- and/or nanocarrier-mediated delivery, directed evolution and site-specific mutagenesis, fusion proteins generated by genetic manipulation are the most explored tools to reduce toxicity and improve bioavailability and cellular targeting. This review provides a description of exogenous enzymes that are presently employed for the therapeutic management of human diseases with their current FDA/EMA-approved status, along with those already experimented at the clinical level and potential promising candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrizia Cioni
- Institute of Biophysics, National Research Council, Via Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa. Italy
| | - Edi Gabellieri
- Institute of Biophysics, National Research Council, Via Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa. Italy
| | - Barbara Campanini
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 23/A, 43124 Parma. Italy
| | - Stefano Bettati
- Institute of Biophysics, National Research Council, Via Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa. Italy
| | - Samanta Raboni
- Institute of Biophysics, National Research Council, Via Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa. Italy
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13
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Lubkowski J, Wlodawer A. Structural and biochemical properties of L-asparaginase. FEBS J 2021; 288:4183-4209. [PMID: 34060231 DOI: 10.1111/febs.16042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
l-Asparaginase (a hydrolase converting l-asparagine to l-aspartic acid) was the first enzyme to be used in clinical practice as an anticancer agent after its approval in 1978 as a component of a treatment protocol for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Structural and biochemical properties of l-asparaginases have been extensively investigated during the last half-century, providing an accurate structural description of the enzyme isolated from a variety of sources, as well as clarifying the mechanism of its activity. This review provides a critical assessment of the current state of knowledge of primarily structural, but also selected biochemical properties of 'bacterial-type' l-asparaginases from different organisms. The most extensively studied members of this enzyme family are l-asparaginases highly homologous to one of the two enzymes from Escherichia coli (usually referred to as EcAI and EcAII). Members of this enzyme family, although often called bacterial-type l-asparaginases, have been also identified in such divergent organisms as archaea or eukarya. Over 100 structural models of l-asparaginases have been deposited in the Protein Data Bank during the last 30 years. One of the prime achievements of structure-centered approaches was the elucidation of the details of the mechanism of enzymatic action of this unique hydrolase that utilizes a side chain of threonine as the primary nucleophile. The molecular basis of other important properties of these enzymes, such as their substrate specificity, is still being evaluated. Results of structural and mechanistic studies of l-asparaginases are being utilized in efforts to improve the clinical properties of this important anticancer drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacek Lubkowski
- Center for Structural Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Alexander Wlodawer
- Center for Structural Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD, USA
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14
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Radadiya A, Zhu W, Coricello A, Alcaro S, Richards NGJ. Improving the Treatment of Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia. Biochemistry 2020; 59:3193-3200. [PMID: 32786406 PMCID: PMC7497903 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.0c00354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
l-Asparaginase (EC 3.5.1.1) was first used as a component of combination drug therapies to treat acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), a cancer of the blood and bone marrow, almost 50 years ago. Administering this enzyme to reduce asparagine levels in the blood is a cornerstone of modern clinical protocols for ALL; indeed, this remains the only successful example of a therapy targeted against a specific metabolic weakness in any form of cancer. Three problems, however, constrain the clinical use of l-asparaginase. First, a type II bacterial variant of l-asparaginase is administered to patients, the majority of whom are children, which produces an immune response thereby limiting the time over which the enzyme can be tolerated. Second, l-asparaginase is subject to proteolytic degradation in the blood. Third, toxic side effects are observed, which may be correlated with the l-glutaminase activity of the enzyme. This Perspective will outline how asparagine depletion negatively impacts the growth of leukemic blasts, discuss the structure and mechanism of l-asparaginase, and briefly describe the clinical use of chemically modified forms of clinically useful l-asparaginases, such as Asparlas, which was recently given FDA approval for use in children (babies to young adults) as part of multidrug treatments for ALL. Finally, we review ongoing efforts to engineer l-asparaginase variants with improved therapeutic properties and briefly detail emerging, alternate strategies for the treatment of forms of ALL that are resistant to asparagine depletion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashish Radadiya
- School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Park Place, Cardiff CF10 3AT, U.K
| | - Wen Zhu
- Department of Chemistry and California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Adriana Coricello
- School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Park Place, Cardiff CF10 3AT, U.K.,Dipartimento di Scienze della Salute, Università "Magna Græcia" di Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Stefano Alcaro
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Salute, Università "Magna Græcia" di Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy.,Net4Science, Università "Magna Græcia" di Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Nigel G J Richards
- School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Park Place, Cardiff CF10 3AT, U.K.,Foundation for Applied Molecular Evolution, 13079 Progress Boulevard, Alachua, Florida 32615, United States
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15
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Timofeev VI, Zhukhlistova NE, Kuranova IP. Molecular Packing of a Mutant of L-Asparaginase from Wolinella succinigenes in Two Crystal Modifications. CRYSTALLOGR REP+ 2020. [DOI: 10.1134/s1063774520040227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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16
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Epigenetic regulation of protein translation in KMT2A-rearranged AML. Exp Hematol 2020; 85:57-69. [PMID: 32437908 DOI: 10.1016/j.exphem.2020.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Inhibition of the H3K79 histone methyltransferase DOT1L has exhibited encouraging preclinical and early clinical activity in KMT2A (MLL)-rearranged leukemia, supporting the development of combinatorial therapies. Here, we investigated two novel combinations: dual inhibition of the histone methyltransferases DOT1L and EZH2, and the combination with a protein synthesis inhibitor. EZH2 is the catalytic subunit in the polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2), and inhibition of EZH2 has been reported to have preclinical activity in KMT2A-r leukemia. When combined with DOT1L inhibition, however, we observed both synergistic and antagonistic effects. Interestingly, antagonistic effects were not due to PRC2-mediated de-repression of HOXA9. HOXA cluster genes are key canonical targets of both KMT2A and the PRC2 complex. The independence of the HOXA cluster from PRC2 repression in KMT2A-r leukemia thus affords important insights into leukemia biology. Further studies revealed that EZH2 inhibition counteracted the effect of DOT1L inhibition on ribosomal gene expression. We thus identified a previously unrecognized role of DOT1L in regulating protein production. Decreased translation was one of the earliest effects measurable after DOT1L inhibition and specific to KMT2A-rearranged cell lines. H3K79me2 chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing patterns over ribosomal genes were similar to those of the canonical KMT2A-fusion target genes in primary AML patient samples. The effects of DOT1L inhibition on ribosomal gene expression prompted us to evaluate the combination of EPZ5676 with a protein translation inhibitor. EPZ5676 was synergistic with the protein translation inhibitor homoharringtonine (omacetaxine), supporting further preclinical/clinical development of this combination. In summary, we discovered a novel epigenetic regulation of a metabolic process-protein synthesis-that plays a role in leukemogenesis and affords a combinatorial therapeutic opportunity.
