Role played by paxillin and paxillin tyrosine phosphorylation in hepatocyte growth factor/sphingosine-1-phosphate-mediated reactive oxygen species generation, lamellipodia formation, and endothelial barrier function

Fyn-Mediated Paxillin Tyrosine 31 Phosphorylation Regulates Migration and Invasion of Breast Cancer Cells

Metastasis is the leading cause of death in breast cancer patients due to the lack of effective therapies. Elevated levels of paxillin expression have been observed in various cancer types, with tyrosine phosphorylation shown to play a critical role in driving cancer cell migration. However, the specific impact of the distinct tyrosine phosphorylation events of paxillin in the progression of breast cancer remains to be fully elucidated. Here, we found that paxillin overexpression in breast cancer tissue is associated with a patient's poor prognosis. Paxillin knockdown inhibited the migration and invasion of breast cancer cells. Furthermore, the phosphorylation of paxillin tyrosine residue 31 (Tyr31) was significantly increased upon the TGF-β1-induced migration and invasion of breast cancer cells. Inhibiting Fyn activity or silencing Fyn decreases paxillin Tyr31 phosphorylation. The wild-type and constitutively active Fyn directly phosphorylate paxillin Tyr31 in an in vitro system, indicating that Fyn directly phosphorylates paxillin Tyr31. Additionally, the non-phosphorylatable mutant of paxillin at Tyr31 reduces actin stress fiber formation, migration, and invasion of breast cancer cells. Taken together, our results provide direct evidence that Fyn-mediated paxillin Tyr31 phosphorylation is required for breast cancer migration and invasion, suggesting that targeting paxillin Tyr31 phosphorylation could be a potential therapeutic strategy for mitigating breast cancer metastasis.

Dialogue between VE-Cadherin and Sphingosine 1 Phosphate Receptor1 (S1PR1) for Protecting Endothelial Functions

The endothelial cells (EC) of established blood vessels in adults remain extraordinarily quiescent in the sense that they are not actively proliferating, but they fulfill the necessary role to control the permeability of their monolayer that lines the interior of blood vessels. The cell-cell junctions between ECs in the endothelium comprise tight junctions and adherens homotypic junctions, which are ubiquitous along the vascular tree. Adherens junctions are adhesive intercellular contacts that are crucial for the organization of the EC monolayer and its maintenance and regulation of normal microvascular function. The molecular components and underlying signaling pathways that control the association of adherens junctions have been described in the last few years. In contrast, the role that dysfunction of these adherens junctions has in contributing to human vascular disease remains an important open issue. Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is a bioactive sphingolipid mediator found at high concentrations in blood which has important roles in the control of the vascular permeability, cell recruitment, and clotting that follow inflammatory processes. This role of S1P is achieved through a signaling pathway mediated through a family of G protein-coupled receptors designated as S1PR1. This review highlights novel evidence for a direct linkage between S1PR1 signaling and the mediation of EC cohesive properties that are controlled by VE-cadherin.

Pro-inflammatory role of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in endothelial dysfunction

Background

Endothelial dysfunction is a critical component of both atherosclerotic plaque formation and saphenous vein graft failure. Crosstalk between the pro-inflammatory TNF-α-NFκB signaling axis and the canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway potentially plays an important role in regulating endothelial dysfunction, though the exact nature of this is not defined.

Results

In this study, cultured endothelial cells were challenged with TNF-α and the potential of a Wnt/β-catenin signaling inhibitor, iCRT-14, in reversing the adverse effects of TNF-α on endothelial physiology was evaluated. Treatment with iCRT-14 lowered nuclear and total NFκB protein levels, as well as expression of NFκB target genes, IL-8 and MCP-1. Inhibition of β-catenin activity with iCRT-14 suppressed TNF-α-induced monocyte adhesion and decreased VCAM-1 protein levels. Treatment with iCRT-14 also restored endothelial barrier function and increased levels of ZO-1 and focal adhesion-associated phospho-paxillin (Tyr118). Interestingly, inhibition of β-catenin with iCRT-14 enhanced platelet adhesion in cultured TNF-α-stimulated endothelial cells and in an ex vivo human saphenous vein model, most likely via elevating levels of membrane-tethered vWF. Wound healing was moderately retarded by iCRT-14; hence, inhibition of Wnt/β-catenin signaling may interfere with re-endothelialisation in grafted saphenous vein conduits.

