Selectivity filter gating in large-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K+ channels

Ca2+- and Voltage-Activated K+ (BK) Channels in the Nervous System: One Gene, a Myriad of Physiological Functions

BK channels are large conductance potassium channels characterized by four pore-forming α subunits, often co-assembled with auxiliary β and γ subunits to regulate Ca2+ sensitivity, voltage dependence and gating properties. BK channels are abundantly expressed throughout the brain and in different compartments within a single neuron, including axons, synaptic terminals, dendritic arbors, and spines. Their activation produces a massive efflux of K+ ions that hyperpolarizes the cellular membrane. Together with their ability to detect changes in intracellular Ca2+ concentration, BK channels control neuronal excitability and synaptic communication through diverse mechanisms. Moreover, increasing evidence indicates that dysfunction of BK channel-mediated effects on neuronal excitability and synaptic function has been implicated in several neurological disorders, including epilepsy, fragile X syndrome, mental retardation, and autism, as well as in motor and cognitive behavior. Here, we discuss current evidence highlighting the physiological importance of this ubiquitous channel in regulating brain function and its role in the pathophysiology of different neurological disorders.

A gating lever and molecular logic gate that couple voltage and calcium sensor activation to opening in BK potassium channels

BK channels uniquely integrate voltage and calcium signaling in diverse cell types through allosteric activation of their K+-conducting pore by structurally distinct V and Ca2+ sensor domains. Here, we define mechanisms and interaction pathways that link V sensors to the pore by analyzing effects on allosteric coupling of point mutations in the context of Slo1 BK channel structure. A gating lever, mediated by S4/S5 segment interaction within the transmembrane domain, rotates to engage and stabilize the open conformation of the S6 inner pore helix upon V sensor activation. In addition, an indirect pathway, mediated by the carboxyl-terminal cytosolic domain (CTD) and C-linker that connects the CTD to S6, stabilizes the closed conformation when V sensors are at rest. Unexpectedly, this mechanism, which bypasses the covalent connections of C-linker to CTD and pore, also transduces Ca2+-dependent coupling in a manner that is completely nonadditive with voltage, analogous to the function of a digital logic (OR) gate.

General Pharmacological Activation Mechanism of K+ Channels Bypassing Channel Gates

Under the known pharmacological activation mechanisms, activators allosterically or directly open potassium channel gates. However, herein, molecular dynamics simulations on TREK-1, a member of the channel class gated at the filter, suggested that negatively charged activators act with a gate-independent mechanism where compounds increase currents by promoting ions passing through the central cavity. Then, based on studies of KCNQ2, we uncovered that this noncanonical activation mechanism is shared by the other channel class gated at the helix-bundle crossing. Rational drug design found a novel KCNQ2 agonist, CLE030, which stably binds to the central cavity. Functional analysis, molecular dynamics simulations, and calculations of the potential of mean force revealed that the carbonyl oxygen of CLE030 influences permeant ions in the central cavity to contribute to its activation effects. Together, this study discovered a ligand-to-ion activation mechanism for channels that bypasses their gates and thus is conserved across subfamilies with different gates.

Mechanism of use-dependent Kv2 channel inhibition by RY785

Understanding the mechanism by which ion channel modulators act is critical for interpretation of their physiological effects and can provide insight into mechanisms of ion channel gating. The small molecule RY785 is a potent and selective inhibitor of Kv2 voltage-gated K+ channels that has a use-dependent onset of inhibition. Here, we investigate the mechanism of RY785 inhibition of rat Kv2.1 (Kcnb1) channels heterologously expressed in CHO-K1 cells. We find that 1 µM RY785 block eliminates Kv2.1 current at all physiologically relevant voltages, inhibiting ≥98% of the Kv2.1 conductance. Both onset of and recovery from RY785 inhibition require voltage sensor activation. Intracellular tetraethylammonium, a classic open-channel blocker, competes with RY785 inhibition. However, channel opening itself does not appear to alter RY785 access. Gating current measurements reveal that RY785 inhibits a component of voltage sensor activation and accelerates voltage sensor deactivation. We propose that voltage sensor activation opens a path into the central cavity of Kv2.1 where RY785 binds and promotes voltage sensor deactivation, trapping itself inside. This gated-access mechanism in conjunction with slow kinetics of unblock supports simple interpretation of RY785 effects: channel activation is required for block by RY785 to equilibrate, after which trapped RY785 will simply decrease the Kv2 conductance density.

Molecular mechanism of BK channel activation by the smooth muscle relaxant NS11021

Large-conductance Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ channels (BK channels) are activated by cytosolic calcium and depolarized membrane potential under physiological conditions. Thus, these channels control electrical excitability in neurons and smooth muscle by gating K⁺ efflux and hyperpolarizing the membrane in response to Ca²⁺ signaling. Altered BK channel function has been linked to epilepsy, dyskinesia, and other neurological deficits in humans, making these channels a key target for drug therapies. To gain insight into mechanisms underlying pharmacological modulation of BK channel gating, here we studied mechanisms underlying activation of BK channels by the biarylthiourea derivative, NS11021, which acts as a smooth muscle relaxant. We observe that increasing NS11021 shifts the half-maximal activation voltage for BK channels toward more hyperpolarized voltages, in both the presence and nominal absence of Ca²⁺, suggesting that NS11021 facilitates BK channel activation primarily by a mechanism that is distinct from Ca²⁺ activation. 30 µM NS11021 slows the time course of BK channel deactivation at −200 mV by ∼10-fold compared with 0 µM NS11021, while having little effect on the time course of activation. This action is most pronounced at negative voltages, at which the BK channel voltage sensors are at rest. Single-channel kinetic analysis further shows that 30 µM NS11021 increases open probability by 62-fold and increases mean open time from 0.15 to 0.52 ms in the nominal absence of Ca²⁺ at voltages less than −60 mV, conditions in which BK voltage sensors are largely in the resting state. We could therefore account for the major activating effects of NS11021 by a scheme in which the drug primarily shifts the pore-gate equilibrium toward the open state.