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17
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Timofeev VI, Zhukhlistova NE, Kuranova IP. Features of the Three Dimensional Structure of the Mutant Form of Wolinella succinogenes L-Asparaginase in Complexes with L-Aspartic and L-Glutamic Acids. RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF BIOORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2020. [DOI: 10.1134/s1068162020020168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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18
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Chiu M, Taurino G, Bianchi MG, Kilberg MS, Bussolati O. Asparagine Synthetase in Cancer: Beyond Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia. Front Oncol 2020; 9:1480. [PMID: 31998641 PMCID: PMC6962308 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2019.01480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2019] [Accepted: 12/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Asparagine Synthetase (ASNS) catalyzes the synthesis of the non-essential amino acid asparagine (Asn) from aspartate (Asp) and glutamine (Gln). ASNS expression is highly regulated at the transcriptional level, being induced by both the Amino Acid Response (AAR) and the Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) pathways. Lack of ASNS protein expression is a hallmark of Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL) blasts, which, therefore, are auxotrophic for Asn. This peculiarity is the rationale for the use of bacterial L-Asparaginase (ASNase) for ALL therapy, the first example of anti-cancer treatment targeting a tumor-specific metabolic feature. Other hematological and solid cancers express low levels of ASNS and, therefore, should also be Asn auxotrophs and ASNase sensitive. Conversely, in the last few years, several reports indicate that in some cancer types ASNS is overexpressed, promoting cell proliferation, chemoresistance, and a metastatic behavior. However, enhanced ASNS activity may constitute a metabolic vulnerability in selected cancer models, suggesting a variable and tumor-specific role of the enzyme in cancer. Recent evidence indicates that, beyond its canonical role in protein synthesis, Asn may have additional regulatory functions. These observations prompt a re-appreciation of ASNS activity in the biology of normal and cancer tissues, with particular attention to the fueling of Asn exchange between cancer cells and the tumor microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Chiu
- Laboratory of General Pathology, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Taurino
- Laboratory of General Pathology, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Massimiliano G Bianchi
- Laboratory of General Pathology, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Michael S Kilberg
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Ovidio Bussolati
- Laboratory of General Pathology, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
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19
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Quality Control and Downstream Processing of Therapeutic Enzymes. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1148:55-80. [PMID: 31482494 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-7709-9_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Therapeutic enzymes are a commercially minor but clinically important area of biopharmaceuticals. An array of therapeutic enzymes has been developed for a variety of human diseases, including leukaemia and enzyme-deficiency diseases such as Gaucher's disease. Production and testing of therapeutic enzymes is strictly governed by regulatory bodies in each country around the world, and batch-to-batch consistency is crucially important. Manufacture of a batch starts with the fermentation or cell culture stage. After expression of the therapeutic enzyme in a cell culture bioreactor, robust and reproducible protein purification, or downstream processing (DSP) of the target product, is critical to ensuring safe delivery of these medicines. Modern processing technology, including the use of disposable processing equipment, has greatly improved the DSP development pathway in terms of robustness and speed to clinic. Once purified, the drug substance undergoes rigorous quality control (QC) testing according to current regulatory guidance, to enable release to the clinic and patient. QC testing is conducted to ensure the safety, purity, identity, potency and strength of the medicinal product, requiring multiple analytical methods that are rigorously validated and monitored for robust performance. Several case studies, including L-asparaginase and asfotase alfa, are discussed to illustrate the methods described herein.
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20
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Asparaginase-induced hepatotoxicity: rapid development of cholestasis and hepatic steatosis. Hepatol Int 2019; 13:641-648. [PMID: 31392570 DOI: 10.1007/s12072-019-09971-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 07/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND L-Asparaginase is a bacterial enzyme used in the treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia. In the ongoing U.S. Drug-Induced Liver Injury Network (DILIN) prospective study, standard and pegylated asparaginase were the most frequent cause of liver injury with jaundice among anti-cancer agents (8 of 40: 20%). The unique features of this hepatotoxicity are described. METHODS Eight cases from 5 DILIN centers were reviewed for clinical course, laboratory values, imaging, and histopathology. RESULTS Seven females, aged 29-59 years, and one 8-year-old boy, all with leukemia, developed jaundice within 9-21 days (median 15 days) of starting asparaginase or pegaspargase, during the first (n = 6) or second (n = 2) cycle. Prominent symptoms were jaundice (n = 8), fatigue (6), abdominal pain (6) but rarely pruritus (1). Initial median ALT level was 284 U/L (range 83-1076), Alk P 159 U/L (64-452), and bilirubin 4.4 mg/dL (3.7-8.4). Bilirubin levels rose thereafter in all patients to median peak of 17.5 mg/dL (11.7-25.7), INR rose to 1.1-1.7 and serum albumin fell to 1.5-2.6 g/dL. Hepatic imaging revealed fatty liver in all patients. Liver biopsy showed steatosis but minimal hepatocyte necrosis. One patient restarted on pegaspargase re-developed less severe injury. CONCLUSION Asparaginase is a common cause of antineoplastic-induced liver injury with jaundice, typically with short latency, marked steatosis, and prolonged jaundice, which can lead to delays in antileukemic therapy. The cause of injury is likely direct inhibition of hepatic protein synthesis caused by asparagine depletion.
