1
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Jang JH, Zhou M, Makita K, Sun R, El-Hajjar M, Fonseca G, Lauzon AM, Martin JG. Induction of a memory-like CD4 + T-cell phenotype by airway smooth muscle cells. Eur J Immunol 2024; 54:e2249800. [PMID: 38334162 DOI: 10.1002/eji.202249800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2022] [Revised: 01/27/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
In asthma, CD4+ T-cell interaction with airway smooth muscle (ASM) may enhance its contractile properties and promote its proliferation. However, less is known about the effects of this interaction on T cells. To explore the consequences of interaction of CD4+ T cells with ASM we placed the cells in co-culture and analyzed the phenotypic and functional changes in the T cells. Effector status as well as cytokine expression was assessed by flow cytometry. An increase in CD45RA-CD45RO+ memory T cells was observed after co-culture; however, these cells were not more responsive to CD3/28 restimulation. A reduction in mitochondrial coupling and an increase in the production of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species by CD4+ T cells post-restimulation suggested altered mitochondrial metabolism after co-culture. RNA sequencing analysis of the T cells revealed characteristic downregulation of effector T-cell-associated genes, but a lack of upregulation of memory T-cell-associated genes. The results of this study demonstrate that ASM cells can induce a phenotypic shift in CD4+ T cells into memory-like T cells but with reduced capacity for activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joyce H Jang
- Meakins-Christie Laboratories, McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Michael Zhou
- Meakins-Christie Laboratories, McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Kosuke Makita
- Meakins-Christie Laboratories, McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Rui Sun
- Meakins-Christie Laboratories, McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Mikal El-Hajjar
- Meakins-Christie Laboratories, McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Gregory Fonseca
- Meakins-Christie Laboratories, McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Anne-Marie Lauzon
- Meakins-Christie Laboratories, McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - James G Martin
- Meakins-Christie Laboratories, McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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2
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Eshraghisamani R, Facciuolo A, Harman-McKenna V, Illanes O, De Buck J. Immunogenicity and efficacy of an oral live-attenuated vaccine for bovine Johne's disease. Front Immunol 2024; 14:1307621. [PMID: 38283338 PMCID: PMC10810994 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1307621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP), the etiological agent of Johne's disease (JD) in ruminants, establishes a prolonged and often lifelong enteric infection. The implementation of control measures for bovine JD has faced obstacles due to the considerable expenses involved in disease surveillance and hindered by unreliable and inadequate diagnostic tests, emphasizing the need for an effective vaccine that can stimulate mucosal immunity in the gastrointestinal tract. Previous investigations have demonstrated that deletion of the BacA gene in MAP produces an attenuated strain that can transiently colonize the calf small intestine while retaining its capacity to stimulate systemic immune responses similar to wildtype MAP strains. This study assessed the efficacy of the BacA gene deletion MAP strain, referred to as the BacA vaccine, when administered orally to young calves. The research aimed to evaluate its effectiveness in controlling MAP intestinal infection and to investigate the immune responses elicited by mucosal vaccination. The study represents the first evaluation of an enteric modified live MAP vaccine in the context of an oral MAP challenge in young calves. Oral immunization with BacA reduced MAP colonization specifically in the ileum and ileocecal valve. This partially protective immune response was associated with an increased frequency of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells with a pro-inflammatory phenotype (IFNγ+/TNFα+) in vaccinated animals. Moreover, re-stimulated PBMCs from vaccinated animals showed increased expression of IFNγ, IP-10, IL-2, and IL-17 at 10- and 12-weeks post challenge. Furthermore, immunophenotyping of blood leukocytes revealed that vaccinated calves had increased levels of T cells expressing cell-surface markers consistent with long-term central memory. Overall, our findings provide new insights into the development and immunogenicity of a modified live MAP vaccine against bovine JD, demonstrating oral vaccination can stimulate host immune responses that can be protective against enteric MAP infection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Antonio Facciuolo
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization (VIDO), University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | | | - Oscar Illanes
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Long Island University, Brookville, NY, United States
| | - Jeroen De Buck
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
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3
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Jones MC, Castonguay C, Nanaware PP, Weaver GC, Stadinski B, Kugler-Umana OA, Huseby ES, Stern LJ, McKinstry KK, Strutt TM, Devarajan P, Swain SL. CD4 Effector TCR Avidity for Peptide on APC Determines the Level of Memory Generated. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2023; 210:1950-1961. [PMID: 37093656 PMCID: PMC10247507 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2200337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 04/25/2023]
Abstract
Initial TCR affinity for peptide Ag is known to impact the generation of memory; however, its contributions later, when effectors must again recognize Ag at 5-8 d postinfection to become memory, is unclear. We examined whether the effector TCR affinity for peptide at this "effector checkpoint" dictates the extent of memory and degree of protection against rechallenge. We made an influenza A virus nucleoprotein (NP)-specific TCR transgenic mouse strain, FluNP, and generated NP-peptide variants that are presented by MHC class II to bind to the FluNP TCR over a broad range of avidity. To evaluate the impact of avidity in vivo, we primed naive donor FluNP in influenza A virus-infected host mice, purified donor effectors at the checkpoint, and cotransferred them with the range of peptides pulsed on activated APCs into second uninfected hosts. Higher-avidity peptides yielded higher numbers of FluNP memory cells in spleen and most dramatically in lung and draining lymph nodes and induced better protection against lethal influenza infection. Avidity determined memory cell number, not cytokine profile, and already impacted donor cell number within several days of transfer. We previously found that autocrine IL-2 production at the checkpoint prevents default effector apoptosis and supports memory formation. Here, we find that peptide avidity determines the level of IL-2 produced by these effectors and that IL-2Rα expression by the APCs enhances memory formation, suggesting that transpresentation of IL-2 by APCs further amplifies IL-2 availability. Secondary memory generation was also avidity dependent. We propose that this regulatory pathway selects CD4 effectors of highest affinity to progress to memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael C. Jones
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Catherine Castonguay
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Padma P. Nanaware
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Grant C. Weaver
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Brian Stadinski
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Olivia A. Kugler-Umana
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Eric S. Huseby
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Lawrence J. Stern
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Karl Kai McKinstry
- Division of Immunity and Pathogenesis, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL. 32827,USA
| | - Tara M. Strutt
- Division of Immunity and Pathogenesis, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL. 32827,USA
| | - Priyadharshini Devarajan
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Susan L. Swain
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
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4
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Finn CM, Dhume K, Prokop E, Strutt TM, McKinstry KK. STAT1 Controls the Functionality of Influenza-Primed CD4 T Cells but Therapeutic STAT4 Engagement Maximizes Their Antiviral Impact. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2023; 210:1292-1304. [PMID: 36961447 PMCID: PMC10121883 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2200407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/25/2023]
Abstract
It is generally accepted that influenza A virus (IAV) infection promotes a Th1-like CD4 T cell response and that this effector program underlies its protective impact. Canonical Th1 polarization requires cytokine-mediated activation of the transcription factors STAT1 and STAT4 that synergize to maximize the induction of the "master regulator" Th1 transcription factor, T-bet. Here, we determine the individual requirements for these transcription factors in directing the Th1 imprint primed by influenza infection in mice by tracking virus-specific wild-type or T-bet-deficient CD4 T cells in which STAT1 or STAT4 is knocked out. We find that STAT1 is required to protect influenza-primed CD4 T cells from NK cell-mediated deletion and for their expression of hallmark Th1 attributes. STAT1 is also required to prevent type I IFN signals from inhibiting the induction of the Th17 master regulator, Rorγt, in Th17-prone T-bet-/- cells responding to IAV. In contrast, STAT4 expression does not appreciably impact the phenotypic or functional attributes of wild-type or T-bet-/- CD4 T cell responses. However, cytokine-mediated STAT4 activation in virus-specific CD4 T cells enhances their Th1 identity in a T-bet-dependent manner, indicating that influenza infection does not promote maximal Th1 induction. Finally, we show that the T-bet-dependent protective capacity of CD4 T cell effectors against IAV is optimized by engaging both STAT1 and STAT4 during Th1 priming, with important implications for vaccine strategies aiming to generate T cell immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline M. Finn
- Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Immunity and Pathogenesis, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Kunal Dhume
- Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Immunity and Pathogenesis, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Emily Prokop
- Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Immunity and Pathogenesis, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Tara M. Strutt
- Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Immunity and Pathogenesis, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - K. Kai McKinstry
- Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Immunity and Pathogenesis, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
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5
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Johansen KH, Golec DP, Huang B, Park C, Thomsen JH, Preite S, Cannons JL, Garçon F, Schrom EC, Courrèges CJF, Veres TZ, Harrison J, Nus M, Phelan JD, Bergmeier W, Kehrl JH, Okkenhaug K, Schwartzberg PL. A CRISPR screen targeting PI3K effectors identifies RASA3 as a negative regulator of LFA-1-mediated adhesion in T cells. Sci Signal 2022; 15:eabl9169. [PMID: 35857633 PMCID: PMC9637254 DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.abl9169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The integrin lymphocyte function-associated antigen 1 (LFA-1) helps to coordinate the migration, adhesion, and activation of T cells through interactions with intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) and ICAM-2. LFA-1 is activated during the engagement of chemokine receptors and the T cell receptor (TCR) through inside-out signaling, a process that is partially mediated by phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and its product phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate (PIP3). To evaluate potential roles of PI3K in LFA-1 activation, we designed a library of CRISPR/single guide RNAs targeting known and potential PIP3-binding proteins and screened for effects on the ability of primary mouse T cells to bind to ICAM-1. We identified multiple proteins that regulated the binding of LFA-1 to ICAM-1, including the Rap1 and Ras GTPase-activating protein RASA3. We found that RASA3 suppressed LFA-1 activation in T cells, that its expression was rapidly reduced upon T cell activation, and that its activity was inhibited by PI3K. Loss of RASA3 in T cells led to increased Rap1 activation, defective lymph node entry and egress, and impaired responses to T-dependent immunization in mice. Our results reveal a critical role for RASA3 in T cell migration, homeostasis, and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristoffer H Johansen
- Cell Signaling and Immunity Section, Laboratory of Immune System Biology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.,Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK.,National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.,Section of Experimental and Translational Immunology, Department of Health Technology, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby DK-2800, Denmark
| | - Dominic P Golec
- Cell Signaling and Immunity Section, Laboratory of Immune System Biology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Bonnie Huang
- Cell Signaling and Immunity Section, Laboratory of Immune System Biology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.,National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Chung Park
- B-Cell Molecular Immunology Section, Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Julie H Thomsen
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Silvia Preite
- Cell Signaling and Immunity Section, Laboratory of Immune System Biology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.,National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Jennifer L Cannons