Conclusion

Inhibition of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway with iCRT-14 significantly recovered normal endothelial function by decreasing inflammatory cytokine production, monocyte adhesion and endothelial permeability. However, treatment of cultured endothelial cells with iCRT-14 also exerted a pro-coagulatory and moderate anti-wound healing effect: these factors may affect the suitability of Wnt/β-catenin inhibition as a therapy for atherosclerosis and vein graft failure.

The explorations of dynamic interactions of paxillin at the focal adhesions

Paxillin is one of the most important adapters in integrin-mediated adhesions that performs numerous crucial functions relying on its dynamic interactions. Its structural behavior serves different purposes, providing a base for several activities. The various domains of paxillin display different functions in the whole process of cell movements and have a significant role in cell adhesion, migration, signal transmission, and protein-protein interactions. On the other hand, some paxillin-associated proteins provide a unique spatiotemporal mechanism for regulating its dynamic characteristics in the tissue homeostasis and make it a more complex and decisive protein at the focal adhesions. This review briefly describes the structural adaptations and molecular mechanisms of recruitment of paxillin into adhesions, explains paxillin's binding dynamics and impact on adhesion stability and turnover, and reveals a variety of paxillin-associated regulatory mechanisms and how paxillin is embedded into the signaling networks.

MET Oncogene Controls Invasive Growth by Coupling with NMDA Receptor

Simple Summary

The MET oncogene, encoding the tyrosine kinase receptor for a hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), plays a key role in the onset and progression of aggressive forms of breast cancer. Recently, it was found that the glutamate receptor, which has a well-known role in the nervous system, is expressed in many types of tumors outside the nervous system and contributes to metastatic behavior in breast cancer cells. Here, we highlight that MET protein physically interacts with glutamate receptors in two highly metastatic breast cancer cell lines. HGF, which creates a supportive proinvasive microenvironment for the tumor cells, stabilizes this interaction. Pharmacological inhibition of glutamate receptors blunts the migration and invasion elicited by HGF, suggesting drug repurposing of glutamate receptor antagonists for anticancer therapy.

Abstract

The N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) is a glutamate-gated ion channel involved in excitatory synaptic transmission. Outside the nervous system, the NMDAR is expressed in a variety of tissues and in cancers, notably in the highly invasive and metastatic triple-negative breast carcinoma. MET encodes the tyrosine kinase receptor for HGF and is a master regulator gene for “invasive growth”. In silico analysis shows that high expression of the NMDAR2B subunit is a negative prognostic factor in human invasive breast carcinoma. Here, we show that in triple-negative breast cancer cell lines NMDAR2B and MET proteins are coexpressed. HGF stimulation of these cells is followed by autophosphorylation of the MET kinase and phosphorylation of the NMDAR2B subunit at tyrosines 1252 and 1474. MET and phosphorylated NMDAR2B are physically associated, as demonstrated by co-immunoprecipitation, confocal immunofluorescence, and proximity ligation assays. Notably, pharmacological inhibition of NMDAR by MK801 and ifenprodil blunts the biological response to HGF. These results demonstrate the existence of a MET-NMDAR crosstalk driving the invasive program, paving the way for a new combinatorial therapy.

Essential role for paxillin tyrosine phosphorylation in LPS-induced mitochondrial fission, ROS generation and lung endothelial barrier loss

We have shown that both reactive oxygen species (ROS) and paxillin tyrosine phosphorylation regulate LPS-induced human lung endothelial permeability. Mitochondrial ROS (mtROS) is known to increase endothelial cell (EC) permeability which requires dynamic change in mitochondrial morphology, events that are likely to be regulated by paxillin. Here, we investigated the role of paxillin and its tyrosine phosphorylation in regulating LPS-induced mitochondrial dynamics, mtROS production and human lung microvascular EC (HLMVEC) dysfunction. LPS, in a time-dependent manner, induced higher levels of ROS generation in the mitochondria compared to cytoplasm or nucleus. Down-regulation of paxillin expression with siRNA or ecto-expression of paxillin Y31F or Y118F mutant plasmids attenuated LPS-induced mtROS in HLMVECs. Pre-treatment with MitoTEMPO, a scavenger of mtROS, attenuated LPS-induced mtROS, endothelial permeability and VE-cadherin phosphorylation. Further, LPS-induced mitochondrial fission in HLMVECs was attenuated by both a paxillin siRNA, and paxillin Y31F/Y118F mutant. LPS stimulated phosphorylation of dynamin-related protein (DRP1) at S616, which was also attenuated by paxillin siRNA, and paxillinY31/Y118 mutants. Inhibition of DRP1 phosphorylation by P110 attenuated LPS-induced mtROS and endothelial permeability. LPS challenge of HLMVECs enhanced interaction between paxillin, ERK, and DRP1, and inhibition of ERK1/2 activation with PD98059 blocked mitochondrial fission. Taken together, these results suggest a key role for paxillin tyrosine phosphorylation in LPS-induced mitochondrial fission, mtROS generation and EC barrier dysfunction.