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21
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Walenciak J, Wyka K, Janczar S, Młynarski W, Zalewska-Szewczyk B. Dynamic changes in specific anti-L-asparaginase antibodies generation during acute lymphoblastic leukemia treatment. Pharmacol Rep 2019; 71:311-318. [PMID: 30826572 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharep.2018.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2017] [Revised: 11/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND L-asparaginase (L-asp) remains one of the key components of acute lymphoblastic leukemia therapy. Immune reactions to the drug are associated with its diminished activity. The aim of the study was to determine the level of IgM, IgG and IgE-class anti-L-asp antibodies during the induction and reinduction phases of acute lymphoblastic leukemia therapy and their influence on L-asp activity. METHODS The study group comprised 65 patients treated for acute lymphoblastic leukemia in one pediatric oncology center. L-asp antibodies were assessed using ELISA at the end of the induction and reinduction phases. L-asp activity was assessed prior to each drug administration by colorimetry. RESULTS At the end of the first exposure to L-asp antibodies were detected in 35 patients (54%). In the reinduction phase of the treatment anti-L-asp antibodies were found in 38/55 patients (69%). In the induction phase patients with inadequate L-asp activity had higher IgM concentrations (median 5.88 versus 2.81 μg/mL, p = 0.03). In the reinduction phase IgG and IgM levels correlated inversely with L-asp activity. Patients with L-asp allergy had higher levels of IgG (median 61.6 versus 18.36 μg/mL, p = 0.01), whereas higher IgE levels were noted in the group of patients with inadequate drug activity (median 0.91 versus 0.64 μg/mL, p = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS Subsequent exposure to L-asp in the treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia was associated with the increase of anti-L-asp antibodies in all studied classes. However, the changes observed in specific classes of antibodies were not distinctive for L-asp hypersensitivity or inactivation, suggesting that the mechanism is more complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justyna Walenciak
- Department of Pediatrics, Oncology, Hematology and Diabetology, Medical University of Lodz, Łódź, Poland
| | - Krystyna Wyka
- Laboratory of Immunopathology and Genetics, Medical University of Lodz, Łódź, Poland
| | - Szymon Janczar
- Department of Pediatrics, Oncology, Hematology and Diabetology, Medical University of Lodz, Łódź, Poland
| | - Wojciech Młynarski
- Department of Pediatrics, Oncology, Hematology and Diabetology, Medical University of Lodz, Łódź, Poland
| | - Beata Zalewska-Szewczyk
- Department of Pediatrics, Oncology, Hematology and Diabetology, Medical University of Lodz, Łódź, Poland.
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22
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L-asparaginase – A promising biocatalyst for industrial and clinical applications. BIOCATALYSIS AND AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcab.2018.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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23
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Maggi M, Scotti C. Enzymes in Metabolic Anticancer Therapy. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1148:173-199. [PMID: 31482500 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-7709-9_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Cancer treatment has greatly improved over the last 50 years, but it remains challenging in several cases. Useful therapeutic targets are normally unique peculiarities of cancer cells that distinguish them from normal cells and that can be tackled with appropriate drugs. It is now known that cell metabolism is rewired during tumorigenesis and metastasis as a consequence of oncogene activation and oncosuppressors inactivation, leading to a new cellular homeostasis typically directed towards anabolism. Because of these modifications, cells can become strongly or absolutely dependent on specific substrates, like sugars, lipids or amino acids. Cancer addictions are a relevant target for therapy, as removal of an essential substrate can lead to their selective cell-cycle arrest or even to cell death, leaving normal cells untouched. Enzymes can act as powerful agents in this respect, as demonstrated by asparaginase, which has been included in the treatment of Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia for half a century. In this review, a short outline of cancer addictions will be provided, focusing on the main cancer amino acid dependencies described so far. Therapeutic enzymes which have been already experimented at the clinical level will be discussed, along with novel potential candidates that we propose as new promising molecules. The intrinsic limitations of their present molecular forms, along with molecular engineering solutions to explore, will also be presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maristella Maggi
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Unit of Immunology and General Pathology, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy.
| | - Claudia Scotti
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Unit of Immunology and General Pathology, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
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24
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Peng S, Gerasimenko JV, Tsugorka TM, Gryshchenko O, Samarasinghe S, Petersen OH, Gerasimenko OV. Galactose protects against cell damage in mouse models of acute pancreatitis. J Clin Invest 2018; 128:3769-3778. [PMID: 29893744 PMCID: PMC6118583 DOI: 10.1172/jci94714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute pancreatitis (AP), a human disease in which the pancreas digests itself, has substantial mortality with no specific therapy. The major causes of AP are alcohol abuse and gallstone complications, but it also occurs as an important side effect of the standard asparaginase-based therapy for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Previous investigations into the mechanisms underlying pancreatic acinar cell death induced by alcohol metabolites, bile acids, or asparaginase indicated that loss of intracellular ATP generation is an important factor. We now report that, in isolated mouse pancreatic acinar cells or cell clusters, removal of extracellular glucose had little effect on this ATP loss, suggesting that glucose metabolism was severely inhibited under these conditions. Surprisingly, we show that replacing glucose with galactose prevented or markedly reduced the loss of ATP and any subsequent necrosis. Addition of pyruvate had a similar protective effect. We also studied the effect of galactose in vivo in mouse models of AP induced either by a combination of fatty acids and ethanol or asparaginase. In both cases, galactose markedly reduced acinar necrosis and inflammation. Based on these data, we suggest that galactose feeding may be used to protect against AP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuang Peng
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom.,Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | | | - Tetyana M Tsugorka
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Oleksiy Gryshchenko
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom.,Bogomoletz Institute of Physiology, Kiev, Ukraine
| | - Sujith Samarasinghe
- Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ole H Petersen
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Oleg V Gerasimenko
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
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25
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Tiwari K, Dubey VK. Leishmania donovani asparaginase variants exhibit cytosolic localization. Int J Biol Macromol 2018; 114:35-39. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.03.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Revised: 02/03/2018] [Accepted: 03/15/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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26
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Pola M, Rajulapati SB, Potla Durthi C, Erva RR, Bhatia M. In silico modelling and molecular dynamics simulation studies on L-Asparaginase isolated from bacterial endophyte of Ocimum tenuiflorum. Enzyme Microb Technol 2018; 117:32-40. [PMID: 30037549 DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2018.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2017] [Revised: 06/11/2018] [Accepted: 06/14/2018] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Bioactive compounds from endophytes have been used to treat various diseases. In the present study, L-Asparaginase producing endophytes were isolated from Ocimum tenuiflorum (Tulasi) from NIT Warangal, Telangana, India to treat Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL) in which L-Asparagine (L-Asn) deamination plays a vital role in ALL treatment. 20 (bacteria and fungi) out of 35 endophytes have been screened for L-Asparaginase production using rapid plate assay technique, in which four strains produced high amounts of L-Asparaginase. 16 s Ribosomal RNA sequencing studies were performed, Bacillus stratosphericus organism was identified, and purified L-Asparaginase sequence has been tailored using MALDI/TOF (Applied Biosystems). The homology model was developed by using MODELLER 9.15v as the endophyte lacks crystal structure of L-Asparaginase enzyme and validated by dint of quality index tools. Docking studies were performed using iGemdock 2.1v. In comparison, free energy binding efficiency of receptor towards L-Asparagine (L-Asn) is good with lesser energy -71.6 kcal/mol in comparison to L-Glutamine (L-Gln) having -67.7 kcal/mol. In order to find the stability of the docked complexes in dynamics environment, molecular dynamics and simulation studies were performed using GROMACS V4.6.5. The trajectory analysis for 10 ns shows the better RMSD, RMSF, Rg and average number of hydrogen bonds for complex 1 (L-Asparaginase + L-Asn docked complex). Hence, complex 1 was found to be more stable than Complex 2 (L-Asparaginase + L-Gln docked complex).