- Cell Signaling and Immunity Section, Laboratory of Immune System Biology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.,National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Fabien Garçon
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Edward C Schrom
- Lymphocyte Biology Section, Laboratory of Immune System Biology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | | | - Tibor Z Veres
- Lymphocyte Biology Section, Laboratory of Immune System Biology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - James Harrison
- Cardiovascular Division, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Meritxell Nus
- Cardiovascular Division, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - James D Phelan
- Lymphoid Malignancies Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Wolfgang Bergmeier
- Biochemistry and Biophysics, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - John H Kehrl
- B-Cell Molecular Immunology Section, Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Klaus Okkenhaug
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Pamela L Schwartzberg
- Cell Signaling and Immunity Section, Laboratory of Immune System Biology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.,National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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6
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Dhume K, Finn CM, Devarajan P, Singh A, Tejero JD, Prokop E, Strutt TM, Sell S, Swain SL, McKinstry KK. Bona Fide Th17 Cells without Th1 Functional Plasticity Protect against Influenza. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2022; 208:1998-2007. [PMID: 35338093 PMCID: PMC9012674 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2100801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Optimal transcriptional programming needed for CD4 T cells to protect against influenza A virus (IAV) is unclear. Most IAV-primed CD4 T cells fit Th1 criteria. However, cells deficient for the Th1 "master regulator," T-bet, although marked by reduced Th1 identity, retain robust protective capacity. In this study, we show that T-bet's paralog, Eomesodermin (Eomes), is largely redundant in the presence of T-bet but is essential for the residual Th1 attributes of T-bet-deficient cells. Cells lacking both T-bet and Eomes instead develop concurrent Th17 and Th2 responses driven by specific inflammatory signals in the infected lung. Furthermore, the transfer of T-bet- and Eomes-deficient Th17, but not Th2, effector cells protects mice from lethal IAV infection. Importantly, these polyfunctional Th17 effectors do not display functional plasticity in vivo promoting gain of Th1 attributes seen in wild-type Th17 cells, which has clouded evaluation of the protective nature of Th17 programming in many studies. Finally, we show that primary and heterosubtypic IAV challenge is efficiently cleared in T-bet- and Eomes double-deficient mice without enhanced morbidity despite a strongly Th17-biased inflammatory response. Our studies thus demonstrate unexpectedly potent antiviral capacity of unadulterated Th17 responses against IAV, with important implications for vaccine design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunal Dhume
- Division of Immunity and Pathogenesis, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL
| | - Caroline M Finn
- Division of Immunity and Pathogenesis, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL
| | | | - Ayushi Singh
- Division of Immunity and Pathogenesis, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL
| | - Joanne D Tejero
- Division of Immunity and Pathogenesis, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL
| | - Emily Prokop
- Division of Immunity and Pathogenesis, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL
| | - Tara M Strutt
- Division of Immunity and Pathogenesis, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL
| | - Stewart Sell
- Palisades Pathology Laboratory, Williamsburg, VA
| | - Susan L Swain
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA; and
| | - Karl Kai McKinstry
- Division of Immunity and Pathogenesis, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL;
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7
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Swain SL, Jones MC, Devarajan P, Xia J, Dutton RW, Strutt TM, McKinstry KK. Durable CD4 T-Cell Memory Generation Depends on Persistence of High Levels of Infection at an Effector Checkpoint that Determines Multiple Fates. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2021; 13:a038182. [PMID: 33903157 PMCID: PMC8559547 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a038182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
We have discovered that the determination of CD4 effector and memory fates after infection is regulated not only by initial signals from antigen and pathogen recognition, but also by a second round of such signals at a checkpoint during the effector response. Signals to effectors determine their subsequent fate, inducing further progression to tissue-restricted follicular helpers, cytotoxic CD4 effectors, and long-lived memory cells. The follicular helpers help the germinal center B-cell responses that give rise to high-affinity long-lived antibody responses and memory B cells that synergize with T-cell memory to provide robust long-lived protection. We postulate that inactivated vaccines do not provide extended signals from antigen and pathogen beyond a few days, and thus elicit ineffective CD4 T- and B-cell effector responses and memory. Defining the mechanisms that underlie effective responses should provide insights necessary to develop vaccine strategies that induce more effective and durable immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan L Swain
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 368 Plantation Ave, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
| | - Michael C Jones
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 368 Plantation Ave, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
| | - Priyadharshini Devarajan
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 368 Plantation Ave, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
| | - Jingya Xia
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 368 Plantation Ave, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
| | - Richard W Dutton
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 368 Plantation Ave, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
| | - Tara M Strutt
- Immunity and Pathogenesis Division, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida 32827, USA
| | - K Kai McKinstry
- Immunity and Pathogenesis Division, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida 32827, USA
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8
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Bevington SL, Fiancette R, Gajdasik DW, Keane P, Soley JK, Willis CM, Coleman DJL, Withers DR, Cockerill PN. Stable Epigenetic Programming of Effector and Central Memory CD4 T Cells Occurs Within 7 Days of Antigen Exposure In Vivo. Front Immunol 2021; 12:642807. [PMID: 34108962 PMCID: PMC8181421 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.642807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
T cell immunological memory is established within days of an infection, but little is known about the in vivo changes in gene regulatory networks accounting for their ability to respond more efficiently to secondary infections. To decipher the timing and nature of immunological memory we performed genome-wide analyses of epigenetic and transcriptional changes in a mouse model generating antigen-specific T cells. Epigenetic reprogramming for Th differentiation and memory T cell formation was already established by the peak of the T cell response after 7 days. The Th memory T cell program was associated with a gain of open chromatin regions, enriched for RUNX, ETS and T-bet motifs, which remained stable for 56 days. The epigenetic programs for both effector memory, associated with T-bet, and central memory, associated with TCF-1, were established in parallel. Memory T cell-specific regulatory elements were associated with greatly enhanced inducible Th1-biased responses during secondary exposures to antigen. Furthermore, memory T cells responded in vivo to re-exposure to antigen by rapidly reprograming the entire ETS factor gene regulatory network, by suppressing Ets1 and activating Etv6 expression. These data show that gene regulatory networks are epigenetically reprogrammed towards memory during infection, and undergo substantial changes upon re-stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah L Bevington
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Remi Fiancette
- Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Dominika W Gajdasik
- Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Peter Keane
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Jake K Soley
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Claire M Willis
- Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel J L Coleman
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - David R Withers
- Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Peter N Cockerill
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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9
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Xia J, Kuang Y, Liang J, Jones M, Swain SL. Influenza Vaccine-Induced CD4 Effectors Require Antigen Recognition at an Effector Checkpoint to Generate CD4 Lung Memory and Antibody Production. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2020; 205:2077-2090. [PMID: 32929040 PMCID: PMC8525320 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2000597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Previously, we discovered that influenza-generated CD4 effectors must recognize cognate Ag at a defined effector checkpoint to become memory cells. Ag recognition was also required for efficient protection against lethal influenza infection. To extend these findings, we investigated if vaccine-generated effectors would have the same requirement. We compared live infection with influenza to an inactivated whole influenza vaccine. Live infection provided strong, long-lasting Ag presentation that persisted through the effector phase. It stimulated effector generation, long-lived CD4 memory generation, and robust generation of Ab-producing B cells. In contrast, immunization with an inactivated virus vaccine, even when enhanced by additional Ag-pulsed APC, presented Ag for 3 d or less and generated few CD4 memory cells or long-lived Ab-producing B cells. To test if checkpoint Ag addition would enhance this vaccine response, we immunized mice with inactivated vaccine and injected Ag-pulsed activated APC at the predicted effector checkpoint to provide Ag presentation to the effector CD4 T cells. This enhanced generation of CD4 memory, especially tissue-resident memory in the lung, long-lived bone marrow Ab-secreting cells, and influenza-specific IgG Ab. All responses increased as we increased the density of peptide Ag on the APC to high levels. This suggests that CD4 effectors induced by inactivated vaccine require high levels of cognate Ag recognition at the effector checkpoint to most efficiently become memory cells. Thus, we suggest that nonlive vaccines will need to provide high levels of Ag recognition throughout the effector checkpoint to optimize CD4 memory generation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingya Xia
- Department of Pathology, 368 Plantation Ave, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01655
| | - Yi Kuang
- Department of Pathology, 368 Plantation Ave, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01655,Merck Exploratory Science Center, Cambridge, MA 02141
| | - Jialing Liang
- Department of Pathology, 368 Plantation Ave, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01655
| | - Michael Jones
- Department of Pathology, 368 Plantation Ave, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01655
| | - Susan L. Swain
- Department of Pathology, 368 Plantation Ave, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01655
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10
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Singh A, Dhume K, Tejero JD, Strutt TM, McKinstry KK. CD122-targetted IL-2 signals cause acute and selective apoptosis of B cells in Peyer's Patches. Sci Rep 2020; 10:12668. [PMID: 32728053 PMCID: PMC7391758 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-69632-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-2 (IL-2) has both pro- and anti-inflammatory properties that have been harnessed clinically and that are used experimentally to modulate leukocyte subsets in vivo. In mice, the bioavailability and half-life of IL-2 in vivo can be increased by complexing recombinant IL-2 with different clones of anti-IL-2 monoclonal antibodies that differentially target the cytokine to cells expressing different kinds of IL-2 receptors. While the impacts of systemic IL-2: anti-IL-2 antibody complex (IL-2C) administration are well-defined in the spleen and peripheral lymph nodes, how immune cells in the gut and gut-associated lymphoid tissues respond to IL-2C is not well characterized. Here, we analyze how major leukocyte populations in these tissues respond to IL-2C. We find that IL-2C targeting cells expressing IL-2 receptor beta cause an acute decrease in cellularity of Peyer's Patches while cell numbers in the lamina propria and intraepithelial lymphocytes are unaffected. Cell contraction in Peyer's Patches is associated with the apoptosis of multiple B cell subsets. Our results are important to consider for understanding off-target impacts of IL-2C regimes in experimental models and for considering how IL-2 may contribute to the etiology or severity of gut-associated conditions such as Crohn's Disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayushi Singh
- Division of Immunity and Pathogenesis, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, 32827, USA
| | - Kunal Dhume
- Division of Immunity and Pathogenesis, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, 32827, USA
| | - Joanne D Tejero
- Division of Immunity and Pathogenesis, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, 32827, USA
| | - Tara M Strutt
- Division of Immunity and Pathogenesis, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, 32827, USA.,NanoScience Technology Center, University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA
| | - K Kai McKinstry
- Division of Immunity and Pathogenesis, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, 32827, USA. .,NanoScience Technology Center, University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA.