My Journey in Academia as a Lipid Biochemist

An overview of Prof. Viswanathan Natarajan's journey in academia as a mentor, teacher, and lipid scientist for nearly 50 years is presented. As a graduate student, Dr. Natarajan interrogated biosynthesis and catabolism of phospholipids in the developing brain; however, in the last five decades, he has been investigating the role of sphingolipids and sphingolipid-metabolizing enzymes in pulmonary endothelial cells, epithelial cells, and fibroblasts under normal conditions and during various lung pathologies such as sepsis, asthma, pulmonary hypertension, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, and lung cancer. His recent work on sphingosine-1-phosphate and lysophosphatidic acid metabolism in pre-clinical animal models has identified small molecule inhibitors in the signaling pathways that could have therapeutic potential in ameliorating pulmonary fibrosis, hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension, lung cancer, and bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Future research in bioactive lipids in combination with OMICS should unravel the importance of various lipid mediators as modulators of cell function under normal and pathological conditions.

NOX4 Mediates Pseudomonas aeruginosa-Induced Nuclear Reactive Oxygen Species Generation and Chromatin Remodeling in Lung Epithelium

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) infection increases reactive oxygen species (ROS), and earlier, we have shown a role for NADPH oxidase-derived ROS in PA-mediated lung inflammation and injury. Here, we show a role for the lung epithelial cell (LEpC) NOX4 in PA-mediated chromatin remodeling and lung inflammation. Intratracheal administration of PA to Nox4flox/flox mice for 24 h caused lung inflammatory injury; however, epithelial cell-deleted Nox4 mice exhibited reduced lung inflammatory injury, oxidative stress, secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and decreased histone acetylation. In LEpCs, NOX4 was localized both in the cytoplasmic and nuclear fractions, and PA stimulation increased the nuclear NOX4 expression and ROS production. Downregulation or inhibition of NOX4 and PKC δ attenuated the PA-induced nuclear ROS. PA-induced histone acetylation was attenuated by Nox4-specific siRNA, unlike Nox2. PA stimulation increased HDAC1/2 oxidation and reduced HDAC1/2 activity. The PA-induced oxidation of HDAC2 was attenuated by N-acetyl-L-cysteine and siRNA specific for Pkc δ, Sphk2, and Nox4. PA stimulated RAC1 activation in the nucleus and enhanced the association between HDAC2 and RAC1, p-PKC δ, and NOX4 in LEpCs. Our results revealed a critical role for the alveolar epithelial NOX4 in mediating PA-induced lung inflammatory injury via nuclear ROS generation, HDAC1/2 oxidation, and chromatin remodeling.

The Adhesome Network: Key Components Shaping the Tumour Stroma

Beyond the conventional perception of solid tumours as mere masses of cancer cells, advanced cancer research focuses on the complex contributions of tumour-associated host cells that are known as "tumour microenvironment" (TME). It has been long appreciated that the tumour stroma, composed mainly of blood vessels, cancer-associated fibroblasts and immune cells, together with the extracellular matrix (ECM), define the tumour architecture and influence cancer cell properties. Besides soluble cues, that mediate the crosstalk between tumour and stroma cells, cell adhesion to ECM arises as a crucial determinant in cancer progression. In this review, we discuss how adhesome, the intracellular protein network formed at cell adhesions, regulate the TME and control malignancy. The role of adhesome extends beyond the physical attachment of cells to ECM and the regulation of cytoskeletal remodelling and acts as a signalling and mechanosensing hub, orchestrating cellular responses that shape the tumour milieu.