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Affiliation(s)
- Madhuri Pola
- National Institute of Technology Warangal, Warangal 506004, Telangana, India
| | | | | | | | - Mayuri Bhatia
- National Institute of Technology Warangal, Warangal 506004, Telangana, India
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27
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Nguyen HA, Su Y, Zhang JY, Antanasijevic A, Caffrey M, Schalk AM, Liu L, Rondelli D, Oh A, Mahmud DL, Bosland MC, Kajdacsy-Balla A, Peirs S, Lammens T, Mondelaers V, De Moerloose B, Goossens S, Schlicht MJ, Kabirov KK, Lyubimov AV, Merrill BJ, Saunthararajah Y, Van Vlierberghe P, Lavie A. A Novel l-Asparaginase with low l-Glutaminase Coactivity Is Highly Efficacious against Both T- and B-cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemias In Vivo. Cancer Res 2018; 78:1549-1560. [PMID: 29343523 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-17-2106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2017] [Revised: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is the most common type of pediatric cancer, although about 4 of every 10 cases occur in adults. The enzyme drug l-asparaginase serves as a cornerstone of ALL therapy and exploits the asparagine dependency of ALL cells. In addition to hydrolyzing the amino acid l-asparagine, all FDA-approved l-asparaginases also have significant l-glutaminase coactivity. Since several reports suggest that l-glutamine depletion correlates with many of the side effects of these drugs, enzyme variants with reduced l-glutaminase coactivity might be clinically beneficial if their antileukemic activity would be preserved. Here we show that novel low l-glutaminase variants developed on the backbone of the FDA-approved Erwinia chrysanthemi l-asparaginase were highly efficacious against both T- and B-cell ALL, while displaying reduced acute toxicity features. These results support the development of a new generation of safer l-asparaginases without l-glutaminase activity for the treatment of human ALL.Significance: A new l-asparaginase-based therapy is less toxic compared with FDA-approved high l-glutaminase enzymes Cancer Res; 78(6); 1549-60. ©2018 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hien Anh Nguyen
- The Jesse Brown VA Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois,
| | - Ying Su
- The Jesse Brown VA Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois,
| | - Jenny Y Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois,
| | - Aleksandar Antanasijevic
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois,
| | - Michael Caffrey
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois,
| | - Amanda M Schalk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois,
| | - Li Liu
- Division of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Damiano Rondelli
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, University of Illinois Hospital and Health Sciences System, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Annie Oh
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, University of Illinois Hospital and Health Sciences System, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Dolores L Mahmud
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, University of Illinois Hospital and Health Sciences System, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Maarten C Bosland
- Department of Pathology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | | | - Sofie Peirs
- Center for Medical Genetics, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium.,Cancer Research Institute Ghent (CRIG), Ghent, Belgium
| | - Tim Lammens
- Cancer Research Institute Ghent (CRIG), Ghent, Belgium.,Department of Pediatric Hematology-Oncology and Stem Cell Transplantation, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Veerle Mondelaers
- Cancer Research Institute Ghent (CRIG), Ghent, Belgium.,Department of Pediatric Hematology-Oncology and Stem Cell Transplantation, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Barbara De Moerloose
- Cancer Research Institute Ghent (CRIG), Ghent, Belgium.,Department of Pediatric Hematology-Oncology and Stem Cell Transplantation, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Steven Goossens
- Center for Medical Genetics, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium.,Cancer Research Institute Ghent (CRIG), Ghent, Belgium
| | - Michael J Schlicht
- Department of Pathology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Kasim K Kabirov
- Toxicology Research Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Alexander V Lyubimov
- Toxicology Research Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Bradley J Merrill
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois,
| | - Yogen Saunthararajah
- Department of Translational Hematology & Oncology Research, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Pieter Van Vlierberghe
- Center for Medical Genetics, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium. .,Cancer Research Institute Ghent (CRIG), Ghent, Belgium
| | - Arnon Lavie
- The Jesse Brown VA Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois. .,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois,
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Lomelino CL, Andring JT, McKenna R, Kilberg MS. Asparagine synthetase: Function, structure, and role in disease. J Biol Chem 2017; 292:19952-19958. [PMID: 29084849 PMCID: PMC5723983 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.r117.819060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Asparagine synthetase (ASNS) converts aspartate and glutamine to asparagine and glutamate in an ATP-dependent reaction. ASNS is present in most, if not all, mammalian organs, but varies widely in basal expression. Human ASNS activity is highly responsive to cellular stress, primarily by increased transcription from a single gene located on chromosome 7. Elevated ASNS protein expression is associated with resistance to asparaginase therapy in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. There is evidence that ASNS expression levels may also be inversely correlated with asparaginase efficacy in certain solid tumors as well. Children with mutations in the ASNS gene exhibit developmental delays, intellectual disability, microcephaly, intractable seizures, and progressive brain atrophy. Thus far, 15 unique mutations in the ASNS gene have been clinically associated with asparagine synthetase deficiency (ASD). Molecular modeling using the Escherichia coli ASNS-B structure has revealed that most of the reported ASD substitutions are located near catalytic sites or within highly conserved regions of the protein. For some ASD patients, fibroblast cell culture studies have eliminated protein and mRNA synthesis or stability as the basis for decreased proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carrie L Lomelino
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shands Cancer Center, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610
| | - Jacob T Andring
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shands Cancer Center, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610
| | - Robert McKenna
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shands Cancer Center, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610
| | - Michael S Kilberg
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shands Cancer Center, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610.