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11
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Alam F, Singh A, Flores-Malavet V, Sell S, Cooper AM, Swain SL, McKinstry KK, Strutt TM. CD25-Targeted IL-2 Signals Promote Improved Outcomes of Influenza Infection and Boost Memory CD4 T Cell Formation. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 204:3307-3314. [PMID: 32376651 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2000205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
IL-2 is a pleotropic cytokine with potent pro- and anti-inflammatory effects. These divergent impacts can be directed in vivo by forming complexes of IL-2 and anti-IL-2 mAbs (IL-2C) to target IL-2 to distinct subsets of cells based on their expression of subunits of the IL-2R. In this study, we show that treatment of mice with a prototypical anti-inflammatory IL-2C, JES6-1-IL-2C, best known to induce CD25+ regulatory CD4 T cell expansion, surprisingly causes robust induction of a suite of inflammatory factors. However, treating mice infected with influenza A virus with this IL-2C reduces lung immunopathology. We compare the spectrum of inflammatory proteins upregulated by pro- and anti-inflammatory IL-2C treatment and uncover a pattern of expression that reveals potentially beneficial versus detrimental aspects of the influenza-associated cytokine storm. Moreover, we show that anti-inflammatory IL-2C can deliver survival signals to CD4 T cells responding to influenza A virus that improve their memory fitness, indicating a novel application of IL-2 to boost pathogen-specific T cell memory while simultaneously reducing immunopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fahmida Alam
- Immunity and Pathogenesis Division, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32827
| | - Ayushi Singh
- Immunity and Pathogenesis Division, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32827
| | - Valeria Flores-Malavet
- Immunity and Pathogenesis Division, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32827
| | - Stewart Sell
- Department of Health, Wadsworth Center, Albany, NY 12201
| | | | - Susan L Swain
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01655; and
| | - K Kai McKinstry
- Immunity and Pathogenesis Division, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32827.,NanoScience Technology Center, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32826
| | - Tara M Strutt
- Immunity and Pathogenesis Division, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32827; .,NanoScience Technology Center, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32826
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12
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Daniels KA, O'Donnell CL, Castonguay C, Strutt TM, McKinstry KK, Swain SL, Welsh RM. Virus-induced natural killer cell lysis of T cell subsets. Virology 2019; 539:26-37. [PMID: 31670188 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2019.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Revised: 09/24/2019] [Accepted: 10/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
In addition to direct anti-viral activity, NK cells regulate viral pathogenesis by virtue of their cytolytic attack on activated CD4 and CD8 T cells. To gain insight into which differentiated T cell subsets are preferred NK targets, transgenic T cells were differentiated in vitro into Th0, Th1, Th2, Th17, Treg, Tc1, and Tc2 effector cells and then tested for lysis by enriched populations of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV)-induced activated NK cells. There was a distinct hierarchy of cytotoxicity in vitro and in vivo, with Treg, Th17, and Th2 cells being more sensitive and Th0 and Th1 cells more resistant. Some distinctions between in vitro vs in vivo generated T cells were explainable by type 1 interferon induction of class 1 histocompatibility antigens on the effector T cell subsets. NK receptor (NKR)-deficient mice and anti-NKR antibody studies identified no one essential NKR for killing, though there could be redundancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith A Daniels
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 368 Plantation Street, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Carey L O'Donnell
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 368 Plantation Street, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Catherine Castonguay
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 368 Plantation Street, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Tara M Strutt
- Immunity and Pathogenesis Division, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, 32827, USA; NanoScience Technology Center, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, 32826, USA
| | - K Kai McKinstry
- Immunity and Pathogenesis Division, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, 32827, USA; NanoScience Technology Center, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, 32826, USA
| | - Susan L Swain
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 368 Plantation Street, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Raymond M Welsh
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 368 Plantation Street, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA.
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13
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T-bet optimizes CD4 T-cell responses against influenza through CXCR3-dependent lung trafficking but not functional programming. Mucosal Immunol 2019; 12:1220-1230. [PMID: 31278374 PMCID: PMC6717559 DOI: 10.1038/s41385-019-0183-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2019] [Revised: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Although clearance of many intracellular pathogens requires T-bet-dependent CD4 T cell programming, the extent to which T-bet is needed to direct protective CD4 responses against influenza is not known. Here, we characterize wild-type and T-bet-deficient CD4 cells during murine influenza infection. Surprisingly, although T-bet expression has broad impacts on cytokine production by virus-specific CD4 cells, the protective efficacy of T-bet-deficient effector cells is only marginally reduced. This reduction is due to lower CXCR3 expression, leading to suboptimal accumulation of activated T-bet-deficient cells in the infected lung. However, T-bet-deficient cells outcompete wild-type cells to form lung-resident and circulating memory populations following viral clearance, and primed T-bet-deficient mice efficiently clear supralethal heterosubtypic influenza challenges even when depleted of CD8 T cells. These results are relevant to the identification of more incisive correlates of protective T cells and for vaccines that aim to induce durable cellular immunity against influenza.
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14
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McKinstry KK, Alam F, Flores-Malavet V, Nagy MZ, Sell S, Cooper AM, Swain SL, Strutt TM. Memory CD4 T cell-derived IL-2 synergizes with viral infection to exacerbate lung inflammation. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1007989. [PMID: 31412088 PMCID: PMC6693742 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Defining the most penetrating correlates of protective memory T cells is key for designing improved vaccines and T cell therapies. Here, we evaluate how interleukin (IL-2) production by memory CD4 T cells, a widely held indicator of their protective potential, impacts immune responses against murine influenza A virus (IAV). Unexpectedly, we show that IL-2-deficient memory CD4 T cells are more effective on a per cell basis at combating IAV than wild-type memory cells that produce IL-2. Improved outcomes orchestrated by IL-2-deficient cells include reduced weight loss and improved respiratory function that correlate with reduced levels of a broad array of inflammatory factors in the infected lung. Blocking CD70-CD27 signals to reduce CD4 T cell IL-2 production tempers the inflammation induced by wild-type memory CD4 T cells and improves the outcome of IAV infection in vaccinated mice. Finally, we show that IL-2 administration drives rapid and extremely potent lung inflammation involving NK cells, which can synergize with sublethal IAV infection to promote acute death. These results suggest that IL-2 production is not necessarily an indicator of protective CD4 T cells, and that the lung environment is particularly sensitive to IL-2-induced inflammation during viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. Kai McKinstry
- Immunity and Pathogenesis Division, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida, United States of America
| | - Fahmida Alam
- Immunity and Pathogenesis Division, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida, United States of America
| | - Valeria Flores-Malavet
- Immunity and Pathogenesis Division, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida, United States of America
| | - Mate Z. Nagy
- Immunity and Pathogenesis Division, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida, United States of America
| | - Stewart Sell
- Department of Health, Wadsworth Center, Albany, New York, United States of America
| | - Andrea M. Cooper
- Trudeau Institute, Saranac Lake, New York, United States of America
| | - Susan L. Swain
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Tara M. Strutt
- Immunity and Pathogenesis Division, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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15
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Sleep Matters: CD4 + T Cell Memory Formation and the Central Nervous System. Trends Immunol 2019; 40:674-686. [PMID: 31262652 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2019.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2019] [Revised: 06/05/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The mechanisms of CD4+ T-cell memory formation in the immune system are debated. With the well-established concept of memory formation in the central nervous system (CNS), we propose that formation of CD4+ T-cell memory depends on the interaction of two different cell systems handling two types of stored information. First, information about antigen (event) and challenge (context) is taken up by antigen-presenting cells, as initial storage. Second, event and context information is transferred to CD4+ T cells. During activation, two categories of CD4+ T cell develop: effector CD4+ T cells, carrying event and context information, enabling them to efficiently focus their response to tissues under attack; and persisting CD4+ T cells, providing context-independent antigen-specific memories and long-term storage. This novel hypothesis is supported by the observation that mammalian sleep can improve both CNS and CD4+ T-cell memory.