Selectivity filter ion binding affinity determines inactivation in a potassium channel

Potassium channels can become nonconducting via inactivation at a gate inside the highly conserved selectivity filter (SF) region near the extracellular side of the membrane. In certain ligand-gated channels, such as BK channels and MthK, a Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ channel from Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum, the SF has been proposed to play a role in opening and closing rather than inactivation, although the underlying conformational changes are unknown. Using X-ray crystallography, identical conductive MthK structures were obtained in wide-ranging K⁺ concentrations (6 to 150 mM), unlike KcsA, whose SF collapses at low permeant ion concentrations. Surprisingly, three of the SF's four binding sites remained almost fully occupied throughout this range, indicating high affinities (likely submillimolar), while only the central S2 site titrated, losing its ion at 6 mM, indicating low K⁺ affinity (∼50 mM). Molecular simulations showed that the MthK SF can also collapse in the absence of K⁺, similar to KcsA, but that even a single K⁺ binding at any of the SF sites, except S4, can rescue the conductive state. The uneven titration across binding sites differs from KcsA, where SF sites display a uniform decrease in occupancy with K⁺ concentration, in the low millimolar range, leading to SF collapse. We found that ions were disfavored in MthK's S2 site due to weaker coordination by carbonyl groups, arising from different interactions with the pore helix and water behind the SF. We conclude that these differences in interactions endow the seemingly identical SFs of KcsA and MthK with strikingly different inactivating phenotypes.

How RCK domains regulate gating of K+ channels

Potassium channels play a crucial role in the physiology of all living organisms. They maintain the membrane potential and are involved in electrical signaling, pH homeostasis, cell-cell communication and survival under osmotic stress. Many prokaryotic potassium channels and members of the eukaryotic Slo channels are regulated by tethered cytoplasmic domains or associated soluble proteins, which belong to the family of regulator of potassium conductance (RCK). RCK domains and subunits form octameric rings, which control ion gating. For years, a common regulatory mechanism was suggested: ligand-induced conformational changes in the octameric ring would pull open a gate in the pore via flexible linkers. Consistently, ligand-dependent conformational changes were described for various RCK gating rings. Yet, recent structural and functional data of complete ion channels uncovered that the following signal transduction to the pore domains is divers. The different RCK-regulated ion channels show remarkably heterogeneous mechanisms with neither the connection from the RCK domain to the pore nor the gate being conserved. Some channels even lack the flexible linkers, while in others the gate cannot easily be assigned. In this review we compare available structures of RCK-gated potassium channels, highlight the similarities and differences of channel gating, and delineate existing inconsistencies.

Gating modules of the AMPA receptor pore domain revealed by unnatural amino acid mutagenesis

Ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs) are responsible for fast synaptic transmission throughout the vertebrate nervous system. Conformational changes of the transmembrane domain (TMD) underlying ion channel activation and desensitization remain poorly understood. Here, we explored the dynamics of the TMD of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA)-type iGluRs using genetically encoded unnatural amino acid (UAA) photocross-linkers, p-benzoyl-l-phenylalanine (BzF) and p-azido-l-phenylalanine (AzF). We introduced these UAAs at sites throughout the TMD of the GluA2 receptor and characterized the mutants in patch-clamp recordings, exposing them to glutamate and ultraviolet (UV) light. This approach revealed a range of optical effects on the activity of mutant receptors. We found evidence for an interaction between the Pre-M1 and the M4 TMD helix during desensitization. Photoactivation at F579AzF, a residue behind the selectivity filter in the M2 segment, had extraordinarily broad effects on gating and desensitization. This observation suggests coupling to other parts of the receptor and like in other tetrameric ion channels, selectivity filter gating.

LRET Determination of Molecular Distances during pH Gating of the Mammalian Inward Rectifier Kir1.1b

Gating of the mammalian inward rectifier Kir1.1 at the helix bundle crossing (HBC) by intracellular pH is believed to be mediated by conformational changes in the C-terminal domain (CTD). However, the exact motion of the CTD during Kir gating remains controversial. Crystal structures and single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer of KirBac channels have implied a rigid body rotation and/or a contraction of the CTD as possible triggers for opening of the HBC gate. In our study, we used lanthanide-based resonance energy transfer on single-Cys dimeric constructs of the mammalian renal inward rectifier, Kir1.1b, incorporated into anionic liposomes plus PIP₂, to determine unambiguous, state-dependent distances between paired Cys residues on diagonally opposite subunits. Functionality and pH dependence of our proteoliposome channels were verified in separate electrophysiological experiments. The lanthanide-based resonance energy transfer distances measured in closed (pH 6) and open (pH 8) conditions indicated neither expansion nor contraction of the CTD during gating, whereas the HBC gate widened by 8.8 ± 4 Å, from 6.3 ± 2 to 15.1 ± 6 Å, during opening. These results are consistent with a Kir gating model in which rigid body rotation of the large CTD around the permeation axis is correlated with opening of the HBC hydrophobic gate, allowing permeation of a 7 Å hydrated K ion.