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29
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Shakambari G, Sameer Kumar R, Ashokkumar B, Varalakshmi P. Agro Waste Utilization for Cost-Effective Production of l-Asparaginase by Pseudomonas plecoglossicida RS1 with Anticancer and Acrylamide Mitigation Potential. ACS OMEGA 2017; 2:8108-8117. [PMID: 30023574 PMCID: PMC6044496 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.7b01429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2017] [Accepted: 10/17/2017] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Agricultural wastes such as the peels of onion and garlic were used as a supplement along with l-asparagine for the very first time to produce increased yield of l-asparaginase by Pseudomonas plecoglossicida RS1. Statistical optimization strategies such as response surface methodology were used to generate a medium composition containing extracts of 0.9 (v/v) of garlic peel waste and 0.5% (v/v) onion peel waste along with 0.2% (w/w) l-asparagine, which yielded a twofold increase in the enzyme activity compared to the unsupplemented minimal (M-9) medium. The presence of l-asparagine content in the peel extract was confirmed by high-performance liquid chromatography. Further, l-asparaginase was purified to homogeneity, and identity was confirmed by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight analysis. The application of the purified l-asparaginase as a therapeutic was studied in HeLa cells which showed a p53-mediated G2 cell cycle arrest. Moreover, the purified l-asparaginase showed effective acrylamide mitigation in vitro, at 6 IU, and its effective degradation was also demonstrated by the effect on chemotactic index of Caenorhabditis elegans and the restoration of the cognitive abilities of C. elegans which was coexposed to acrylamide and l-asparaginase compared to that exposed to acrylamide alone. Thus, l-asparaginase, with multipotent applications, was produced by effective waste utilization for economical commercial production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ganeshan Shakambari
- Department
of Molecular Microbiology, School of Biotechnology, and Department of
Genetic Engineering, School of Biotechnology, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu 625021, India
| | - Rai Sameer Kumar
- Department
of Molecular Microbiology, School of Biotechnology, and Department of
Genetic Engineering, School of Biotechnology, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu 625021, India
| | - Balasubramaniem Ashokkumar
- Department
of Molecular Microbiology, School of Biotechnology, and Department of
Genetic Engineering, School of Biotechnology, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu 625021, India
| | - Perumal Varalakshmi
- Department
of Molecular Microbiology, School of Biotechnology, and Department of
Genetic Engineering, School of Biotechnology, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu 625021, India
- E-mail: (P.V.)
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30
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Peng S, Gerasimenko JV, Tsugorka T, Gryshchenko O, Samarasinghe S, Petersen OH, Gerasimenko OV. Calcium and adenosine triphosphate control of cellular pathology: asparaginase-induced pancreatitis elicited via protease-activated receptor 2. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2017; 371:rstb.2015.0423. [PMID: 27377732 PMCID: PMC4938023 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Exocytotic secretion of digestive enzymes from pancreatic acinar cells is elicited by physiological cytosolic Ca2+ signals, occurring as repetitive short-lasting spikes largely confined to the secretory granule region, that stimulate mitochondrial adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production. By contrast, sustained global cytosolic Ca2+ elevations decrease ATP levels and cause necrosis, leading to the disease acute pancreatitis (AP). Toxic Ca2+ signals can be evoked by products of alcohol and fatty acids as well as bile acids. Here, we have investigated the mechanism by which l-asparaginase evokes AP. Asparaginase is an essential element in the successful treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia, the most common type of cancer affecting children, but AP is a side-effect occurring in about 5–10% of cases. Like other pancreatitis-inducing agents, asparaginase evoked intracellular Ca2+ release followed by Ca2+ entry and also substantially reduced Ca2+ extrusion because of decreased intracellular ATP levels. The toxic Ca2+ signals caused extensive necrosis. The asparaginase-induced pathology depended on protease-activated receptor 2 and its inhibition prevented the toxic Ca2+ signals and necrosis. We tested the effects of inhibiting the Ca2+ release-activated Ca2+ entry by the Ca2+ channel inhibitor GSK-7975A. This markedly reduced asparaginase-induced Ca2+ entry and also protected effectively against the development of necrosis. This article is part of the themed issue ‘Evolution brings Ca2+ and ATP together to control life and death’.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuang Peng
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3AX, Wales, UK Department of Pathophysiology, Medical College, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, People's Republic of China
| | - Julia V Gerasimenko
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3AX, Wales, UK
| | - Tatiana Tsugorka
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3AX, Wales, UK
| | - Oleksiy Gryshchenko
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3AX, Wales, UK Bogomoletz Institute of Physiology, Kiev 01024, Ukraine
| | - Sujith Samarasinghe
- Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children NHS Foundation Trust, Great Ormond Street, London WC1N 3JH, UK
| | - Ole H Petersen
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3AX, Wales, UK Systems Immunity Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF14 4XN, Wales, UK
| | - Oleg V Gerasimenko
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3AX, Wales, UK
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31
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Gerasimenko JV, Peng S, Tsugorka T, Gerasimenko OV. Ca 2+ signalling underlying pancreatitis. Cell Calcium 2017; 70:95-101. [PMID: 28552244 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceca.2017.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2017] [Revised: 05/16/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In spite of significant scientific progress in recent years, acute pancreatitis (AP) is still a dangerous and in up to 5% of cases deadly disease with no specific cure. It is self-resolved in the majority of cases, but could result in chronic pancreatitis (CP) and increased risk of pancreatic cancer (PC). One of the early events in AP is premature activation of digestive pro-enzymes, including trypsinogen, inside pancreatic acinar cells (PACs) due to an excessive rise in the cytosolic Ca2+ concentration, which is the result of Ca2+ release from internal stores followed by Ca2+ entry through the store operated Ca2+ channels in the plasma membrane. The leading causes of AP are high alcohol intake and biliary disease with gallstones obstruction leading to bile reflux into the pancreatic duct. Recently attention in this area of research turned to another cause of AP - Asparaginase based drugs - which have been used quite successfully in treatments of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL). Unfortunately, Asparaginase is implicated in triggering AP in 5-10% of cases as a side effect of the anti-cancer therapy. The main features of Asparaginase-elicited AP (AAP) were found to be remarkably similar to AP induced by alcohol metabolites and bile acids. Several potential therapeutic avenues in counteracting AAP have been suggested and could also be useful for dealing with AP induced by other causes. Another interesting development in this field includes recent research related to pancreatic stellate cells (PSCs) that are much less studied in their natural environment but nevertheless critically involved in AP, CP and PC. This review will attempt to evaluate developments, approaches and potential therapies for AP and discuss links to other relevant diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- J V Gerasimenko
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3AX, Wales, UK.
| | - S Peng
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3AX, Wales, UK; Department of Physiology, Medical College, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - T Tsugorka
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3AX, Wales, UK
| | - O V Gerasimenko
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3AX, Wales, UK.