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16
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Tejero JD, Armand NC, Finn CM, Dhume K, Strutt TM, Chai KX, Chen LM, McKinstry KK. Cigarette smoke extract acts directly on CD4 T cells to enhance Th1 polarization and reduce memory potential. Cell Immunol 2018; 331:121-129. [PMID: 29935764 PMCID: PMC6092241 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2018.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2018] [Revised: 06/11/2018] [Accepted: 06/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Although cigarette smoke is known to alter immune responses, whether and how CD4 T cells are affected is not well-described. We aimed to characterize how exposure to cigarette smoke extract impacts CD4 T cell effector generation in vitro under Th1-polarizing conditions. Our results demonstrate that cigarette smoke directly acts on CD4 T cells to impair effector expansion by decreasing division and increasing apoptosis. Furthermore, cigarette smoke enhances Th1-associated cytokine production and increases expression of the transcription factor T-bet, the master regulator of Th1 differentiation. Finally, we show that exposure to cigarette smoke extract during priming impairs the ability of effectors to form memory cells. Our findings thus demonstrate that cigarette smoke simultaneously enhances effector functions but promotes terminal differentiation of CD4 T cell effectors. This study may be relevant to understanding how smoking can both aggravate autoimmune symptoms and reduce vaccine efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne D Tejero
- Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Nicole C Armand
- Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Caroline M Finn
- Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Kunal Dhume
- Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Tara M Strutt
- Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Karl X Chai
- Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Li-Mei Chen
- Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - K Kai McKinstry
- Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA.
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17
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Dhume K, McKinstry KK. Early programming and late-acting checkpoints governing the development of CD4 T-cell memory. Immunology 2018; 155:53-62. [PMID: 29701246 DOI: 10.1111/imm.12942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2018] [Revised: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
CD4 T cells contribute to protection against pathogens through numerous mechanisms. Incorporating the goal of memory CD4 T-cell generation into vaccine strategies therefore offers a powerful approach to improve their efficacy, especially in situations where humoral responses alone cannot confer long-term immunity. These threats include viruses such as influenza that mutate coat proteins to avoid neutralizing antibodies, but that are targeted by T cells that recognize more conserved protein epitopes shared by different strains. A major barrier in the design of such vaccines is that the mechanisms controlling the efficiency with which memory cells form remain incompletely understood. Here, we discuss recent insights into fate decisions controlling memory generation. We focus on the importance of three general cues: interleukin-2, antigen and co-stimulatory interactions. It is increasingly clear that these signals have a powerful influence on the capacity of CD4 T cells to form memory during two distinct phases of the immune response. First, through 'programming' that occurs during initial priming, and second, through 'checkpoints' that operate later during the effector stage. These findings indicate that novel vaccine strategies must seek to optimize cognate interactions, during which interleukin-2-, antigen- and co-stimulation-dependent signals are tightly linked, well beyond initial antigen encounter to induce robust memory CD4 T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunal Dhume
- Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Karl Kai McKinstry
- Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
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18
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Orme IM, Henao-Tamayo MI. Trying to See the Forest through the Trees: Deciphering the Nature of Memory Immunity to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Front Immunol 2018; 9:461. [PMID: 29568298 PMCID: PMC5852080 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2017] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The purpose of vaccination against tuberculosis and other diseases is to establish a heightened state of acquired specific resistance in which the memory immune response is capable of mediating an accelerated and magnified expression of protection to the pathogen when this is encountered at a later time. In the earliest studies in mice infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, memory immunity and the cells that express this were definable both in terms of kinetics of emergence, and soon thereafter by the levels of expression of markers including CD44, CD62L, and the chemokine receptor CCR7, allowing the identification of effector memory and central memory T cell subsets. Despite these initial advances in knowledge, more recent information has not revealed more clarity, but instead, has created a morass of complications—complications that, if not resolved, could harm correct vaccine design. Here, we discuss two central issues. The first is that we have always assumed that memory is induced in the same way, and consists of the same T cells, regardless of whether that immunity is generated by BCG vaccination, or by exposure to M. tuberculosis followed by effective chemotherapy. This assumption is almost certainly incorrect. Second, a myriad of additional memory subsets have now been described, such as resident, stem cell-like, tissue specific, among others, but as yet we know nothing about the relative importance of each, or whether if a new vaccine needs to induce all of these, or just some, to be fully effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian M Orme
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Marcela I Henao-Tamayo
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
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19
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Carpenter SM, Yang JD, Lee J, Barreira-Silva P, Behar SM. Vaccine-elicited memory CD4+ T cell expansion is impaired in the lungs during tuberculosis. PLoS Pathog 2017; 13:e1006704. [PMID: 29176787 PMCID: PMC5720822 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2017] [Revised: 12/07/2017] [Accepted: 10/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunological memory is the key biological process that makes vaccines possible. Although tuberculosis vaccines elicit protective immunity in animals, few provide durable protection. To understand why protection is transient, we evaluated the ability of memory CD4+ T cells to expand, differentiate, and control Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Both naïve and memory CD4+ T cells initially proliferated exponentially, and the accumulation of memory T cells in the lung correlated with early bacterial control. However, later during infection, memory CD4+ T cell proliferation was curtailed and no protection was observed. We show that memory CD4+ T cells are first activated in the LN and their recruitment to the lung attenuates bacterial growth. However, their interaction with Mtb-infected macrophages does not promote continued proliferation. We conclude that a lack of sustained expansion by memory-derived T cells in the lung limits the durability of their protection, linking their slower expansion with transient protection in vaccinated mice. Vaccines elicit pathogen-specific memory T cells whose early and potent activation upon infection should provide long-lasting control of bacterial growth. Although many experimental vaccines generate memory CD4+ T cells and can control the growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) early during infection, none reliably provide protection from pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) that is durable. Although the etiology of the clinical failure of memory T cells is not well understood, few studies monitor memory T cell fate and function throughout chronic infection. Using both clonal and polyclonal models of Mtb-specific memory CD4+ T cell function during TB, we show that the expansion of memory-derived T cell responses is impaired in the lungs, compared with the primary (naïve) CD4 response. Despite expressing a protective effector phenotype, and reducing bacterial growth early after Mtb challenge, we further show that memory CD4+ T cells do not proliferate in response to Mtb-infected macrophages. Their impaired expansion corresponded with waning protection in vaccinated mice later during infection. We propose that both the induction of memory T cell proliferation by infected macrophages, and the durability of vaccine-elicited T cell responses during TB should serve as preclinical vaccine benchmarks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen M. Carpenter
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA, United States of America
- Division of Infectious Disease and Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, United States of America
- * E-mail: (SMB); (SMC)
| | - Jason D. Yang
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Jinhee Lee
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Palmira Barreira-Silva
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Samuel M. Behar
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail: (SMB); (SMC)
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20
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Marshall NB, Vong AM, Devarajan P, Brauner MD, Kuang Y, Nayar R, Schutten EA, Castonguay CH, Berg LJ, Nutt SL, Swain SL. NKG2C/E Marks the Unique Cytotoxic CD4 T Cell Subset, ThCTL, Generated by Influenza Infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 198:1142-1155. [PMID: 28031335 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1601297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2016] [Accepted: 12/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
CD4 T cells can differentiate into multiple effector subsets, including ThCTL that mediate MHC class II-restricted cytotoxicity. Although CD4 T cell-mediated cytotoxicity has been reported in multiple viral infections, their characteristics and the factors regulating their generation are unclear, in part due to a lack of a signature marker. We show in this article that, in mice, NKG2C/E identifies the ThCTL that develop in the lung during influenza A virus infection. ThCTL express the NKG2X/CD94 complex, in particular the NKG2C/E isoforms. NKG2C/E+ ThCTL are part of the lung CD4 effector population, and they mediate influenza A virus-specific cytotoxic activity. The phenotype of NKG2C/E+ ThCTL indicates they are highly activated effectors expressing high levels of binding to P-selectin, T-bet, and Blimp-1, and that more of them secrete IFN-γ and readily degranulate than non-ThCTL. ThCTL also express more cytotoxicity-associated genes including perforin and granzymes, and fewer genes associated with recirculation and memory. They are found only at the site of infection and not in other peripheral sites. These data suggest ThCTL are marked by the expression of NKG2C/E and represent a unique CD4 effector population specialized for cytotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikki B Marshall
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605
| | - Allen M Vong
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605
| | | | - Matthew D Brauner
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605
| | - Yi Kuang
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605
| | - Ribhu Nayar
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605
| | - Elizabeth A Schutten
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605
| | - Catherine H Castonguay
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605
| | - Leslie J Berg
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605
| | - Stephen L Nutt
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia; and.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Susan L Swain
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605;
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21
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Bautista BL, Devarajan P, McKinstry KK, Strutt TM, Vong AM, Jones MC, Kuang Y, Mott D, Swain SL. Short-Lived Antigen Recognition but Not Viral Infection at a Defined Checkpoint Programs Effector CD4 T Cells To Become Protective Memory. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 197:3936-3949. [PMID: 27798159 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1600838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2016] [Accepted: 09/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Although memory CD4 T cells are critical for effective immunity to pathogens, the mechanisms underlying their generation are still poorly defined. We find that following murine influenza infection, most effector CD4 T cells undergo apoptosis unless they encounter cognate Ag at a defined stage near the peak of effector generation. Ag recognition at this memory checkpoint blocks default apoptosis and programs their transition to long-lived memory. Strikingly, we find that viral infection is not required, because memory formation can be restored by the addition of short-lived, Ag-pulsed APC at this checkpoint. The resulting memory CD4 T cells express an enhanced memory phenotype, have increased cytokine production, and provide protection against lethal influenza infection. Finally, we find that memory CD4 T cell formation following cold-adapted influenza vaccination is boosted when Ag is administered during this checkpoint. These findings imply that persistence of viral Ag presentation into the effector phase is the key factor that determines the efficiency of memory generation. We also suggest that administering Ag at this checkpoint may improve vaccine efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianca L Bautista
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605
| | | | - K Kai McKinstry
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605
| | - Tara M Strutt
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605
| | - Allen M Vong
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605
| | - Michael C Jones
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605
| | - Yi Kuang
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605
| | - Daniel Mott
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605
| | - Susan L Swain
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605