Threading the biophysics of mammalian Slo1 channels onto structures of an invertebrate Slo1 channel

Zhou et al. consider the biophysics of large-conductance Ca²⁺-activated Slo1 channels in the context of Aplysia Slo1 structures.

For those interested in the machinery of ion channel gating, the Ca²⁺ and voltage-activated BK K⁺ channel provides a compelling topic for investigation, by virtue of its dual allosteric regulation by both voltage and intracellular Ca²⁺ and because its large-single channel conductance facilitates detailed kinetic analysis. Over the years, biophysical analyses have illuminated details of the allosteric regulation of BK channels and revealed insights into the mechanism of BK gating, e.g., inner cavity size and accessibility and voltage sensor-pore coupling. Now the publication of two structures of an Aplysia californica BK channel—one liganded and one metal free—promises to reinvigorate functional studies and interpretation of biophysical results. The new structures confirm some of the previous functional inferences but also suggest new perspectives regarding cooperativity between Ca²⁺-binding sites and the relationship between voltage- and Ca²⁺-dependent gating. Here we consider the extent to which the two structures explain previous functional data on pore-domain properties, voltage-sensor motions, and divalent cation binding and activation of the channel.

Molecular Determinants of BK Channel Functional Diversity and Functioning

Large-conductance Ca2+- and voltage-activated K+ (BK) channels play many physiological roles ranging from the maintenance of smooth muscle tone to hearing and neurosecretion. BK channels are tetramers in which the pore-forming α subunit is coded by a single gene ( Slowpoke, KCNMA1). In this review, we first highlight the physiological importance of this ubiquitous channel, emphasizing the role that BK channels play in different channelopathies. We next discuss the modular nature of BK channel-forming protein, in which the different modules (the voltage sensor and the Ca2+ binding sites) communicate with the pore gates allosterically. In this regard, we review in detail the allosteric models proposed to explain channel activation and how the models are related to channel structure. Considering their extremely large conductance and unique selectivity to K+, we also offer an account of how these two apparently paradoxical characteristics can be understood consistently in unison, and what we have learned about the conduction system and the activation gates using ions, blockers, and toxins. Attention is paid here to the molecular nature of the voltage sensor and the Ca2+ binding sites that are located in a gating ring of known crystal structure and constituted by four COOH termini. Despite the fact that BK channels are coded by a single gene, diversity is obtained by means of alternative splicing and modulatory β and γ subunits. We finish this review by describing how the association of the α subunit with β or with γ subunits can change the BK channel phenotype and pharmacology.

Molecular mechanisms of Slo2 K+ channel closure

KEY POINTS

Intracellular Na⁺ -activated Slo2 potassium channels are in a closed state under normal physiological conditions, although their mechanisms of ion permeation gating are not well understood. A cryo-electron microscopy structure of Slo2.2 suggests that the ion permeation pathway of these channels is closed by a single constriction of the inner pore formed by the criss-crossing of the cytoplasmic ends of the S6 segments (the S6 bundle crossing) at a conserved Met residue. Functional characterization of mutant Slo2 channels suggests that hydrophobic interactions between Leu residues in the upper region of the S6 segments contribute to stabilizing the inner pore in a non-conducting state. Mutation of the conserved Met residues in the S6 segments to the negatively-charged Glu did not induce constitutive opening of Slo2.1 or Slo2.2, suggesting that ion permeation of Slo2 channels is not predominantly gated by the S6 bundle crossing.

ABSTRACT

Large conductance K⁺ -selective Slo2 channels are in a closed state unless activated by elevated [Na⁺ ]_i . Our previous studies suggested that the pore helix/selectivity filter serves as the activation gate in Slo2 channels. In the present study, we evaluated two other potential mechanisms for stabilization of Slo2 channels in a closed state: (1) dewetting and collapse of the inner pore (hydrophobic gating) and (2) constriction of the inner pore by tight criss-crossing of the cytoplasmic ends of the S6 α-helical segments. Slo2 channels contain two conserved Leu residues in each of the four S6 segments that line the inner pore region nearest the bottom of the selectivity filter. To evaluate the potential role of these residues in hydrophobic gating, Leu267 and Leu270 in human Slo2.1 were each replaced by 15 different residues. The relative conductance of mutant channels was highly dependent on hydrophilicity and volume of the amino acid substituted for Leu267 and was maximal with L267H. Consistent with their combined role in hydrophobic gating, replacement of both Leu residues with the isosteric but polar residue Asn (L267N/L270N) stabilized channels in a fully open state. In a recent cryo-electron microscopy structure of chicken Slo2.2, the ion permeation pathway of the channel is closed by a constriction of the inner pore formed by criss-crossing of the S6 segments at a conserved Met. Inconsistent with the S6 segment crossing forming the activation gate, replacement of the homologous Met residues in human Slo2.1 or Slo2.2 with the negatively-charged Glu did not induce constitutive channel opening.