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32
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The differential ability of asparagine and glutamine in promoting the closed/active enzyme conformation rationalizes the Wolinella succinogenes L-asparaginase substrate specificity. Sci Rep 2017; 7:41643. [PMID: 28139703 PMCID: PMC5282591 DOI: 10.1038/srep41643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Many side effects of current FDA-approved L-asparaginases have been related to their secondary L-glutaminase activity. The Wolinella succinogenes L-asparaginase (WoA) has been reported to be L-glutaminase free, suggesting it would have fewer side effects. Unexpectedly, the WoA variant with a proline at position 121 (WoA-P121) was found to have L-glutaminase activity in contrast to Uniprot entry P50286 (WoA-S121) that has a serine residue at this position. Towards understanding how this residue impacts the L-glutaminase property, kinetic analysis was coupled with crystal structure determination of these WoA variants. WoA-S121 was confirmed to have much lower L-glutaminase activity than WoA-P121, yet both showed comparable L-asparaginase activity. Structures of the WoA variants in complex with L-aspartic acid versus L-glutamic acid provide insights into their differential substrate selectivity. Structural analysis suggests a mechanism by which residue 121 impacts the conformation of the conserved tyrosine 27, a component of the catalytically-important flexible N-terminal loop. Surprisingly, we could fully model this loop in either its open or closed conformations, revealing the roles of specific residues of an evolutionary conserved motif among this L-asparaginase family. Together, this work showcases critical residues that influence the ability of the flexible N-terminal loop for adopting its active conformation, thereby effecting substrate specificity.
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33
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Santos JHPM, Costa IM, Molino JVD, Leite MSM, Pimenta MV, Coutinho JAP, Pessoa A, Ventura SPM, Lopes AM, Monteiro G. Heterologous expression and purification of active L-asparaginase I of Saccharomyces cerevisiae in Escherichia coli host. Biotechnol Prog 2016; 33:416-424. [PMID: 27863173 DOI: 10.1002/btpr.2410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2016] [Revised: 11/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
l-asparaginase (ASNase) is a biopharmaceutical widely used to treat child leukemia. However, it presents some side effects, and in order to provide an alternative biopharmaceutical, in this work, the genes encoding ASNase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Sc_ASNaseI and Sc_ASNaseII) were cloned in the prokaryotic expression system Escherichia coli. In the 93 different expression conditions tested, the Sc_ASNaseII protein was always obtained as an insoluble and inactive form. However, the Sc_ASNaseI (His)6 -tagged recombinant protein was produced in large amounts in the soluble fraction of the protein extract. Affinity chromatography was performed on a Fast Protein Liquid Chromatography (FPLC) system using Ni2+ -charged, HiTrap Immobilized Metal ion Affinity Chromatography (IMAC) FF in order to purify active Sc_ASNaseI recombinant protein. The results suggest that the strategy for the expression and purification of this potential new biopharmaceutical protein with lower side effects was efficient since high amounts of soluble Sc_ASNaseI with high specific activity (110.1 ± 0.3 IU mg-1 ) were obtained. In addition, the use of FPLC-IMAC proved to be an efficient tool in the purification of this enzyme, since a good recovery (40.50 ± 0.01%) was achieved with a purification factor of 17-fold. © 2016 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 33:416-424, 2017.
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Affiliation(s)
- João H P M Santos
- Department of Chemistry, CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, 3810-193, Portugal
- Department of Biochemical and Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo-FCF/USP, São Paulo/SP, Brazil
| | - Iris M Costa
- Department of Biochemical and Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo-FCF/USP, São Paulo/SP, Brazil
| | - João V D Molino
- Department of Biochemical and Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo-FCF/USP, São Paulo/SP, Brazil
| | - Mariana S M Leite
- Department of Biochemical and Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo-FCF/USP, São Paulo/SP, Brazil
| | - Marcela V Pimenta
- Department of Biochemical and Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo-FCF/USP, São Paulo/SP, Brazil
| | - João A P Coutinho
- Department of Chemistry, CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, 3810-193, Portugal
| | - Adalberto Pessoa
- Department of Biochemical and Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo-FCF/USP, São Paulo/SP, Brazil
| | - Sónia P M Ventura
- Department of Chemistry, CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, 3810-193, Portugal
| | - André M Lopes
- Department of Biochemical and Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo-FCF/USP, São Paulo/SP, Brazil
| | - Gisele Monteiro
- Department of Biochemical and Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo-FCF/USP, São Paulo/SP, Brazil
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34
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Murray PJ. Amino acid auxotrophy as a system of immunological control nodes. Nat Immunol 2016; 17:132-9. [PMID: 26784254 PMCID: PMC4893777 DOI: 10.1038/ni.3323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2015] [Accepted: 10/13/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cells of the immune system are auxotrophs for most amino acids, including several nonessential ones. Arginine and tryptophan are used within the regulatory immune networks to control proliferation and function through pathways that actively deplete the amino acid from the microenvironment or that create regulatory molecules such as nitric oxide or kynurenines. How immune cells integrate information about essential amino acid supplies and then transfer these signals to growth and activation pathways remains unclear but has potential for pathway discovery about amino sensing. In applied research, strategies to harness amino acid auxotrophy so as to block cancerous lymphocyte growth have been attempted for decades with limited success. Emerging insights about amino acid metabolism may lead to new strategies in clinical medicine whereby both amino acid auxotrophy and the immunoregulatory pathways controlled by amino acids can be manipulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Murray
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
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35
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Abstract
Cells of the immune system are auxotrophs for most amino acids, including several nonessential ones. Arginine and tryptophan are used within the regulatory immune networks to control proliferation and function through pathways that actively deplete the amino acid from the microenvironment or that create regulatory molecules such as nitric oxide or kynurenines. How immune cells integrate information about essential amino acid supplies and then transfer these signals to growth and activation pathways remains unclear but has potential for pathway discovery about amino sensing. In applied research, strategies to harness amino acid auxotrophy so as to block cancerous lymphocyte growth have been attempted for decades with limited success. Emerging insights about amino acid metabolism may lead to new strategies in clinical medicine whereby both amino acid auxotrophy and the immunoregulatory pathways controlled by amino acids can be manipulated.