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22
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Strutt TM, McKinstry KK, Kuang Y, Finn CM, Hwang JH, Dhume K, Sell S, Swain SL. Direct IL-6 Signals Maximize Protective Secondary CD4 T Cell Responses against Influenza. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2016; 197:3260-3270. [PMID: 27647834 PMCID: PMC5101150 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1600033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2016] [Accepted: 08/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Memory T cells can often respond against pathogens that have evaded neutralizing Abs and are thus key to vaccine-induced protection, yet the signals needed to optimize their responses are unclear. In this study, we identify a dramatic and selective requirement for IL-6 to achieve optimal memory CD4 T cell recall following heterosubtypic influenza A virus (IAV) challenge of mice primed previously with wild-type or attenuated IAV strains. Through analysis of endogenous T cell responses and adoptive transfer of IAV-specific memory T cell populations, we find that without IL-6, CD4+, but not CD8+, secondary effector populations expand less and have blunted function and antiviral impact. Early and direct IL-6 signals to memory CD4 T cells are required to program maximal secondary effector responses at the site of infection during heterosubtypic challenge, indicating a novel role for a costimulatory cytokine in recall responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tara M Strutt
- Division of Immunity and Pathogenesis, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32827;
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605; and
| | - Karl Kai McKinstry
- Division of Immunity and Pathogenesis, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32827;
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605; and
| | - Yi Kuang
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605; and
| | - Caroline M Finn
- Division of Immunity and Pathogenesis, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32827
| | - Ji Hae Hwang
- Division of Immunity and Pathogenesis, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32827
| | - Kunal Dhume
- Division of Immunity and Pathogenesis, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32827
| | | | - Susan L Swain
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605; and
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Read KA, Powell MD, McDonald PW, Oestreich KJ. IL-2, IL-7, and IL-15: Multistage regulators of CD4(+) T helper cell differentiation. Exp Hematol 2016; 44:799-808. [PMID: 27423815 DOI: 10.1016/j.exphem.2016.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2016] [Revised: 06/06/2016] [Accepted: 06/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Cytokines represent a class of environmental factors that are critical drivers of immune cell development. Cytokines of the common gamma-chain family, including interleukin (IL)-2, IL-7, and IL-15, have been the subject of intense experimental scrutiny and have well-defined roles as regulators of diverse immune cell types including CD4(+) T helper cells. Because of their pleiotropic effects on T-cell development and function, researchers and clinicians have attempted to harness the capabilities of these cytokines for therapeutic benefit. In this review, we summarize the recent progress in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of these cytokines on CD4(+) T cell development and briefly discuss how these immunomodulatory cytokines are being used in efforts to treat human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael D Powell
- Virginia Tech Carilion Research Institute, Roanoke, VA; Graduate Program in Translational Biology, Medicine, and Health, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA
| | | | - Kenneth J Oestreich
- Virginia Tech Carilion Research Institute, Roanoke, VA; Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA; Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, Roanoke, VA.
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24
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Sell S, Guest I, McKinstry KK, Strutt TM, Kohlmeier JE, Brincks E, Tighe M, Blackman MA, Woodland DL, Dutton RW, Swain SL. Intraepithelial T-cell cytotoxicity, induced bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue, and proliferation of pneumocytes in experimental mouse models of influenza. Viral Immunol 2015; 27:484-96. [PMID: 25479178 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2014.0077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunopathologic examination of the lungs of mice with experimental influenza virus infection reveals three prominent findings. (i) There is rapidly developing perivascular (arterial) and peribronchial infiltration with T-cells and invasion of T-cells into the bronchiolar epithelium, separation of epithelial cells from each other and from the basement membrane, leading to defoliation of the bronchial epithelium. This reaction is analogous to a viral exanthema of the skin, such as measles and smallpox. This previously described but unappreciated reaction most likely is an effective way to eliminate virus-infected cells, but may contribute to acute toxicity and mortality. (ii) After this, there is formation of dense collections of lymphocytes adjacent to bronchi consisting mainly of B-cells, with a scattering of T-cells and macrophages. This is known as induced bronchial-associated lymphoid tissue (iBALT) and correlates with increased interleukin (IL)-17 in the lung. iBALT provides sites for a local immune reaction in the lung to both the original infection and related viral infections (heterologous immunity). (iii) Within the first 2-3 weeks, there is proliferation of type II pneumocytes and/or terminal bronchial epithelial cells extending from the terminal bronchioles into the adjacent alveoli, eventually leading to large zones of the lung filled with tumor-like epithelial cells with squamous metaplasia. The proliferation correlates with IL-17 and IL-22 expression, and the extent of this reaction appears to be determined by the availability of T-regulatory cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stewart Sell
- 1 New York State Department of Health, Wadsworth Center , Albany, New York
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25
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Chang TT, Spurlock SM, Candelario TLT, Grenon SM, Hughes-Fulford M. Spaceflight impairs antigen-specific tolerance induction in vivo and increases inflammatory cytokines. FASEB J 2015; 29:4122-32. [PMID: 26085131 DOI: 10.1096/fj.15-275073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2015] [Accepted: 06/08/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The health risks of a dysregulated immune response during spaceflight are important to understand as plans emerge for humans to embark on long-term space travel to Mars. In this first-of-its-kind study, we used adoptive transfer of T-cell receptor transgenic OT-II CD4 T cells to track an in vivo antigen-specific immune response that was induced during the course of spaceflight. Experimental mice destined for spaceflight and mice that remained on the ground received transferred OT-II cells and cognate peptide stimulation with ovalbumin (OVA) 323-339 plus the inflammatory adjuvant, monophosphoryl lipid A. Control mice in both flight and ground cohorts received monophosphoryl lipid A alone without additional OVA stimulation. Numbers of OT-II cells in flight mice treated with OVA were significantly increased by 2-fold compared with ground mice treated with OVA, suggesting that tolerance induction was impaired by spaceflight. Production of proinflammatory cytokines were significantly increased in flight compared with ground mice, including a 5-fold increase in IFN-γ and a 10-fold increase in IL-17. This study is the first to show that immune tolerance may be impaired in spaceflight, leading to excessive inflammatory responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tammy T Chang
- *Department of Surgery and Department of Medicine, University of California, San Franscisco, San Francisco, California, USA; and Northern California Institute for Research and Education, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Sandra M Spurlock
- *Department of Surgery and Department of Medicine, University of California, San Franscisco, San Francisco, California, USA; and Northern California Institute for Research and Education, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Tara Lynne T Candelario
- *Department of Surgery and Department of Medicine, University of California, San Franscisco, San Francisco, California, USA; and Northern California Institute for Research and Education, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - S Marlene Grenon
- *Department of Surgery and Department of Medicine, University of California, San Franscisco, San Francisco, California, USA; and Northern California Institute for Research and Education, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Millie Hughes-Fulford
- *Department of Surgery and Department of Medicine, University of California, San Franscisco, San Francisco, California, USA; and Northern California Institute for Research and Education, San Francisco, California, USA
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26
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Myosin VI regulates gene pairing and transcriptional pause release in T cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:E1587-93. [PMID: 25770220 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1502461112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Naive CD4 T cells differentiate into several effector lineages, which generate a stronger and more rapid response to previously encountered immunological challenges. Although effector function is a key feature of adaptive immunity, the molecular basis of this process is poorly understood. Here, we investigated the spatiotemporal regulation of cytokine gene expression in resting and restimulated effector T helper 1 (Th1) cells. We found that the Lymphotoxin (LT)/TNF alleles, which encode TNF-α, were closely juxtaposed shortly after T-cell receptor (TCR) engagement, when transcription factors are limiting. Allelic pairing required a nuclear myosin, myosin VI, which is rapidly recruited to the LT/TNF locus upon restimulation. Furthermore, transcription was paused at the TNF locus and other related genes in resting Th1 cells and released in a myosin VI-dependent manner following activation. We propose that homologous pairing and myosin VI-mediated transcriptional pause release account for the rapid and efficient expression of genes induced by an external stimulus.
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27
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McKinstry KK, Strutt TM, Bautista B, Zhang W, Kuang Y, Cooper AM, Swain SL. Effector CD4 T-cell transition to memory requires late cognate interactions that induce autocrine IL-2. Nat Commun 2014; 5:5377. [PMID: 25369785 PMCID: PMC4223689 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms6377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2014] [Accepted: 09/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
It is unclear how CD4 T cell memory formation is regulated following pathogen challenge, and when critical mechanisms act to determine effector T cell fate. Here, we report that following influenza infection most effectors require signals from major histocompatibility complex class II molecules and CD70 during a late window well after initial priming to become memory. During this timeframe, effector cells must produce IL-2 or be exposed to high levels of paracrine or exogenously added IL-2 to survive an otherwise rapid default contraction phase. Late IL-2 promotes survival through acute down regulation of apoptotic pathways in effector T cells and by permanently upregulating their IL-7 receptor expression, enabling IL-7 to sustain them as memory T cells. This new paradigm defines a late checkpoint during the effector phase at which cognate interactions direct CD4 T cell memory generation.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Kai McKinstry
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
| | - Tara M Strutt
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
| | - Bianca Bautista
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
| | - Wenliang Zhang
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
| | - Yi Kuang
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
| | - Andrea M Cooper
- Trudeau Institute, 154 Algonquin Avenue, Saranac Lake, New York 12983, USA
| | - Susan L Swain
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
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28
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Orchestration of pulmonary T cell immunity during Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection: immunity interruptus. Semin Immunol 2014; 26:559-77. [PMID: 25311810 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2014.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2014] [Revised: 09/17/2014] [Accepted: 09/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Despite the introduction almost a century ago of Mycobacterium bovis BCG (BCG), an attenuated form of M. bovis that is used as a vaccine against Mycobacterium tuberculosis, tuberculosis remains a global health threat and kills more than 1.5 million people each year. This is mostly because BCG fails to prevent pulmonary disease--the contagious form of tuberculosis. Although there have been significant advances in understanding how the immune system responds to infection, the qualities that define protective immunity against M. tuberculosis remain poorly characterized. The ability to predict who will maintain control over the infection and who will succumb to clinical disease would revolutionize our approach to surveillance, control, and treatment. Here we review the current understanding of pulmonary T cell responses following M. tuberculosis infection. While infection elicits a strong immune response that contains infection, M. tuberculosis evades eradication. Traditionally, its intracellular lifestyle and alteration of macrophage function are viewed as the dominant mechanisms of evasion. Now we appreciate that chronic inflammation leads to T cell dysfunction. While this may arise as the host balances the goals of bacterial sterilization and avoidance of tissue damage, it is becoming clear that T cell dysfunction impairs host resistance. Defining the mechanisms that lead to T cell dysfunction is crucial as memory T cell responses are likely to be subject to the same subject to the same pressures. Thus, success of T cell based vaccines is predicated on memory T cells avoiding exhaustion while at the same time not promoting overt tissue damage.