Atypical calcium regulation of the PKD2-L1 polycystin ion channel

Native PKD2-L1 channel subunits are present in primary cilia and other restricted cellular spaces. Here we investigate the mechanism for the channel's unusual regulation by external calcium, and rationalize this behavior to its specialized function. We report that the human PKD2-L1 selectivity filter is partially selective to calcium ions (Ca(2+)) moving into the cell, but blocked by high internal Ca(2+)concentrations, a unique feature of this transient receptor potential (TRP) channel family member. Surprisingly, we find that the C-terminal EF-hands and coiled-coil domains do not contribute to PKD2-L1 Ca(2+)-induced potentiation and inactivation. We propose a model in which prolonged channel activity results in calcium accumulation, triggering outward-moving Ca(2+) ions to block PKD2-L1 in a high-affinity interaction with the innermost acidic residue (D523) of the selectivity filter and subsequent long-term channel inactivation. This response rectifies Ca(2+) flow, enabling Ca(2+) to enter but not leave small compartments such as the cilium.

Closed state-coupled C-type inactivation in BK channels

Ion channels regulate ion flow by opening and closing their pore gates. K(+) channels commonly possess two pore gates, one at the intracellular end for fast channel activation/deactivation and the other at the selectivity filter for slow C-type inactivation/recovery. The large-conductance calcium-activated potassium (BK) channel lacks a classic intracellular bundle-crossing activation gate and normally show no C-type inactivation. We hypothesized that the BK channel's activation gate may spatially overlap or coexist with the C-type inactivation gate at or near the selectivity filter. We induced C-type inactivation in BK channels and studied the relationship between activation/deactivation and C-type inactivation/recovery. We observed prominent slow C-type inactivation/recovery in BK channels by an extreme low concentration of extracellular K(+) together with a Y294E/K/Q/S or Y279F mutation whose equivalent in Shaker channels (T449E/K/D/Q/S or W434F) caused a greatly accelerated rate of C-type inactivation or constitutive C-inactivation. C-type inactivation in most K(+) channels occurs upon sustained membrane depolarization or channel opening and then recovers during hyperpolarized membrane potentials or channel closure. However, we found that the BK channel C-type inactivation occurred during hyperpolarized membrane potentials or with decreased intracellular calcium ([Ca(2+)]i) and recovered with depolarized membrane potentials or elevated [Ca(2+)]i Constitutively open mutation prevented BK channels from C-type inactivation. We concluded that BK channel C-type inactivation is closed state-dependent and that its extents and rates inversely correlate with channel-open probability. Because C-type inactivation can involve multiple conformational changes at the selectivity filter, we propose that the BK channel's normal closing may represent an early conformational stage of C-type inactivation.

Modulation of BK Channels by Small Endogenous Molecules and Pharmaceutical Channel Openers

Voltage- and Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channels of big conductance (BK channels) are abundantly found in various organs and their relevance for smooth muscle tone and neuronal signaling is well documented. Dysfunction of BK channels is implicated in an array of human diseases involving many organs including the nervous, pulmonary, cardiovascular, renal, and urinary systems. In humans a single gene (KCNMA1) encodes the pore-forming α subunit (Slo1) of BK channels, but the channel properties are variable because of alternative splicing, tissue- and subcellular-specific auxiliary subunits (β, γ), posttranslational modifications, and a multitude of endogenous signaling molecules directly affecting the channel function. Initiatives to develop drugs capable of activating BK channels (channel openers) therefore need to consider the tissue-specific variability of BK channel structure and the potential interference with endogenously produced regulatory factors. The atomic structural basis of BK channel function is only beginning to be revealed. However, building on detailed knowledge of BK channel function, including its single-channel characteristics, voltage- and Ca(2+) dependence of channel gating, and modulation by diffusible messengers, a multi-tier allosteric model of BK channel gating (Horrigan and Aldrich (HA) model) has become a valuable tool in studying modulation of the channel. Using the conceptual framework of the HA model, we here review the functional impact of endogenous modulatory factors and select small synthetic compounds that regulate BK channel activity. Furthermore, we devise experimental approaches for studying BK channel-drug interactions with the aim to classify BK-modulating substances according to their molecular mode of action.

Voltage-Gated Potassium Channels: A Structural Examination of Selectivity and Gating

Voltage-gated potassium channels play a fundamental role in the generation and propagation of the action potential. The discovery of these channels began with predictions made by early pioneers, and has culminated in their extensive functional and structural characterization by electrophysiological, spectroscopic, and crystallographic studies. With the aid of a variety of crystal structures of these channels, a highly detailed picture emerges of how the voltage-sensing domain reports changes in the membrane electric field and couples this to conformational changes in the activation gate. In addition, high-resolution structural and functional studies of K(+) channel pores, such as KcsA and MthK, offer a comprehensive picture on how selectivity is achieved in K(+) channels. Here, we illustrate the remarkable features of voltage-gated potassium channels and explain the mechanisms used by these machines with experimental data.

Biophysics of BK Channel Gating

BK channels are universal regulators of cell excitability, given their exceptional unitary conductance selective for K(+), joint activation mechanism by membrane depolarization and intracellular [Ca(2+)] elevation, and broad expression pattern. In this chapter, we discuss the structural basis and operational principles of their activation, or gating, by membrane potential and calcium. We also discuss how the two activation mechanisms interact to culminate in channel opening. As members of the voltage-gated potassium channel superfamily, BK channels are discussed in the context of archetypal family members, in terms of similarities that help us understand their function, but also seminal structural and biophysical differences that confer unique functional properties.