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36
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Shakambari G, Birendranarayan AK, Angelaa Lincy MJ, Rai SK, Ahamed QT, Ashokkumar B, Saravanan M, Mahesh A, Varalakshmi P. Hemocompatible glutaminase free l-asparaginase from marine Bacillus tequilensis PV9W with anticancer potential modulating p53 expression. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra00727a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutaminase free l-asparaginase from a marine isolate Bacillus tequilensis PV9W: production, purification, characterization and its biological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ganeshan Shakambari
- Department of Molecular Microbiology
- School of Biotechnology
- Madurai Kamaraj University
- Madurai
- India
| | | | | | - Sameer Kumar Rai
- Department of Molecular Microbiology
- School of Biotechnology
- Madurai Kamaraj University
- Madurai
- India
| | - Quazi Taushif Ahamed
- Department of Biological Sciences & Bioengineering (BSBE)
- Indian Institute of Technology
- Kanpur
- India
| | | | - Matheshwaran Saravanan
- Department of Biological Sciences & Bioengineering (BSBE)
- Indian Institute of Technology
- Kanpur
- India
| | - Ayyavu Mahesh
- School of Biological Sciences
- Madurai Kamaraj University
- Madurai 625 021
- India
| | - Perumal Varalakshmi
- Department of Molecular Microbiology
- School of Biotechnology
- Madurai Kamaraj University
- Madurai
- India
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37
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Extracellular Production of Recombinant l-Asparaginase II in Escherichia coli: Medium Optimization Using Response Surface Methodology. Int J Pept Res Ther 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s10989-015-9476-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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38
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Shakambari G, Sumi BM, Ashokkumar B, Palanivelu P, Varalakshmi P. Industrial effluent as a substrate for glutaminase freel-asparaginase production from Pseudomonas plecoglossicida strain RS1; media optimization, enzyme purification and its characterization. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra05507e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutaminase freel-asparaginase production byPseudomonas plecoglossicidaRS1 using industrial effluent as a substrate: media optimization, enzyme purification and its characterization.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Babu M. Sumi
- Department of Molecular Microbiology
- Madurai Kamaraj University
- Madurai
- India
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39
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Borek D, Kozak M, Pei J, Jaskolski M. Crystal structure of active site mutant of antileukemicl-asparaginase reveals conserved zinc-binding site. FEBS J 2014; 281:4097-111. [DOI: 10.1111/febs.12906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2014] [Revised: 06/16/2014] [Accepted: 07/01/2014] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Dominika Borek
- Department of Crystallography; Faculty of Chemistry; A. Mickiewicz University; Poznan Poland
| | - Maciej Kozak
- Department of Crystallography; Faculty of Chemistry; A. Mickiewicz University; Poznan Poland
- Department of Macromolecular Physics; Faculty of Physics; A. Mickiewicz University; Poznan Poland
| | - Jimin Pei
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute; University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center; Dallas TX USA
| | - Mariusz Jaskolski
- Department of Crystallography; Faculty of Chemistry; A. Mickiewicz University; Poznan Poland
- Center for Biocrystallographic Research; Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry; Polish Academy of Sciences; Poznan Poland
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40
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Nomme J, Su Y, Lavie A. Elucidation of the specific function of the conserved threonine triad responsible for human L-asparaginase autocleavage and substrate hydrolysis. J Mol Biol 2014; 426:2471-85. [PMID: 24768817 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2014.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2014] [Revised: 04/14/2014] [Accepted: 04/15/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Our long-term goal is the design of a human l-asparaginase (hASNase3) variant, suitable for use in cancer therapy without the immunogenicity problems associated with the currently used bacterial enzymes. Asparaginases catalyze the hydrolysis of the amino acid asparagine to aspartate and ammonia. The key property allowing for the depletion of blood asparagine by bacterial asparaginases is their low micromolar KM value. In contrast, human enzymes have a millimolar KM for asparagine. Toward the goal of engineering an hASNase3 variant with micromolar KM, we conducted a structure/function analysis of the conserved catalytic threonine triad of this human enzyme. As a member of the N-terminal nucleophile family, to become enzymatically active, hASNase3 must undergo autocleavage between residues Gly167 and Thr168. To determine the individual contribution of each of the three conserved active-site threonines (threonine triad Thr168, Thr186, Thr219) for the enzyme-activating autocleavage and asparaginase reactions, we prepared the T168S, T186V and T219A/V mutants. These mutants were tested for their ability to cleave and to catalyze asparagine hydrolysis, in addition to being examined structurally. We also elucidated the first N-terminal nucleophile plant-type asparaginase structure in the covalent intermediate state. Our studies indicate that, while not all triad threonines are required for the cleavage reaction, all are essential for the asparaginase activity. The increased understanding of hASNase3 function resulting from these studies reveals the key regions that govern cleavage and the asparaginase reaction, which may inform the design of variants that attain a low KM for asparagine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Nomme
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607, USA
| | - Ying Su
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607, USA
| | - Arnon Lavie
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607, USA.
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41
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Asparagine synthetase (ASNS) gene polymorphism is associated with the outcome of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia by affecting early response to treatment. Leuk Res 2013; 38:180-3. [PMID: 24268318 DOI: 10.1016/j.leukres.2013.10.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2013] [Revised: 10/22/2013] [Accepted: 10/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The polymorphism of 14-bp tandem repeat sequence located in the ASNS gene probably acts as a transcriptional enhancer element and leads to higher expression of the gene in carriers of more than 2 repeats (>R2). We searched for an association with disease outcome in 264 children with ALL. A multivariate proportional hazard regression model adjusted for age at diagnosis (HR (95%CI)=1.05 (1.04-1.09)) and high-risk group (HR(95%CI)=3.47 (1.74-6.88)) revealed that R3 carriers with a poor response at day 15 had an increased risk of events, HR (95%CI)=2.72 (1.06-6.96). These results suggest a conditional interaction between the ASNS polymorphism and an early response to chemotherapy among pediatric patients with ALL.