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29
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Zuccarino-Catania GV, Sadanand S, Weisel FJ, Tomayko MM, Meng H, Kleinstein SH, Good-Jacobson KL, Shlomchik MJ. CD80 and PD-L2 define functionally distinct memory B cell subsets that are independent of antibody isotype. Nat Immunol 2014; 15:631-7. [PMID: 24880458 PMCID: PMC4105703 DOI: 10.1038/ni.2914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 308] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2014] [Accepted: 05/05/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Memory B cells (MBCs) are long-lived sources of rapid, isotype-switched secondary antibody-forming cell (AFC) responses. Whether MBCs homogeneously retain the ability to self-renew and terminally differentiate or if these functions are compartmentalized into MBC subsets has remained unclear. It has been suggested that antibody isotype controls MBC differentiation upon restimulation. Here we demonstrate that subcategorizing MBCs on the basis of their expression of CD80 and PD-L2, independently of isotype, identified MBC subsets with distinct functions upon rechallenge. CD80(+)PD-L2(+) MBCs differentiated rapidly into AFCs but did not generate germinal centers (GCs); conversely, CD80(-)PD-L2(-) MBCs generated few early AFCs but robustly seeded GCs. The gene-expression patterns of the subsets supported both the identity and function of these distinct MBC types. Hence, the differentiation and regeneration of MBCs are compartmentalized.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Saheli Sadanand
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Florian J Weisel
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Mary M Tomayko
- Department of Dermatology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Hailong Meng
- Department of Pathology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Steven H Kleinstein
- 1] Department of Pathology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA. [2] Interdepartmental Program in Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Kim L Good-Jacobson
- 1] Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA. [2] Department of Laboratory Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA. [3]
| | - Mark J Shlomchik
- 1] Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA. [2] Department of Laboratory Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA. [3]
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30
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Henao-Tamayo M, Ordway DJ, Orme IM. Memory T cell subsets in tuberculosis: what should we be targeting? Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2014; 94:455-61. [PMID: 24993316 DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2014.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2014] [Accepted: 05/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of vaccination is to establish a stable population of long lived memory T cells. In the context of tuberculosis, the BCG vaccine has been widely used for well over 60 years, but during that time its weaknesses, particularly its ineffectiveness in adults, has been increasingly recognized. In this commentary we review what is known about memory T cells, both in general and in the context of their role in expressing specific acquired resistance to tuberculosis. Current knowledge indicates that both effector memory and central memory can be generated, depending on the experimental conditions, but both in animal models and in clinical studies it is clear that effector memory T cells are the predominant subset. These issues are of importance, given the concerted effort to make new TB vaccines, not all of which may work in precisely the same manner. At the present time whether a TB vaccine would work better if it targeted one specific T cell subset rather than another is as yet completely unknown, and this is now further complicated by new evidence that suggests other subsets such as IL-17 secreting CD4 T cells and cells with stem cell-like qualities may also play important roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcela Henao-Tamayo
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.
| | - Diane J Ordway
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Ian M Orme
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
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31
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Strutt TM, McKinstry KK, Marshall NB, Vong AM, Dutton RW, Swain SL. Multipronged CD4(+) T-cell effector and memory responses cooperate to provide potent immunity against respiratory virus. Immunol Rev 2014; 255:149-64. [PMID: 23947353 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Over the last decade, the known spectrum of CD4(+) T-cell effector subsets has become much broader, and it has become clear that there are multiple dimensions by which subsets with a particular cytokine commitment can be further defined, including their stage of differentiation, their location, and, most importantly, their ability to carry out discrete functions. Here, we focus on our studies that highlight the synergy among discrete subsets, especially those defined by helper and cytotoxic function, in mediating viral protection, and on distinctions between CD4(+) T-cell effectors located in spleen, draining lymph node, and in tissue sites of infection. What emerges is a surprising multiplicity of CD4(+) T-cell functions that indicate a large arsenal of mechanisms by which CD4(+) T cells act to combat viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tara M Strutt
- University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
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32
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Abstract
αβ T cells are an integral part of protective immunity against pathogens. After precursor cells arise in the adult bone marrow or fetal liver, they migrate to the thymus where they rearrange their T-cell receptor genes (TCR) and undergo selection on the basis of their interactions with ligands expressed by thymic stroma and other cells. Those that survive then exit the thymus to populate the peripheral immune compartment, where they patrol the blood and lymphoid systems. The composition of this pre-immune peripheral repertoire is critically important in determining the robustness of an immune response. In both mice and humans, the magnitude and diversity of a response are directly correlated with the frequency of precursor T cells. Equally relevant are the functional characteristics of these lymphocytes. Engagement of a specific antigen to the TCR activates signaling pathways in the naive T cell that result in cellular proliferation and the acquisition of particular effector functions. A portion of these persist following the resolution of infection and become memory cells. These memory cells can mount a faster and stronger response when they encounter the same antigen at a later time. As the molecular basis for TCR ligand interaction has become better defined, it is clear that some T cells can recognize multiple distinct ligands and therefore T-cell memory developed by exposure to one ligand may play a significant role in the response to a different antigen. Thus, there is an increasing focus on understanding how exposure to related or unrelated antigens influences the T-cell repertoire and impacts subsequent immunity. In this review, we discuss the issue of TCR cross-reactivity in the development of memory phenotype CD4(+) T cells and the implications for pathogen-specific responses. We review both the human and mouse data and discuss the therapeutic implications of these findings in the contexts of infection and vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura F Su
- The Division of Immunology and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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33
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Rabenstein H, Behrendt AC, Ellwart JW, Naumann R, Horsch M, Beckers J, Obst R. Differential kinetics of antigen dependency of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 192:3507-17. [PMID: 24639353 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1302725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Ag recognition via the TCR is necessary for the expansion of specific T cells that then contribute to adaptive immunity as effector and memory cells. Because CD4+ and CD8+ T cells differ in terms of their priming APCs and MHC ligands we compared their requirements of Ag persistence during their expansion phase side by side. Proliferation and effector differentiation of TCR transgenic and polyclonal mouse T cells were thus analyzed after transient and continuous TCR signals. Following equally strong stimulation, CD4+ T cell proliferation depended on prolonged Ag presence, whereas CD8+ T cells were able to divide and differentiate into effector cells despite discontinued Ag presentation. CD4+ T cell proliferation was neither affected by Th lineage or memory differentiation nor blocked by coinhibitory signals or missing inflammatory stimuli. Continued CD8+ T cell proliferation was truly independent of self-peptide/MHC-derived signals. The subset divergence was also illustrated by surprisingly broad transcriptional differences supporting a stronger propensity of CD8+ T cells to programmed expansion. These T cell data indicate an intrinsic difference between CD4+ and CD8+ T cells regarding the processing of TCR signals for proliferation. We also found that the presentation of a MHC class II-restricted peptide is more efficiently prolonged by dendritic cell activation in vivo than a class I bound one. In summary, our data demonstrate that CD4+ T cells require continuous stimulation for clonal expansion, whereas CD8+ T cells can divide following a much shorter TCR signal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Rabenstein
- Institute for Immunology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany
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34
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Opata MM, Stephens R. Early Decision: Effector and Effector Memory T Cell Differentiation in Chronic Infection. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 9:190-206. [PMID: 24790593 PMCID: PMC4000274 DOI: 10.2174/1573395509666131126231209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2013] [Revised: 11/08/2013] [Accepted: 11/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
As effector memory T cells (Tem) are the predominant population elicited by chronic parasitic infections,
increasing our knowledge of their function, survival and derivation, as phenotypically and functionally distinct from
central memory and effector T cells will be critical to vaccine development for these diseases. In some infections, memory
T cells maintain increased effector functions, however; this may require the presence of continued antigen, which can also
lead to T cell exhaustion. Alternatively, in the absence of antigen, only the increase in the number of memory cells
remains, without enhanced functionality as central memory. In order to understand the requirement for antigen and the
potential for longevity or protection, the derivation of each type of memory must be understood. A thorough review of the
data establishes the existence of both memory (Tmem) precursors and effector T cells (Teff) from the first hours of an
immune response. This suggests a new paradigm of Tmem differentiation distinct from the proposition that Tmem only
appear after the contraction of Teff. Several signals have been shown to be important in the generation of memory T cells,
such as the integrated strength of “signals 1-3” of antigen presentation (antigen receptor, co-stimulation, cytokines) as
perceived by each T cell clone. Given that these signals integrated at antigen presentation cells have been shown to
determine the outcome of Teff and Tmem phenotypes and numbers, this decision must be made at a very early stage. It
would appear that the overwhelming expansion of effector T cells and the inability to phenotypically distinguish memory
T cells at early time points has masked this important decision point. This does not rule out an effect of repeated
stimulation or chronic inflammatory milieu on populations generated in these early stages. Recent studies suggest that
Tmem are derived from early Teff, and we suggest that this includes Tem as well as Tcm. Therefore, we propose a
testable model for the pathway of differentiation from naïve to memory that suggests that Tem are not fully differentiated
effector cells, but derived from central memory T cells as originally suggested by Sallusto et al. in 1999, but much
debated since.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael M Opata
- University of Texas Medical Branch, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Disease, 300 University Avenue, Galveston, TX 77555-0435, USA
| | - Robin Stephens
- University of Texas Medical Branch, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Disease, 300 University Avenue, Galveston, TX 77555-0435, USA
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35
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Abstract
Influenza A virus is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, particularly among young children and the elderly. Current vaccines induce neutralizing antibody responses directed toward highly variable viral surface proteins, resulting in limited heterosubtypic protection to new viral serotypes. By contrast, memory CD4 T cells recognize conserved viral proteins and are cross-reactive to multiple influenza strains. In humans, virus-specific memory CD4 T cells were found to be the protective correlate in human influenza challenge studies, suggesting their key role in protective immunity. In mouse models, memory CD4 T cells can mediate protective responses to secondary influenza infection independent of B cells or CD8 T cells, and can influence innate immune responses. Importantly, a newly defined, tissue-resident CD4 memory population has been demonstrated to be retained in lung tissue and promote optimal protective responses to an influenza infection. Here, we review the current state of results regarding the generation of memory CD4 T cells following primary influenza infection, mechanisms for their enhanced efficacy in protection from secondary challenge including their phenotype, localization, and function in the context of both mouse models and human infection. We also discuss the generation of memory CD4 T cells in response to influenza vaccines and its future implications for vaccinology.