Individual Ion Binding Sites in the K(+) Channel Play Distinct Roles in C-type Inactivation and in Recovery from Inactivation

The selectivity filter of K(+) channels contains four ion binding sites (S1-S4) and serves dual functions of discriminating K(+) from Na(+) and acting as a gate during C-type inactivation. C-type inactivation is modulated by ion binding to the selectivity filter sites, but the underlying mechanism is not known. Here we evaluate how the ion binding sites in the selectivity filter of the KcsA channel participate in C-type inactivation and in recovery from inactivation. We use unnatural amide-to-ester substitutions in the protein backbone to manipulate the S1-S3 sites and a side-chain substitution to perturb the S4 site. We develop an improved semisynthetic approach for generating these amide-to-ester substitutions in the selectivity filter. Our combined electrophysiological and X-ray crystallographic analysis of the selectivity filter mutants show that the ion binding sites play specific roles during inactivation and provide insights into the structural changes at the selectivity filter during C-type inactivation.

Calcium ions open a selectivity filter gate during activation of the MthK potassium channel

Ion channel opening and closing are fundamental to cellular signalling and homeostasis. Gates that control K⁺ channel activity were found both at an intracellular pore constriction and within the selectivity filter near the extracellular side but the specific location of the gate that opens Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ channels has remained elusive. Using the Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum homologue (MthK) and a stopped-flow fluorometric assay for fast channel activation, we show that intracellular quaternary ammonium blockers bind to closed MthK channels. Since the blockers are known to bind inside a central channel cavity, past the intracellular entryway, the gate must be within the selectivity filter. Furthermore, the blockers access the closed channel slower than the open channel, suggesting that the intracellular entryway narrows upon pore closure, without preventing access of either the blockers or the smaller K⁺. Thus, Ca²⁺-dependent gating in MthK occurs at the selectivity filter with coupled movement of the intracellular helices.

Ion channels open and close to allow the regulated passage of ions through the membrane. Here the authors use selective ion channel blockers to analyse this regulation in a potassium channel and show that the gate is in the selectivity filter, past the entrance to the channel.

Probing binding sites and mechanisms of action of an I(Ks) activator by computations and experiments

The slow delayed rectifier (IKs) channel is composed of the KCNQ1 channel and KCNE1 auxiliary subunit, and functions to repolarize action potentials in the human heart. IKs activators may provide therapeutic efficacy for treating long QT syndromes. Here, we show that a new KCNQ1 activator, ML277, can enhance IKs amplitude in adult guinea pig and canine ventricular myocytes. We probe its binding site and mechanism of action by computational analysis based on our recently reported KCNQ1 and KCNQ1/KCNE1 3D models, followed by experimental validation. Results from a pocket analysis and docking exercise suggest that ML277 binds to a side pocket in KCNQ1 and the KCNE1-free side pocket of KCNQ1/KCNE1. Molecular-dynamics (MD) simulations based on the most favorable channel/ML277 docking configurations reveal a well-defined ML277 binding space surrounded by the S2-S3 loop and S4-S5 helix on the intracellular side, and by S4-S6 transmembrane helices on the lateral sides. A detailed analysis of MD trajectories suggests two mechanisms of ML277 action. First, ML277 restricts the conformational dynamics of the KCNQ1 pore, optimizing K(+) ion coordination in the selectivity filter and increasing current amplitudes. Second, ML277 binding induces global motions in the channel, including regions critical for KCNQ1 gating transitions. We conclude that ML277 activates IKs by binding to an intersubunit space and allosterically influencing pore conductance and gating transitions. KCNE1 association protects KCNQ1 from an arrhythmogenic (constitutive current-inducing) effect of ML277, but does not preclude its current-enhancing effect.

Hydrophobic interaction between contiguous residues in the S6 transmembrane segment acts as a stimuli integration node in the BK channel

Phenylalanine 380 and leucine 377 in the BK channel S6 transmembrane helix of contiguous subunits participate in a hydrophobic interaction in both the closed and open state; this interaction is important in the allosteric coupling between the Ca²⁺ and voltage sensors and pore domain.

Large-conductance Ca²⁺- and voltage-activated K⁺ channel (BK) open probability is enhanced by depolarization, increasing Ca²⁺ concentration, or both. These stimuli activate modular voltage and Ca²⁺ sensors that are allosterically coupled to channel gating. Here, we report a point mutation of a phenylalanine (F380A) in the S6 transmembrane helix that, in the absence of internal Ca²⁺, profoundly hinders channel opening while showing only minor effects on the voltage sensor active–resting equilibrium. Interpretation of these results using an allosteric model suggests that the F380A mutation greatly increases the free energy difference between open and closed states and uncouples Ca²⁺ binding from voltage sensor activation and voltage sensor activation from channel opening. However, the presence of a bulky and more hydrophobic amino acid in the F380 position (F380W) increases the intrinsic open–closed equilibrium, weakening the coupling between both sensors with the pore domain. Based on these functional experiments and molecular dynamics simulations, we propose that F380 interacts with another S6 hydrophobic residue (L377) in contiguous subunits. This pair forms a hydrophobic ring important in determining the open–closed equilibrium and, like an integration node, participates in the communication between sensors and between the sensors and pore. Moreover, because of its effects on open probabilities, the F380A mutant can be used for detailed voltage sensor experiments in the presence of permeant cations.