Role of sphingosine 1-phosphate signalling in tissue fibrosis

Fibrosis is characterized by the excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix components, leading to loss of tissue function in affected organs. Although the majority of fibrotic diseases have different origins, they have in common a persistent inflammatory stimulus and lymphocyte-monocyte interactions that determine the production of numerous fibrogenic cytokines. Treatment to contrast fibrosis is urgently needed, since some fibrotic diseases lead to systemic fibrosis and represent a major cause of death. In this article, the role of the bioactive sphingolipid sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) and its signalling pathway in the fibrosis of different tissue contexts is extensively reviewed, highlighting that it may represent an innovative and promising pharmacological therapeutic target for treating this devastating multifaceted disease. In multiple tissues S1P influences different aspects of fibrosis modulating the recruitment of inflammatory cells, as well as cell proliferation, migration and transdifferentiation into myofibroblasts, the cell type mainly involved in fibrosis development. Moreover, at the level of fibrotic lesions, S1P metabolism is profoundly influenced by multiple cross-talk with profibrotic mediators, such as transforming growth factor β, thus finely regulating the development of fibrosis. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled "Physiological and pathological roles of bioactive sphingolipids".

Lipid Mediators Regulate Pulmonary Fibrosis: Potential Mechanisms and Signaling Pathways

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a progressive lung disease of unknown etiology characterized by distorted distal lung architecture, inflammation, and fibrosis. The molecular mechanisms involved in the pathophysiology of IPF are incompletely defined. Several lung cell types including alveolar epithelial cells, fibroblasts, monocyte-derived macrophages, and endothelial cells have been implicated in the development and progression of fibrosis. Regardless of the cell types involved, changes in gene expression, disrupted glycolysis, and mitochondrial oxidation, dysregulated protein folding, and altered phospholipid and sphingolipid metabolism result in activation of myofibroblast, deposition of extracellular matrix proteins, remodeling of lung architecture and fibrosis. Lipid mediators derived from phospholipids, sphingolipids, and polyunsaturated fatty acids play an important role in the pathogenesis of pulmonary fibrosis and have been described to exhibit pro- and anti-fibrotic effects in IPF and in preclinical animal models of lung fibrosis. This review describes the current understanding of the role and signaling pathways of prostanoids, lysophospholipids, and sphingolipids and their metabolizing enzymes in the development of lung fibrosis. Further, several of the lipid mediators and enzymes involved in their metabolism are therapeutic targets for drug development to treat IPF.

Alternagin-C (ALT-C), a disintegrin-like protein, attenuates alpha2beta1 integrin and VEGF receptor 2 signaling resulting in angiogenesis inhibition

Angiogenesis, a crucial process in tumor progression, is mainly regulated by vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and its receptor, VEGFR2. Studies have shown the interaction between α₂β₁ integrin, a collagen receptor, and VEGFR2 in VEGF-driven angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Alternagin-C (ALT-C), an ECD-disintegrin-like protein from Bothrops alternatus snake venom, has high affinity for α₂β₁ integrin and shows antiangiogenic activity in concentrations higher than 100 nM. Despite previous results, its mechanism of action on angiogenic signaling pathways has not been addressed. Here we evaluate the antiangiogenic activity of ALT-C in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) associated or not with VEGF, as well as its interference in the α₂β₁/VEGFR2 crosstalk. ALT-C (1000 nM) affected actin cytoskeleton, decreased the number of cell filopodia, and strongly inhibited HUVEC tube formation, adhesion to type I collagen and cell migration. Down-regulation of α₂β₁/VEGFR2 crosstalk by ALT-C decreased the protein content and phosphorylation of VEGFR2 and β₁ integrin subunit, inhibited ERK 1/2 and PI3K signaling and regulated FAK/Src and paxillin pathways. Furthermore, ALT-C increased the content of the autophagic markers LC3B and Beclin-1 in the presence of VEGF, which is associated with decreased angiogenesis. In conclusion, we suggest that ALT-C, after binding to α₂β₁ integrin, inhibits VEGF/VEGFR2 signaling, which results in impaired angiogenesis. These results demonstrate that ALT-C may be a potential candidate for the development of antiangiogenic therapies for tumor and metastasis treatment and help to understand the complexity and fundamental role of integrin inhibition in the tumor microenvironment.