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36
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Hauser AE. [Stromal cells as coordinators of adaptive immune response and immunological memory]. Z Rheumatol 2013; 72:986-92. [PMID: 24337201 DOI: 10.1007/s00393-012-1031-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The Greek term stroma literally means in translation mattress, covering or bed. In the medical context this describes the connective tissue framework of an organ which is composed of the stromal cells and the extracellular matrix components which are produced by these cells. According to the original definition stromal cells have a non-hematopoietic origin and adherently grow in cell culture. Nowadays the term is used to cover a heterogeneous group of connective tissue cells of mesenchymal origin which includes fibroblasts, reticular stromal cells and endothelial cells as well as tissue-specific connective tissue cells, such as osteoblasts and adipocytes. Because the stromal cells in the various tissues are very different with respect to morphology and functional characteristics, the manifold aspects of the individual stromal cell populations are now just beginning to be understood. This article presents a summary of new knowledge on the various functions of stromal cells in the immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- A E Hauser
- Immundynamik und Intravitalmikroskopie, Deutsches Rheuma Forschungszentrum (DRFZ), ein Institut der Leibniz-Gemeinschaft , Charitéplatz 1, 10117, Berlin, Deutschland,
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37
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Zhang J, Crumpacker C. Eradication of HIV and Cure of AIDS, Now and How? Front Immunol 2013; 4:337. [PMID: 24151495 PMCID: PMC3799464 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2013.00337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2013] [Accepted: 10/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have highlighted the importance of eradication of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and cure of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). However, a pivotal point that the patient immunity controls HIV reactivation after highly active anti-retroviral therapy [HAART or combination anti-retroviral therapy (cART)] remains less well addressed. In spite of the fact that both innate and adaptive immunities are indispensable and numerous cells participate in the anti-HIV immunity, memory CD4 T-cells are indisputably the key cells organizing all immune actions against HIV while being the targets of HIV. Here we present a view and multidisciplinary approaches to HIV/AIDS eradication and cure. We aim at memory CD4 T-cells, utilizing the stem cell properties of these cells to reprogram an anti-HIV memory repertoire to eliminate the viral reservoir, toward achieving an AIDS-free world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jielin Zhang
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center , Boston, MA , USA
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Guloglu FB, Ellis JS, Wan X, Dhakal M, Hoeman CM, Cascio JA, Zaghouani H. Antigen-free adjuvant assists late effector CD4 T cells to transit to memory in lymphopenic hosts. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 191:1126-35. [PMID: 23817422 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1202262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The events controlling the transition of T cells from effector to memory remain largely undefined. Many models have been put forth to account for the origin of memory precursors, but for CD4 T cells initial studies reported that memory T cells derive from IFN-γ-nonproducing effectors, whereas others suggested that memory emanates from highly activated IFN-γ-producing effectors. In this study, using cell proliferation, expression of activation markers, and production of IFN-γ as a measure of activation, we defined two types of effector CD4 T cells and investigated memory generation. The moderately activated early effectors readily transit to memory, whereas the highly activated late effectors, regardless of their IFN-γ production, develop minimal memory. Boosting with Ag-free adjuvant, however, rescues late effectors from cell death and sustains both survival and IFN-γ cytokine responses in lymphopenic hosts. The adjuvant-mediated memory transition of late effectors involves the function of TLRs, most notably TLR9. These findings uncover the mechanism by which late effector CD4 T cells are driven to transit to memory and suggest that timely boosts with adjuvant may enhance vaccine efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Betul Guloglu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, University of Missouri School of Medicine, Columbia, MO 65212, USA
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Miyazaki Y, Tsumiyama K, Yamane T, Ito M, Shiozawa S. Self-Organized Criticality Theory and the Expansion of PD-1-Positive Effector CD4 T Cells: Search for Autoantibody-Inducing CD4 T Cells. Front Immunol 2013; 4:87. [PMID: 23596442 PMCID: PMC3622253 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2013.00087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2013] [Accepted: 03/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Yumi Miyazaki
- Department of Medicine, Kyushu University Beppu Hospital Beppu, Japan
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Soares AP, Kwong Chung CKC, Choice T, Hughes EJ, Jacobs G, van Rensburg EJ, Khomba G, de Kock M, Lerumo L, Makhethe L, Maneli MH, Pienaar B, Smit E, Tena-Coki NG, van Wyk L, Boom WH, Kaplan G, Scriba TJ, Hanekom WA. Longitudinal changes in CD4(+) T-cell memory responses induced by BCG vaccination of newborns. J Infect Dis 2013; 207:1084-94. [PMID: 23293360 PMCID: PMC3583271 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jis941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2012] [Accepted: 10/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Improved vaccination strategies against tuberculosis are needed, such as approaches to boost immunity induced by the current vaccine, BCG. Design of these strategies has been hampered by a lack of knowledge of the kinetics of the human host response induced by neonatal BCG vaccination. Furthermore, the functional and phenotypic attributes of BCG-induced long-lived memory T-cell responses remain unclear. METHODS We assessed the longitudinal CD4 T-cell response following BCG vaccination of human newborns. The kinetics, function, and phenotype of these cells were measured using flow cytometric whole-blood assays. RESULTS We showed that the BCG-specific CD4 T-cell response peaked 6-10 weeks after vaccination and gradually waned over the first year of life. Highly activated T-helper 1 cells, predominantly expressing interferon γ, tumor necrosis factor α, and/or interleukin 2, were present at the peak response. Following contraction, BCG-specific CD4 T cells expressed high levels of Bcl-2 and displayed a predominant CD45RACCR7 central memory phenotype. However, cytokine and cytotoxic marker expression by these cells was more characteristic of effector memory cells. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that boosting of BCG-primed CD4 T cells with heterologous tuberculosis vaccines may be best after 14 weeks of age, once an established memory response has developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreia P Soares
- South African Tuberculosis Vaccine Initiative, Institute of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine and School of Child and Adolescent Health, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
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Human CD4(+) effector T lymphocytes generated upon TCR engagement with self-peptides respond defectively to IL-7 in their transition to memory cells. Cell Mol Immunol 2013; 10:261-74. [PMID: 23454917 DOI: 10.1038/cmi.2012.71] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The peripheral repertoire of CD4(+) T lymphocytes contains autoreactive cells that remain tolerant through several mechanisms. However, nonspecific CD4(+) T cells can be activated in physiological conditions as in the course of an ongoing immune response, and their outcome is not yet fully understood. Here, we investigate the fate of human naive CD4(+) lymphocytes activated by dendritic cells (DCs) presenting endogenous self-peptides in comparison with lymphocytes involved in alloresponses. We generated memory cells (Tmem) from primary effectors activated with mature autologous DCs plus interleukin (IL)-2 (Tmauto), simulating the circumstances of an active immune response, or allogeneic DCs (Tmallo). Tmem were generated from effector cells that were rested in the absence of antigenic stimuli, with or without IL-7. Tmem were less activated than effectors (demonstrated by CD25 downregulation) particularly with IL-7, suggesting that this cytokine may favour the transition to quiescence. Tmauto and Tmallo showed an effector memory phenotype, and responded similarly to polyclonal and antigen-specific stimuli. Biochemically, IL-7-treated Tmallo were closely related to conventional memory lymphocytes based on Erk-1/2 activation, whereas Tmauto were more similar to effectors. Autologous effectors exhibited lower responses to IL-7 than allogeneic cells, which were reflected in their reduced proliferation and higher cell death. This was not related to IL-7 receptor expression but rather to signalling deficiencies, according to STAT5 activation These results suggest that ineffective responses to IL-7 could impair the transition to memory cells of naive CD4(+) T lymphocytes recognizing self-peptides in the setting of strong costimulation.