Cadmium-cysteine coordination in the BK inner pore region and its structural and functional implications

To probe structure and gating-associated conformational changes in BK-type potassium (BK) channels, we examined consequences of Cd(2+) coordination with cysteines introduced at two positions in the BK inner pore. At V319C, the equivalent of valine in the conserved Kv proline-valine-proline (PVP) motif, Cd(2+) forms intrasubunit coordination with a native glutamate E321, which would place the side chains of V319C and E321 much closer together than observed in voltage-dependent K(+) (Kv) channel structures, requiring that the proline between V319C and E321 introduces a kink in the BK S6 inner helix sharper than that observed in Kv channel structures. At inner pore position A316C, Cd(2+) binds with modest state dependence, suggesting the absence of an ion permeation gate at the cytosolic side of BK channel. These results highlight fundamental structural differences between BK and Kv channels in their inner pore region, which likely underlie differences in voltage-dependent gating between these channels.

Hydrophobic gating in ion channels

Biological ion channels are nanoscale transmembrane pores. When water and ions are enclosed within the narrow confines of a sub-nanometer hydrophobic pore, they exhibit behavior not evident from macroscopic descriptions. At this nanoscopic level, the unfavorable interaction between the lining of a hydrophobic pore and water may lead to stochastic liquid-vapor transitions. These transient vapor states are "dewetted", i.e. effectively devoid of water molecules within all or part of the pore, thus leading to an energetic barrier to ion conduction. This process, termed "hydrophobic gating", was first observed in molecular dynamics simulations of model nanopores, where the principles underlying hydrophobic gating (i.e., changes in diameter, polarity, or transmembrane voltage) have now been extensively validated. Computational, structural, and functional studies now indicate that biological ion channels may also exploit hydrophobic gating to regulate ion flow within their pores. Here we review the evidence for this process and propose that this unusual behavior of water represents an increasingly important element in understanding the relationship between ion channel structure and function.

Oxidative modulation of voltage-gated potassium channels

SIGNIFICANCE

Voltage-gated K+ channels are a large family of K+-selective ion channel protein complexes that open on membrane depolarization. These K+ channels are expressed in diverse tissues and their function is vital for numerous physiological processes, in particular of neurons and muscle cells. Potentially reversible oxidative regulation of voltage-gated K+ channels by reactive species such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) represents a contributing mechanism of normal cellular plasticity and may play important roles in diverse pathologies including neurodegenerative diseases.

RECENT ADVANCES

Studies using various protocols of oxidative modification, site-directed mutagenesis, and structural and kinetic modeling provide a broader phenomenology and emerging mechanistic insights.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Physicochemical mechanisms of the functional consequences of oxidative modifications of voltage-gated K+ channels are only beginning to be revealed. In vivo documentation of oxidative modifications of specific amino-acid residues of various voltage-gated K+ channel proteins, including the target specificity issue, is largely absent.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

High-resolution chemical and proteomic analysis of ion channel proteins with respect to oxidative modification combined with ongoing studies on channel structure and function will provide a better understanding of how the function of voltage-gated K+ channels is tuned by ROS and the corresponding reducing enzymes to meet cellular needs.

A hydrophobic barrier deep within the inner pore of the TWIK-1 K2P potassium channel

Recent X-ray crystal structures of the two-pore domain (K2P) family of potassium channels have revealed a unique structural architecture at the point where the cytoplasmic bundle-crossing gate is found in most other tetrameric K(+) channels. However, despite the apparently open nature of the inner pore in the TWIK-1 (K2P1/KCNK1) crystal structure, the reasons underlying its low levels of functional activity remain unclear. In this study, we use a combination of molecular dynamics simulations and functional validation to demonstrate that TWIK-1 possesses a hydrophobic barrier deep within the inner pore, and that stochastic dewetting of this hydrophobic constriction acts as a major barrier to ion conduction. These results not only provide an important insight into the mechanisms which control TWIK-1 channel activity, but also have important implications for our understanding of how ion permeation may be controlled in similar ion channels and pores.

Structural basis of ion permeation gating in Slo2.1 K+ channels

The activation gate of ion channels controls the transmembrane flux of permeant ions. In voltage-gated K⁺ channels, the aperture formed by the S6 bundle crossing can widen to open or narrow to close the ion permeation pathway, whereas the selectivity filter gates ion flux in cyclic-nucleotide gated (CNG) and Slo1 channels. Here we explore the structural basis of the activation gate for Slo2.1, a weakly voltage-dependent K⁺ channel that is activated by intracellular Na⁺ and Cl⁻. Slo2.1 channels were heterologously expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes and activated by elevated [NaCl]_i or extracellular application of niflumic acid. In contrast to other voltage-gated channels, Slo2.1 was blocked by verapamil in an activation-independent manner, implying that the S6 bundle crossing does not gate the access of verapamil to its central cavity binding site. The structural basis of Slo2.1 activation was probed by Ala scanning mutagenesis of the S6 segment and by mutation of selected residues in the pore helix and S5 segment. Mutation to Ala of three S6 residues caused reduced trafficking of channels to the cell surface and partial (K256A, I263A, Q273A) or complete loss (E275A) of channel function. P271A Slo2.1 channels trafficked normally, but were nonfunctional. Further mutagenesis and intragenic rescue by second site mutations suggest that Pro271 and Glu275 maintain the inner pore in an open configuration by preventing formation of a tight S6 bundle crossing. Mutation of several residues in S6 and S5 predicted by homology modeling to contact residues in the pore helix induced a gain of channel function. Substitution of the pore helix residue Phe240 with polar residues induced constitutive channel activation. Together these findings suggest that (1) the selectivity filter and not the bundle crossing gates ion permeation and (2) dynamic coupling between the pore helix and the S5 and S6 segments mediates Slo2.1 channel activation.

