Chemical excitation and inactivation in photoreceptors of the fly mutants trp and nss

Functional role of TRPC channels in the regulation of endothelial permeability

The endothelial cells (ECs) form a semipermeable barrier between the blood and the tissue. An important function of the endothelium is to maintain the integrity of the barrier function of the vessel wall. Ca(2+) signaling in ECs plays a key role in maintaining the barrier integrity. Transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) channels are mammalian homologs of Drosophila TRP Ca(2+)-permeable channels expressed in EC. TRPC channels are thought to function as a Ca(2+) entry channel operated by store-depletion as well as receptor-activated channels in a variety of cell types, including ECs. Inflammatory mediators such as thrombin, histamine, bradykinin, and others increase endothelial permeability by actin polymerization-dependent EC rounding and formation of inter-endothelial gaps, a process critically dependent on the increase in EC cytosolic [Ca(2+)] ([Ca(2+)](i)). Increase in endothelial permeability depends on both intracellular Ca(2+) release and extracellular Ca(2+) entry through TRPC channels. This review summarizes recent findings on the role of TRPC channels in the mechanism of Ca(2+) entry in ECs, and, in particular, the role of TRPC channels in regulating endothelial barrier function.

Regulation of TRP channels via lipid second messengers

In Drosophila photoreceptors, the light-sensitive current is mediated downstream of phospholipase C by TRP (transient receptor potential) channels. Recent evidence suggests that Drosophila TRP channels are activated by diacylglycerol (DAG) or its metabolites (polyunsaturated fatty acids), possibly in combination with the reduction in phosphatidyl inositol 4,5 bisphosphate (PIP2). Consistent with this view, diacylglycerol kinase is identified as a key enzyme required for response termination. Signaling is critically dependent upon efficient PIP2 synthesis; mutants of this pathway in combination with genetically targeted PIP2 reporters provide unique insights into the kinetics and regulation of PIP2 turnover. Recent evidence indicates that a growing number of mammalian TRP homologues are also regulated by lipid messengers, including DAG, arachidonic acid, and PIP2.

TRP channels in Drosophila photoreceptors: the lipid connection

The light-sensitive current in Drosophila photoreceptors is mediated by transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, at least two members of which (TRP and TRPL) are activated downstream of phospholipase C (PLC) in response to light. Recent evidence is reviewed suggesting that Drosophila TRP channels are activated by one or more lipid products of PLC activity: namely diacylglycerol (DAG), its metabolites (polyunsaturated fatty acids) or the reduction in phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP(2)). The most compelling evidence for this view comes from analysis of rdgA mutants which are unable to effectively metabolise DAG due to a defect in DAG kinase. The rdgA mutation leads to constitutive activation of both TRP and TRPL channels and dramatically increases sensitivity to light in hypomorphic mutations of PLC and G protein.

TRP channel proteins and signal transduction

TRP channel proteins constitute a large and diverse family of proteins that are expressed in many tissues and cell types. This family was designated TRP because of a spontaneously occurring Drosophila mutant lacking TRP that responded to a continuous light with a transient receptor potential (hence TRP). In addition to responses to light, TRPs mediate responses to nerve growth factor, pheromones, olfaction, mechanical, chemical, temperature, pH, osmolarity, vasorelaxation of blood vessels, and metabolic stress. Furthermore, mutations in several members of TRP-related channel proteins are responsible for several diseases, such as several tumors and neurodegenerative disorders. TRP-related channel proteins are found in a variety of organisms, tissues, and cell types, including nonexcitable, smooth muscle, and neuronal cells. The large functional diversity of TRPs is also reflected in their diverse permeability to ions, although, in general, they are classified as nonselective cationic channels. The molecular domains that are conserved in all members of the TRP family constitute parts of the transmembrane domains and in most members also the ankyrin-like repeats at the NH2 terminal of the protein and a "TRP domain" at the COOH terminal, which is a highly conserved 25-amino acid stretch with still unknown function. All of the above features suggest that members of the TRP family are "special assignment" channels, which are recruited to diverse signaling pathways. The channels' roles and characteristics such as gating mechanism, regulation, and permeability are determined by evolution according to the specific functional requirements.