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Askenasy N, Mizrahi K, Ash S, Askenasy EM, Yaniv I, Stein J. Depletion of Naïve Lymphocytes with Fas Ligand Ex Vivo Prevents Graft-versus-Host Disease without Impairing T Cell Support of Engraftment or Graft-versus-Tumor Activity. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2013; 19:185-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbmt.2012.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2012] [Accepted: 10/08/2012] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Hamada H, Bassity E, Flies A, Strutt TM, Garcia-Hernandez MDL, McKinstry KK, Zou T, Swain SL, Dutton RW. Multiple redundant effector mechanisms of CD8+ T cells protect against influenza infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012. [PMID: 23197262 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1200571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We have previously shown that mice challenged with a lethal dose of A/Puerto Rico/8/34-OVA(I) are protected by injection of 4-8 × 10(6) in vitro-generated Tc1 or Tc17 CD8(+) effectors. Viral load, lung damage, and loss of lung function are all reduced after transfer. Weight loss is reduced and survival increased. We sought in this study to define the mechanism of this protection. CD8(+) effectors exhibit multiple effector activities, perforin-, Fas ligand-, and TRAIL-mediated cytotoxicity, and secretion of multiple cytokines (IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-9, IL-10, IL-17, IL-21, IL-22, IFN-γ, and TNF) and chemokines (CCL3, CCL4, CCL5, CXCL9, and CXCL10). Transfer of CD8(+) effectors into recipients, before infection, elicits enhanced recruitment of host neutrophils, NK cells, macrophages, and B cells. All of these events have the potential to protect against viral infections. Removal of any one, however, of these potential mechanisms was without effect on protection. Even the simultaneous removal of host T cells, host B cells, and host neutrophils combined with the elimination of perforin-mediated lytic mechanisms in the donor cells failed to reduce their ability to protect. We conclude that CD8(+) effector T cells can protect against the lethal effects of viral infection by means of a large number of redundant mechanisms.
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Garrod KR, Moreau HD, Garcia Z, Lemaître F, Bouvier I, Albert ML, Bousso P. Dissecting T cell contraction in vivo using a genetically encoded reporter of apoptosis. Cell Rep 2012; 2:1438-47. [PMID: 23159042 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2012.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2012] [Revised: 10/01/2012] [Accepted: 10/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Contraction is a critical phase of immunity whereby the vast majority of effector T cells die by apoptosis, sparing a population of long-lived memory cells. Where, when, and why contraction occurs has been difficult to address directly due in large part to the rapid clearance of apoptotic T cells in vivo. To circumvent this issue, we introduced a genetically encoded reporter for caspase-3 activity into naive T cells to identify cells entering the contraction phase. Using two-photon imaging, we found that caspase-3 activity in T cells was maximal at the peak of the response and was associated with loss of motility followed minutes later by cell death. We demonstrated that contraction is a widespread process occurring uniformly in all organs tested and targeting phenotypically diverse T cells. Importantly, we identified a critical window of time during which antigen encounters act to antagonize T cell apoptosis, supporting a causal link between antigen clearance and T cell contraction. Our results offer insight into a poorly explored phase of immunity and provide a versatile methodology to study apoptosis during the development or function of a variety of immune cells in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kym R Garrod
- Institut Pasteur, Dynamics of Immune Responses Unit, 75015 Paris, France; INSERM U668, 75015 Paris, France
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Su B, Wang J, Zhao G, Wang X, Li J, Wang B. Sequential administration of cytokine genes to enhance cellular immune responses and CD4 (+) T memory cells during DNA vaccination. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2012; 8:1659-67. [PMID: 23151452 DOI: 10.4161/hv.22105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Antigen specific memory T cells (Tm) have shown to be an important factor in protecting hosts against subsequent infection by previously encountered pathogens. During T-cell activation, several cytokines including IL-6, IL-7 and IL-15, play crucial roles in the development of T cells into memory T cells. With the aim of generating specific Tm, we examined a strategy of sequential administration of molecular adjuvants. In this strategy a DNA vaccine encoding the VP1 capsid protein of foot and mouth disease virus (designated pcD-VP1) was co-delivered to mice along with an IL-6 expressing plasmid (pVAX-IL-6) as an initial molecular adjuvant and boosted with either an IL-7 or IL-15 expressing plasmid, (pVAX-IL-7 or proVAX-IL-15) as the secondary adjuvant. During the pcD-VP1 immunization, we demonstrated that the groups primed with IL-6 and boosted with either IL-7 or IL-15 resulted in the enhancement of cellular and humoral immune responses, maturation of dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages, and a higher frequency of CD4 (+) Tm (characterized by expressing CD44 (high) CD62L (low) markers, compared with the other groups). Thus, we took advantage of the different effects of cytokines on T cell development, not only to induce a higher level of immune responses after vaccination, but also to generate a higher ratio of CD4 (+) Tm in this sequential cytokine prime-boost study. This would then lead to the mounting of an effective long-term antigen specific immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baowei Su
- State Key Laboratories of Agro-biotechnology, College of Biological Science, China Agricultural University; Beijing, P.R. China
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Memory CD4+ T-cell-mediated protection depends on secondary effectors that are distinct from and superior to primary effectors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:E2551-60. [PMID: 22927425 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1205894109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Whether differences between naive cell-derived primary (1°) and memory cell-derived secondary (2°) CD4(+) T-cell effectors contribute to protective recall responses is unclear. Here, we compare these effectors directly after influenza A virus infection. Both develop with similar kinetics, but 2° effectors accumulate in greater number in the infected lung and are the critical component of memory CD4(+) T-cell-mediated protection against influenza A virus, independent of earlier-acting memory-cell helper functions. Phenotypic, functional, and transcriptome analyses indicate that 2° effectors share organ-specific expression patterns with 1° effectors but are more multifunctional, with more multicytokine (IFN-γ(+)/IL-2(+)/TNF(+))-producing cells and contain follicular helper T-cell populations not only in the spleen and draining lymph nodes but also in the lung. In addition, they express more CD127 and NKG2A but less ICOS and Lag-3 than 1° effectors and express higher levels of several genes associated with survival and migration. Targeting two differentially expressed molecules, NKG2A and Lag-3, reveals differential regulation of 1° and 2° effector functions during pathogen challenge.
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Polyfunctional CD4⁺ T cells are essential for eradicating advanced B-cell lymphoma after chemotherapy. Blood 2012; 120:2229-39. [PMID: 22859605 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2011-12-398321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The finding that many chemotherapeutic agents have immunostimulatory effects has provided the impetus to combine chemotherapy and immunotherapy for synergistic antitumor effects. However, the critical determinants of effective antitumor immunity after chemotherapy have not been defined. Here we report that adoptive transfer of tumor-specific CD4⁺ T cells after chemotherapy with cyclophosphamide gave rise to polyfunctional CD4⁺ effector cells, which in turn intensified the inflammatory milieu and enhanced the activation of CD8⁺ T cells in the tumor microenvironment. Although this combined chemoimmunotherapy initially resulted in progressive regression of advanced B-cell lymphoma, its therapeutic efficacy was not durable and most mice succumbed to late relapse. Notably, relapse was associated with acquisition of a tolerized phenotype in tumor-specific CD4⁺ T cells, characterized by overexpression of program death-1 (PD-1). Remarkably, effective antitumor immunity was maintained and cure became prevalent when polyfunctional CD4⁺ effector cells were prevented from undergoing PD-1-mediated tolerization, either by antibody blockade of the PD-1-PD-L1 pathway, or targeted ablation of PD-1 in tumor-specific CD4⁺ T cells. Our study suggests that tumor-reactive CD4⁺ T cells act as the "gatekeepers" of the host antitumor immunity in the postchemotherapy setting, thereby their functional status governs the choice between eradication versus regrowth of residual tumors.
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McKinstry KK, Strutt TM, Kuang Y, Brown DM, Sell S, Dutton RW, Swain SL. Memory CD4+ T cells protect against influenza through multiple synergizing mechanisms. J Clin Invest 2012; 122:2847-56. [PMID: 22820287 DOI: 10.1172/jci63689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2012] [Accepted: 06/07/2012] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Memory CD4+ T cells combat viral infection and contribute to protective immune responses through multiple mechanisms, but how these pathways interact is unclear. We found that several pathways involving memory CD4+ T cells act together to effectively clear influenza A virus (IAV) in otherwise unprimed mice. Memory CD4+ T cell protection was enhanced through synergy with naive B cells or CD8+ T cells and maximized when both were present. However, memory CD4+ T cells protected against lower viral doses independently of other lymphocytes through production of IFN-γ. Moreover, memory CD4+ T cells selected for epitope-specific viral escape mutants via a perforin-dependent pathway. By deconstructing protective immunity mediated by memory CD4+ T cells, we demonstrated that this population simultaneously acts through multiple pathways to provide a high level of protection that ensures eradication of rapidly mutating pathogens such as IAV. This redundancy indicates the need for reductionist approaches for delineating the individual mechanisms of protection mediated by memory CD4+ T cells responding to pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Kai McKinstry
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01655, USA.
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IL-2–Targeted Therapy Ameliorates the Severity of Graft-versus-Host Disease: Ex Vivo Selective Depletion of Host-Reactive T Cells and In Vivo Therapy. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2012; 18:523-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbmt.2011.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2011] [Accepted: 11/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Abstract
B-cell memory describes the populations of cells that provide long-term humoral immunity: long-lived antibody-secreting plasma cells that reside mainly in the bone marrow and memory B cells. Interestingly, the memory B-cell population is heterogenous, although the importance of this heterogeneity has been unclear. Recent studies have investigated the formation and function of memory in different settings. In particular, T-independent memory-like cells and T-dependent (TD) IgM memory B cells qualitatively differ from canonical TD class-switched memory B cells; however, these studies suggest that IgM memory cells preserve the memory population over long periods of time. These subsets are evocative of the evolution of the humoral immune response, with memory-like cells appearing before acquisition of germinal centers, suggesting that there are multiple pathways to producing B-cell memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim L Good-Jacobson
- Immunology Division, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
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