Transduction of voltage and Ca2+ signals by Slo1 BK channels

Large-conductance Ca2+ -and voltage-gated K+ channels are activated by an increase in intracellular Ca2+ concentration and/or depolarization. The channel activation mechanism is well described by an allosteric model encompassing the gate, voltage sensors, and Ca2+ sensors, and the model is an excellent framework to understand the influences of auxiliary β and γ subunits and regulatory factors such as Mg2+. Recent advances permit elucidation of structural correlates of the biophysical mechanism.

A point mutation in the human Slo1 channel that impairs its sensitivity to omega-3 docosahexaenoic acid

Long-chain polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) at nanomolar concentrations reversibly activate human large-conductance Ca²⁺- and voltage-gated K⁺ (Slo1 BK) channels containing auxiliary β1 or β4 subunits in cell-free patches. Here we examined the action of DHA on the Slo1 channel without any auxiliary subunit and sought to elucidate the biophysical mechanism and the molecular determinants of the DHA sensitivity. Measurements of ionic currents through human Slo1 (hSlo1) channels reveal that the stimulatory effect of DHA does not require activation of the voltage or Ca²⁺ sensors. Unlike gating of the hSlo1 channel, that of the Drosophila melanogaster Slo1 (dSlo1) channel is unaltered by DHA. Our mutagenesis study based on the differential responses of human and dSlo1 channels to DHA pinpoints that Y318 near the cytoplasmic end of S6 in the hSlo1 channel is a critical determinant of the stimulatory action of DHA. The mutation Y318S in hSlo1, which replaces Y with S as found in dSlo1, greatly diminishes the channel’s response to DHA with a 22-carbon chain whether β1 or β4 is absent or present. However, the responses to α-linolenic acid, an omegea-3 fatty acid with an 18-carbon chain, and to arachidonic acid, an omega-6 fatty acid with a 20-carbon chain, remain unaffected by the mutation. Y318 in the S6 segment of hSlo1 is thus an important determinant of the electrophysiological response of the channel to DHA. Furthermore, the mutation Y318S may prove to be useful in dissecting out the complex lipid-mediated modulation of Slo1 BK channels.

Perspectives on: conformational coupling in ion channels: conformational coupling in BK potassium channels

Large conductance calcium- and voltage-dependent BK potassium channels (aka BK(Ca), MaxiK, Slo1, KCa1.1, and KCNMA1) are expressed in a wide variety of tissues throughout the body and are activated by both intracellular Ca(2+) and membrane depolarization. Owing to these properties, BK channels participate in diverse physiological processes from electrical excitability in neurons and secretory cells, and regulation of smooth muscle tone to tuning of auditory hair cells (Vergara et al., 1998; Ghatta et al., 2006). The response to voltage and Ca(2+) allows BK channels to integrate electrical and calcium signaling, which is central to their physiological role. Understanding how BK and other multimodal channels are regulated by and integrate diverse stimuli is not only physiologically important but also relevant to the topic of conformational coupling. As a voltage- and ligand-dependent channel, BK channels contain both voltage-sensor and ligand-binding domains as well as a gate to regulate the flow of K(+) through the pore. Coupling of conformational changes in one domain to another provides the basis for transducing voltage and ligand binding into channel opening and, therefore, defines, together with the functional properties of the gate and sensors, the signal transduction properties of the channel. The goal of this perspective is to provide an overview on the role and molecular basis of conformational coupling between functional domains in BK channels and outline some of the questions that remain to be answered.

Store-operated Orai channels: structure and function

In many animal cells, store-operated Ca(2+) release-activated Ca(2+) (CRAC) channels function as an essential route for Ca(2+) entry. CRAC channels control many fundamental cellular functions including gene expression, motility, and cell proliferation, are involved in the etiology of several disease processes including a severe combined immunodeficiency syndrome, and have emerged as major targets for drug development. Although little was known of the molecular mechanisms of CRAC channel operation for several decades, the discovery of Orai1 as a prototypic CRAC channel protein and STIM1 as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca(2+) sensor has led to rapid progress in our understanding of the mechanisms and functions of CRAC channels. It is now known that activation of CRAC channels following ER Ca(2+) store depletion is governed by several events, which include the redistributions and accumulations of STIM1 and Orai1 into overlapping puncta at peripheral cellular sites, resulting in direct protein-protein interactions between the two proteins. In this chapter, I review the molecular features of the STIM and Orai proteins that regulate the gating and ion conduction mechanisms of CRAC channels.