Mouse trp2, the homologue of the human trpc2 pseudogene, encodes mTrp2, a store depletion-activated capacitative Ca2+ entry channel

Capacitative Ca2+ entry (CCE) is Ca2+ entering after stimulation of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) formation and initiation of Ca2+ store depletion. One hallmark of CCE is that it can also be triggered merely by store depletion, as occurs after inhibition of internal Ca2+ pumps with thapsigargin. Evidence has accumulated in support of a role of transient receptor potential (Trp) proteins as structural subunits of a class of Ca2+-permeable cation channels activated by agonists that stimulate IP3 formation-very likely through a direct interaction between the IP3 receptor and a Trp subunit of the Ca2+ entry channel. The role of Trp's in Ca2+ entry triggered by store depletion alone is less clear. Only a few of the cloned Trp's appear to enhance this type of Ca2+ entry, and when they do, the effect requires special conditions to be observed, which native CCE does not. Here we report the full-length cDNA of mouse trp2, the homologue of the human trp2 pseudogene. Mouse Trp2 is shown to be readily activated not only after stimulation with an agonist but also by store depletion in the absence of an agonist. In contrast to other Trp proteins, Trp2-mediated Ca2+ entry activated by store depletion is seen under the same conditions that reveal endogenous store depletion-activated Ca2+ entry, i.e., classical CCE. The findings support the general hypothesis that Trp proteins are subunits of store- and receptor-operated Ca2+ channels.

Ionic currents underlying HTRP3 mediated agonist-dependent Ca2+ influx in stably transfected HEK293 cells

hTrp3 is a human homologue of the Drosophila gene responsible for a transient receptor potential (trp) mutation. When stably expressed in HEK293 cells, hTrp3 formed ion channels that were active under resting conditions but could be further stimulated by carbachol or ATP via endogenous muscarinic or purinergic receptors, respectively. Agonist evoked currents reversed polarity near 0 mV in physiological ionic conditions and were associated with a significant increase in the current variance. These results suggest the involvement of a non-selective cation channel with relatively large unitary amplitude. Consistent with this, resolved unitary events had a conductance of approximately 60 pS in the negative voltage range and an extrapolated reversal potential near 0 mV.

Cloning and expression of a novel mammalian homolog of Drosophila transient receptor potential (Trp) involved in calcium entry secondary to activation of receptors coupled by the Gq class of G protein

Hormonal stimulation of Gq-protein coupled receptors triggers Ca2+ mobilization from internal stores. This is followed by a Ca2+ entry through the plasma membrane. Drosophila Trp and Trpl proteins have been implicated in Ca2+ entry and three mammalian homologues of Drosophila Trp/Trpl, hTrp1, hTrp3 and bTrp4 (also bCCE) have been cloned and expressed. Using mouse brain RNA as template, we report here the polymerase chain reaction-based cloning and functional expression of a novel Trp, mTrp6. The cDNA encodes a protein of 930 amino acids, the sequence of which is 36.8, 36.3, 43.1, 38.6, and 74. 1% identical to Drosophila Trp and Trpl, bovine Trp4, and human Trp1 and Trp3, respectively. Transient expression of mTrp6 in COS.M6 cells by transfection of the full-length mTrp6 cDNA increases Ca2+ entry induced by stimulation of co-transfected M5 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor with carbachol (CCh), as seen by dual wavelength fura 2 fluorescence ratio measurements. The mTrp6-mediated increase in Ca2+ entry activity was blocked by SKF-96365 and La3+. Ca2+ entry activity induced by thapsigargin was similar in COS cells transfected with or without the mTrp6 cDNA. The thapsigargin-stimulated Ca2+ entry could not be further stimulated by CCh in control cells but was markedly increased in mTrp6-transfected cells. Records of whole cell transmembrane currents developed in response to voltage ramps from -80 to +40 mV in control HEK cells and HEK cells stably expressing mTrp6 revealed the presence of a muscarinic receptor responsive non-selective cation conductance in Trp6 cells that was absent in control cells. Our data support the hypothesis that mTrp6 encodes an ion channel subunit that mediates Ca2+ entry stimulated by a G-protein coupled receptor, but not Ca2+ entry stimulated by intracellular Ca2+ store depletion.