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42
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Wilson GJ, Bunpo P, Cundiff JK, Wek RC, Anthony TG. The eukaryotic initiation factor 2 kinase GCN2 protects against hepatotoxicity during asparaginase treatment. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2013; 305:E1124-33. [PMID: 24002574 PMCID: PMC3840205 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00080.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Asparaginase is an important drug in the treatment regimen for acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Asparaginase depletes circulating asparagine and glutamine, activating an amino acid stress response (AAR) involving phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2) by general control nonderepressible kinase 2 (GCN2). We hypothesized that GCN2 functions to mitigate hepatic stress during asparaginase therapy by activating the AAR. To test this idea, C57BL/6J wild-type mice (Gcn2(+/+)) and those deleted for Gcn2 (Gcn2(-/-)) were injected with asparaginase or saline excipient one time daily for 1 or 6 days. In liver, increased phosphorylation of eIF2 and mRNA expression of AAR target genes activating transcription factor 4, asparagine synthetase, eIF4E-binding protein 1, and CAAT enhancer-binding protein homologous protein were significantly blunted or blocked in the liver of Gcn2(-/-) mice. Loss of AAR during asparaginase coincided with increases in mammalian target of rapamycin signaling, hepatic triglyceride accumulation, and DNA damage in association with genetic markers of oxidative stress (glutathione peroxidase) and inflammation (tumor necrosis factor alpha-α). Although asparaginase depleted circulating asparagine in both Gcn2(+/+) and Gcn2(-/-) mice, all other amino acids, including plasma glutamine, were elevated in the plasma of Gcn2(-/-) mice. This study shows that loss of GCN2 promotes oxidative stress and inflammatory-mediated DNA damage during asparaginase therapy, suggesting that patients with reduced or dysfunctional AAR may be at risk of developing hepatic complications during asparaginase treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel J Wilson
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, New Jersey
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Abstract
Malignant cells exhibit metabolic changes, when compared to their normal counterparts, owing to both genetic and epigenetic alterations. Although such a metabolic rewiring has recently been indicated as yet another general hallmark of cancer, accumulating evidence suggests that the metabolic alterations of each neoplasm represent a molecular signature that intimately accompanies and allows for different facets of malignant transformation. During the past decade, targeting cancer metabolism has emerged as a promising strategy for the development of selective antineoplastic agents. Here, we discuss the intimate relationship between metabolism and malignancy, focusing on strategies through which this central aspect of tumour biology might be turned into cancer's Achilles heel.
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Erwinia asparaginase achieves therapeutic activity after pegaspargase allergy: a report from the Children's Oncology Group. Blood 2013; 122:507-14. [PMID: 23741010 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2013-01-480822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
AALL07P2 evaluated whether substitution of Erwinia asparaginase 25000 IU/m(2) for 6 doses given intramuscularly Monday/Wednesday/Friday (M/W/F) to children and young adults with acute lymphoblastic leukemia and clinical allergy to pegaspargase would provide a 48-hour nadir serum asparaginase activity (NSAA) ≥ 0.10 IU/mL. AALL07P2 enrolled 55 eligible/evaluable patients. NSAA ≥ 0.1 IU/mL was achieved in 38 of 41 patients (92.7%) with acceptable samples 48 hours and in 38 of 43 patients (88.4%) 72 hours after dosing during course 1. Among samples obtained during all courses, 95.8% (252 of 263) of 48-hour samples and 84.5% (125 of 148) of 72-hour samples had NSAA ≥ 0.10-IU/mL. Pharmacokinetic parameters were estimated by fitting the serum asparaginase activity-time course for all 6 doses given during course 1 to a 1-compartment open model with first order absorption. Erwinia asparaginase administered with this schedule achieved therapeutic NSAA at both 48 and 72 hours and was well tolerated with no reports of hemorrhage, thrombosis, or death, and few cases of grade 2 to 3 allergic reaction (n = 6), grade 1 to 3 hyperglycemia (n = 6), or grade 1 pancreatitis (n = 1). Following allergy to pegaspargase, Erwinia asparaginase 25000 IU/m(2) × 6 intramuscularly M/W/F can be substituted for a single dose of pegaspargase.
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Gesto DS, Cerqueira NMFSA, Fernandes PA, Ramos MJ. Unraveling the Enigmatic Mechanism of l-Asparaginase II with QM/QM Calculations. J Am Chem Soc 2013; 135:7146-58. [DOI: 10.1021/ja310165u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Diana S. Gesto
- Department of Chemistry, Sciences Faculty
of Porto University, Porto, Portugal
| | | | - Pedro A. Fernandes
- Department of Chemistry, Sciences Faculty
of Porto University, Porto, Portugal
| | - Maria J. Ramos
- Department of Chemistry, Sciences Faculty
of Porto University, Porto, Portugal
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Balasubramanian MN, Butterworth EA, Kilberg MS. Asparagine synthetase: regulation by cell stress and involvement in tumor biology. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2013; 304:E789-99. [PMID: 23403946 PMCID: PMC3625782 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00015.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Asparagine synthetase (ASNS) catalyzes the conversion of aspartate and glutamine to asparagine and glutamate in an ATP-dependent reaction. The enzyme is ubiquitous in its organ distribution in mammals, but basal expression is relatively low in tissues other than the exocrine pancreas. Human ASNS activity is highly regulated in response to cell stress, primarily by increased transcription from a single gene located on chromosome 7. Among the genomic elements that control ASNS transcription is the C/EBP-ATF response element (CARE) within the promoter. Protein limitation or an imbalanced dietary amino acid composition activate the ASNS gene through the amino acid response (AAR), a process that is replicated in cell culture through limitation for any single essential amino acid. Endoplasmic reticulum stress also increases ASNS transcription through the PERK-eIF2-ATF4 arm of the unfolded protein response (UPR). Both the AAR and UPR lead to increased synthesis of ATF4, which binds to the CARE and induces ASNS transcription. Elevated expression of ASNS protein is associated with resistance to asparaginase therapy in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia and may be a predictive factor in drug sensitivity for certain solid tumors as well. Activation of the GCN2-eIF2-ATF4 signaling pathway, leading to increased ASNS expression appears to be a component of solid tumor adaptation to nutrient deprivation and/or hypoxia. Identifying the roles of ASNS in fetal development, tissue differentiation, and tumor growth may reveal that ASNS function extends beyond asparagine biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mukundh N Balasubramanian
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shands Cancer Center and Center for Nutritional Sciences, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
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Abstract
Upon activation, quiescent naive T cells undergo a growth phase followed by massive clonal expansion and differentiation that are essential for appropriate immune defense and regulation. Accumulation of cell biomass during the initial growth and rapid proliferation during the expansion phase is associated with dramatically increased bioenergetic and biosynthetic demands. This not only requires a metabolic rewiring during the transition between resting and activation but also 'addicts' active T cells to certain metabolic pathways in ways that naive and memory T cells are not. We consider such addiction in terms of the biological effects of deprivation of metabolic substrates or inhibition of specific pathways in T cells. In this review, we illustrate the relevant metabolic pathways revealed by recent metabolic flux analysis and discuss the consequences of metabolic intervention on specific metabolic pathways in T lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruoning Wang
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105-3678, USA
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Salzer W, Seibel N, Smith M. Erwinia asparaginase in pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2012; 12:1407-14. [DOI: 10.1517/14712598.2012.718327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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l-Asparaginase as Potent Anti-leukemic Agent and Its Significance of Having Reduced Glutaminase Side Activity for Better treatment of Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2012; 167:2144-59. [DOI: 10.1007/s12010-012-9755-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2011] [Accepted: 05/29/2012] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Affiliation(s)
- Vassilios I Avramis
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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