The voltage-dependent gate in MthK potassium channels is located at the selectivity filter

Understanding how ion channels open and close their pores is crucial for understanding their physiological roles. We used intracellular quaternary ammonium blockers to locate the voltage-dependent gate in MthK potassium channels from Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum with electrophysiology and X-ray crystallography. Blockers bind in an aqueous cavity between two putative gates, an intracellular gate and the selectivity filter. Thus, these blockers directly probe gate location: an intracellular gate will prevent binding when closed, whereas a selectivity filter gate will always allow binding. A kinetic analysis of tetrabutylammonium block of single MthK channels combined with X-ray crystallographic analysis of the pore with tetrabutylantimony unequivocally determined that the voltage-dependent gate, like the C-type inactivation gate in eukaryotic channels, is located at the selectivity filter. State-dependent binding kinetics suggests that MthK inactivation leads to conformational changes within the cavity and intracellular pore entrance.

Being flexible: the voltage-controllable activation gate of kv channels

Kv channels form voltage-dependent potassium selective pores in the outer cell membrane and are composed out of four α-subunits, each having six membrane-spanning α-helices (S1–S6). The α-subunits tetramerize such that the S5–S6 pore domains co-assemble into a centrally located K⁺ pore which is surrounded by four operational voltage-sensing domains (VSD) that are each formed by the S1–S4 segments. Consequently, each subunit is capable of responding to changes in membrane potential and dictates whether the pore should be conductive or not. K⁺ permeation through the pore can be sealed off by two separate gates in series: (a) at the inner S6 bundle crossing (BC gate) and (b) at the level of the selectivity filter (SF gate) located at the extracellular entrance of the pore. Within the last years a general consensus emerged that a direct communication between the S4S5-linker and the bottom part of S6 (S6_c) constitutes the coupling with the VSD thus making the BC gate the main voltage-controllable activation gate. While the BC gate listens to the VSD, the SF changes its conformation depending on the status of the BC gate. Through the eyes of an entering K⁺ ion, the operation of the BC gate apparatus can be compared with the iris-like motion of the diaphragm from a camera whereby its diameter widens. Two main gating motions have been proposed to create this BC gate widening: (1) tilting of the helix whereby the S6 converts from a straight α-helix to a tilted one or (2) swiveling of the S6_c whereby the S6 remains bent. Such motions require a flexible hinge that decouples the pre- and post-hinge segment. Roughly at the middle of the S6 there exists a highly conserved glycine residue and a tandem proline motif that seem to fulfill the role of a gating hinge which allows for tilting/swiveling/rotations of the post-hinge S6 segment. In this review we delineate our current view on the operation of the BC gate for controlling K⁺ permeation in Kv channels.

Permeation, selectivity and gating in store-operated CRAC channels

Store-operated Ca(2+) release-activated Ca(2+) (CRAC) channels are a widespread mechanism for generating cellular Ca(2+) signals and regulate many Ca(2+)-dependent functions, including transcription, motility and proliferation. The opening of CRAC channels in response to depletion of intracellular Ca(2+) stores involves a cascade of cellular events that culminate in direct interactions between STIM1, the endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) sensor, and the channels composed of Orai proteins. Evidence gathered over the last two decades indicates that CRAC channels display a unique functional pore fingerprint characterized by exquisite Ca(2+) selectivity, low unitary conductance, and low permeability to large cations. Here, we review the key pore properties of CRAC channels and discuss recent progress in addressing the molecular foundations of these properties. Structure-function and cysteine-scanning studies have revealed the identity and organization of pore-lining residues, including those that form the selectivity filter, providing a structural framework for understanding CRAC channel pore properties. Recent studies in pore mutants that produce STIM1-independent constitutive channel activation indicate that exquisite Ca(2+) selectivity in CRAC channels is not hardwired into Orai proteins, but is instead manifested only following the binding of STIM1 to the intrinsically poorly Ca(2+)-selective Orai channels. These findings reveal new functional aspects of CRAC channels and suggest that the selectivity filter of the CRAC channel is a dynamic structure whose conformation and functional properties are powerfully regulated by the channel activation stimulus.

Localization of a site of action for benzofuroindole-induced potentiation of BKCa channels

As previously reported, the activity of the large-conductance calcium (Ca(2+))-activated potassium (K(+)) (BK(Ca)) channel is strongly potentiated from the extracellular side of the cell membrane by certain benzofuroindole derivatives. Here, the mechanism of action of one of the most potent activators, 4-chloro-7-(trifluoromethyl)-10H-benzofuro[3,2-b]indole-1-carboxylic acid (CTBIC), is characterized. This compound, Compound 22 in the previous report (Chembiochem 6:1745-1748, 2005), potentiated the activity of the channel by shifting its conductance-voltage relationship toward the more negative direction. Cotreatment with CTBIC reduced the affinity of charybdotoxin, a peptide pore-blocker, whereas that of tetraethylammonium, a small pore-blocking quaternary ammonium, was not significantly altered. Guided by these results, scanning mutagenesis of the outer vestibule of the BK(Ca) channel was launched to uncover the molecular determinants that affect CTBIC binding. Alanine substitution of several amino acid residues in the turret region and the S6 helix of the channel decreased potentiation by CTBIC. Homology modeling and molecular dynamics simulation showed that some of these residues formed a CTBIC binding pocket between two adjacent α-subunits in the outer vestibule of the channel. Thus, it can be envisioned that benzofuroindole derivatives stabilize the open conformation of the channel by binding to the residues clustered across the extracellular part of the subunit interface. The present results indicate that the interface between different α-subunits of the BK(Ca) channel may play a critical role in the modulation of channel activity. Therefore, this interface represents a potential therapeutic target site for the regulation of K(+) channels.