The Limulus ventral photoreceptor: light response and the role of calcium in a classic preparation

The ventral nerve photoreceptor of the horseshoe crab Limulus polyphemus has been used for many years to investigate basic mechanisms of invertebrate phototransduction. The activation of rhodopsin leads in visual cells of invertebrates to an enzyme cascade at the end of which ion channels in the plasma membrane are transiently opened. This allows an influx of cations resulting in a depolarization of the photoreceptor cell. The receptor current of the Limulus ventral photoreceptor consists of three components which differ in several aspects, such as the time course of activation, the time course of recovery from light adaptation, and the reversal potential. Each component is influenced in a different, characteristic way by various pharmacological manipulations. In addition, at least two types of single photon-evoked events (bumps) and three elementary channel conductances are observed in this photoreceptor cell. These findings suggest that the receptor current components are controlled by three different light-activated enzymatic pathways using three different ligands to increase membrane conductance. Probably one of these ligands is cyclic GMP, another one is activated via the IP3-cascade and calcium, the third one might be cyclic AMP. Calcium ions are very important for the excitation and adaptation of visual cells in invertebrates. The extracellular and intracellular calcium concentrations determine the functional state of the visual cell. A rise in the cytosolic calcium concentration appears to be an essential step in the excitatory transduction cascade. Cytosolic calcium is the major intracellular mediator of adaptation. If the cytosolic calcium level exceeds a certain threshold value after exposure to light it causes the desensitization of the visual cell. On the other hand, from a slight rise in cytosolic calcium facilitation results, i.e. increased sensitivity of the photoreceptor.

Current issues in invertebrate phototransduction. Second messengers and ion conductances

Investigation of phototransduction in invertebrate photoreceptors has revealed many physiological and biochemical features of fundamental biological importance. Nonetheless, no complete picture of phototransduction has yet emerged. In most known cases, invertebrate phototransduction involves polyphosphoinositide and cyclic GMP (cGMP) intracellular biochemical signaling pathways leading to opening of plasma membrane ion channels. Excitation is Ca(2+)-dependent, as are adaptive feedback processes that regulate sensitivity to light. Transduction takes place in specialized subcellular regions, rich in microvilli and closely apposed to submicrovillar membrane systems. Thus, excitation is a highly localized process. This article focuses on the intracellular biochemical signaling pathways and the ion channels involved in invertebrate phototransduction. The coupling of signaling cascades with channel activation is not understood for any invertebrate species. Although photoreceptors have features that are common to most or all known invertebrate species, each species exhibits unique characteristics. Comparative electrophysiological, biochemical, morphological, and molecular biological approaches to studying phototransduction in these species lead to fundamental insights into cellular signaling. Several current controversies and proposed phototransduction models are evaluated.

Excitation of Drosophila photoreceptors by BAPTA and ionomycin: evidence for capacitative Ca2+ entry?

It has been suggested that excitation in Drosophila photoreceptors may be mediated by the depletion of intracellular Ca2+ stores (capacitative Ca2+ entry). To investigate this hypothesis, simultaneous whole-cell recordings and Indo-1 Ca2+ measurements were made from dissociated Drosophila photoreceptors, whilst testing the effects of Ca2+ releasing agents. In Ca2+ free Ringer's solution, thapsigargin raised cytosolic Ca2+ by approximately 80 nM; subsequent application of ionomycin released further Ca2+ (approximately 100 nM). A possible third compartment was indicated by the ability of monensin to mobilize further Ca2+ after saturating doses of ionomycin. Under most conditions, none of these agents activated an inward conductance, and their effects on the light response were consistent with their effects on cytosolic Ca2+. However, in the absence of both external Ca2+ and Mg2+ (to relieve a Mg2+ block of the light-sensitive channels), and after loading cells with BAPTA buffering cytosolic free Ca2+ at approximately 10 nM, ionomycin (but not thapsigargin) activated inward currents of approximately 800 pA. The response to ionomycin was enhanced (10 nA) by buffering cytosolic Ca2+ at 250 nM. A similar current also developed after approximately 3 min in cells loaded with Ca-BAPTA without any ionomycin application. The current-voltage relationships of currents activated by Ca-BAPTA or ionomycin were indistinguishable from that of the light-activated conductance and were similarly affected by a null mutation of the transient receptor potential (trp) gene which is believed to encode a subunit of the light-sensitive channels. These experiments provide some evidence for the suggestion that the light-activated and trp-dependent conductance in Drosophila photoreceptors can be activated by depletion of internal stores. However, activation by Ca-BAPTA and ionomycin had an absolute requirement for cytosolic Ca2+ as no currents could be activated by ionomycin in cells loaded with BAPTA and no Ca2+.

A quantitative estimate of the maximum amount of light-induced Ca2+ release in Drosophila photoreceptors

Simultaneous measurements of the light-induced current (LIC) and cytosolic Ca2+ (using INDO-1) were made in Drosophila photoreceptors. In the presence of 1.5 mM Cao2+, the UV light used to measure INDO-1 fluorescence saturated the LIC and induced a large Ca2+ rise. In the absence of extracellular Ca2+ and with Na+ replaced by N-methyl-D-glucamine, the light-induced Ca2+ rise was virtually abolished. A residual rise of about 20 nM is regarded as an upper estimate of Ca2+ released from internal stores. To estimate the Ca2+ flux required to generate such a rise, Ca2+ influx signals in response to weak light steps (500 ms LED stimulus) were measured in the presence of external Ca2+. The relationship between [Ca(in)] and the total charge carried during the LIC had a slope of 2.7 nM pC-1. Assuming that 50% of the LIC is carried by Ca2+ and that the single-channel Ca2+ current carried by the InsP3 receptor is 0.04 pA, it was estimated that about 350 InsP3 receptors should have been sufficient to generate a Ca2+ rise of 20 nM within 500 ms. By contrast, the current activated by the UV measuring light was equivalent to the activation of at least 5000 quantum bumps, making it unlikely that InsP3-induced Ca2+ release could have been the causal event for excitation under these conditions.

trp, a novel mammalian gene family essential for agonist-activated capacitative Ca2+ entry

SUMMARY

Capacitative calcium entry (CCE) describes CA2+ influx into cells that replenishes CA2+ stores emptied through the action of IP3 and other agents. It is an essential component of cellular responses to many hormones and growth factors. The molecular basis of this form of Ca2+ entry is complex and may involve more than one type of channel. Studies on visual signal transduction in Drosophila led to the hypothesis that a protein encoded in trp may be a component of CCE channels. We reported the existence of six trp-related genes in the mouse genome. Expression in L cells of small portions of these genes in antisense orientation suppressed CCE. Expression in COS cells of two full-length cDNAs encoding human trp homologs, Htrp1 and Htrp3, increased CCE. This identifies mammalian gene products that participate in CCE. We propose that trp homologs are subunits of CCE channels, not unlike those of classical voltage-gated ion channels.

Ins(1,4,5)P3 activates Drosophila cation channel Trpl in recombinant baculovirus-infected Sf9 insect cells

The trp-like (trpl) gene product (Trpl) is thought to form a nonselective cation channel important for signal transduction in Drosophila photoreceptor cells. This channel may be the insect homologue of mammalian channels involved in Ca2+ signal transduction. To determine the mechanism of receptor-mediated activation of Trpl, whole cell membrane currents were examined in Sf9 insect cells after infection with recombinant baculovirus. Stimulation by bradykinin increased whole cell Trpl currents three- to fivefold. Similar activation of Trpl was observed by inclusion of D-myo-inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate [Ins(1,4,5)P3] in the pipette solution during whole cell recordings. These currents were 1) not seen in noninfected cells or in cells expressing only the B2 receptor, 2) mimicked by D-myo-inositol 2,4,5-trisphosphate, and 3-deoxy-3-fluoro-D-myo-inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate, 3) not seen with D-myo-inositol 1,4-bisphosphate or D-myo-inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate, and 4) blocked by heparin, but not by de-N-sulfated heparin. In contrast, Trpl currents were unaffected by thapsigargin. These results demonstrate that the Trpl cation channel is activated by Ins(1,4,5)P3 in a heparin-sensitive fashion. Regulation of channel activity by Ins(1,4,5)P3 may occur by a number of mechanisms, including direct binding of Ins(1,4,5)P3 to the Trpl channel or direct physical interaction between the Ins(1,4,5)P3 receptor/Ca(2+)-release channel of the endoplasmic reticulum and the Trpl protein.

Phosphoinositide-mediated phototransduction in Drosophila photoreceptors: the role of Ca2+ and trp

Drosphoinate photoreceptors, represent a paradigm for the genetic dissection of phototransduction and, more generally for Ca2+ signaling. As in most invertebrates, phototransduction in Drosophila is mediated by the phosphoinositide (PI) cascade and is completely blocked by null mutations of the norpA gene which encodes a phospholipase C-beta isoform. The light-activated conductance in Drosophila is normally highly permeable to Ca2+, but in null mutants of the trp gene Ca2+ permeability is greatly reduced. Furthermore, the trp gene sequence shows homologies with voltage gated Ca2+ channels, suggesting that trp encodes a light-sensitive channel subunit. Ca2+ influx via these channels is instrumental in light adaptation, and profoundly influences phototransduction via positive and negative feedback at multiple molecular targets including protein kinase C. The mechanism of activation of the light-sensitive channels remains unresolved. A requirement for Ca2+ release from internal stores is suggested by the finding that Drosophila photoreceptors cannot sustain a maintained response under various conditions which might be expected to result in depletion of Ca2+ stores. However, Ca2+ release cannot be detected by Ca2+ indicator dyes and raising Ca2+ by photorelease of caged Ca2+ fails to mimic excitation. Recent studies, both in situ and with heterologously expressed trp protein, suggest that the trp-dependent channels may be activated by a process analogous to 'capacitative Ca2+ entry', a widespread, but poorly understood mode of PI-regulated Ca2+ influx in vertebrate cells.

Phototransduction in Drosophila: a paradigm for the genetic dissection of sensory transduction cascades

A combination of molecular, genetic and physiological studies is providing fundamental insight into the function and regulation of the phototransduction cascade. The availability of Drosophila mutants with defects in visual physiology allows for an in vivo dissection of this complex sensory signal transduction process.

The trp gene is essential for a light-activated Ca2+ channel in Drosophila photoreceptors

Invertebrate phototransduction is an important model system for studying the ubiquitous inositol-lipid signaling system. In the transient receptor potential (trp) mutant, one of the most intensively studied transduction mutants of Drosophila, the light response quickly declines to baseline during prolonged intense light. Using whole-cell recordings from Drosophila photoreceptors, we show that the wild-type response is mediated by at least two functionally distinct classes of light-sensitive channels and that both the trp mutation and a Ca2+ channel blocker (La3+) selectively abolish one class of channel with high Ca2+ permeability. Evidence is also presented that Ca2+ is necessary for excitation and that Ca2+ depletion mimics the trp phenotype. We conclude that the recently sequenced trp protein represents a class of light-sensitive channel required for inositide-mediated Ca2+ entry and suggest that this process is necessary for maintained excitation during intense illumination in fly photoreceptors.

Calcium is necessary for light excitation in barnacle photoreceptors

Illumination of barnacle (Balanus amphitrite) photoreceptors is known to increase the membrane permeability to sodium and Ca2+ ions resulting in a depolarizing receptor potential. In this report, we show that lanthanum (La3+), a known inhibitor of Ca-binding proteins, reversibly eliminates the receptor potential of barnacle photoreceptors when applied to the extracellular space. Similar reversible elimination of the light response was obtained by removing extracellular Ca2+ by application of the calcium chelating agent EGTA. Iontophoretic injection of Ca2+, but not K+ into the cells protected both the transient and the steady-state phases of the receptor potential from elimination by EGTA while only the transient phase was protected in the presence of La3+. The EGTA experiments suggest that internal Ca2+ is necessary for light excitation of barnacle photoreceptors while the La3+ experiments suggest that La(3+)-sensitive inward current is necessary to maintain excitation during prolonged light.

Molecular characterization of the Drosophila trp locus: a putative integral membrane protein required for phototransduction

Recent studies suggest that the fly uses the inositol lipid signaling system for visual excitation and that the Drosophila transient receptor potential (trp) mutation disrupts this process subsequent to the production of IP3. In this paper, we show that trp encodes a novel 1275 amino acid protein with eight putative transmembrane segments. Immunolocalization indicates that the trp protein is expressed predominantly in the rhabdomeric membranes of the photoreceptor cells.