Sphingosine 1-Phosphate (S1P)/ S1P Receptor Signaling and Mechanotransduction: Implications for Intrinsic Tissue Repair/Regeneration

Tissue damage, irrespective from the underlying etiology, destroys tissue structure and, eventually, function. In attempt to achieve a morpho-functional recover of the damaged tissue, reparative/regenerative processes start in those tissues endowed with regenerative potential, mainly mediated by activated resident stem cells. These cells reside in a specialized niche that includes different components, cells and surrounding extracellular matrix (ECM), which, reciprocally interacting with stem cells, direct their cell behavior. Evidence suggests that ECM stiffness represents an instructive signal for the activation of stem cells sensing it by various mechanosensors, able to transduce mechanical cues into gene/protein expression responses. The actin cytoskeleton network dynamic acts as key mechanotransducer of ECM signal. The identification of signaling pathways influencing stem cell mechanobiology may offer therapeutic perspectives in the regenerative medicine field. Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P)/S1P receptor (S1PR) signaling, acting as modulator of ECM, ECM-cytoskeleton linking proteins and cytoskeleton dynamics appears a promising candidate. This review focuses on the current knowledge on the contribution of S1P/S1PR signaling in the control of mechanotransduction in stem/progenitor cells. The potential contribution of S1P/S1PR signaling in the mechanobiology of skeletal muscle stem cells will be argued based on the intriguing findings on S1P/S1PR action in this mechanically dynamic tissue.

Sphingolipids Signaling in Lamellipodia Formation and Enhancement of Endothelial Barrier Function

Sphingolipids, first described in the brain in 1884, are important structural components of biological membranes of all eukaryotic cells. In recent years, several lines of evidence support the critical role of sphingolipids such as sphingosine, sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), and ceramide as anti- or pro-inflammatory bioactive lipid mediators in a variety of human pathologies including pulmonary and vascular disorders. Among the sphingolipids, S1P is a naturally occurring agonist that exhibits potent barrier enhancing property in the endothelium by signaling via G protein-coupled S1P1 receptor. S1P, S1P analogs, and other barrier enhancing agents such as HGF, oxidized phospholipids, and statins also utilize the S1P/S1P1 signaling pathway to generate membrane protrusions or lamellipodia, which have been implicated in resealing of endothelial gaps and maintenance of barrier integrity. A better understanding of sphingolipids mediated regulation of lamellipodia formation and barrier enhancement of the endothelium will be critical for the development of sphingolipid-based therapies to alleviate pulmonary disorders such as sepsis-, radiation-, and mechanical ventilation-induced acute lung injury.

Curcumin modulates endothelial permeability and monocyte transendothelial migration by affecting endothelial cell dynamics

Curcumin is a phenolic compound that exhibits beneficial properties for cardiometabolic health. We previously showed that curcumin reduced the infiltration of immune cells into the vascular wall and prevented atherosclerosis development in mice. This study aimed to investigate the effect of curcumin on monocyte adhesion and transendothelial migration (TEM) and to decipher the underlying mechanisms of these actions. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were exposed to curcumin (0.5-1μM) for 3h prior to their activation by Tumor Necrosis Factor alpha (TNF-α). Endothelial permeability, monocyte adhesion and transendothelial migration assays were conducted under static condition and shear stress that mimics blood flow. We further investigated the impact of curcumin on signaling pathways and on the expression of genes using macroarrays. Pre-exposure of endothelial cells to curcumin reduced monocyte adhesion and their transendothelial migration in both static and shear stress conditions. Curcumin also prevented changes in both endothelial permeability and the area of HUVECs when induced by TNF-α. We showed that curcumin modulated the expression of 15 genes involved in the control of cytoskeleton and endothelial junction dynamic. Finally, we showed that curcumin inhibited NF-κB signaling likely through an antagonist interplay with several kinases as suggested by molecular docking analysis. Our findings demonstrate the ability of curcumin to reduce monocyte TEM through a multimodal regulation of the endothelial cell dynamics with a potential benefit on the vascular endothelial function barrier.

Recombinant Slit2 Reduces Surgical Brain Injury Induced Blood Brain Barrier Disruption via Robo4 Dependent Rac1 Activation in a Rodent Model

Brain tissue surrounding surgical resection site can be injured inadvertently due to procedures such as incision, retractor stretch, and electrocauterization when performing neurosurgical procedures, which is termed as surgical brain injury (SBI). Blood brain barrier (BBB) disruption due to SBI can exacerbate brain edema in the post-operative period. Previous studies showed that Slit2 exhibited vascular anti-permeability effects outside the brain. However, BBB protective effects of Slit2 following SBI has not been evaluated. The objective of this study was to evaluate whether recombinant Slit2 via its receptor roundabout4 (Robo4) and the adaptor protein, Paxillin were involved in reducing BBB permeability in SBI rat model. Our results showed that endogenous Slit2 increased in the surrounding peri-resection brain tissue post-SBI, Robo4 remained unchanged and Paxillin showed a decreasing trend. Recombinant Slit2 administered 1 h before injury increased BBB junction proteins, reduced BBB permeability, and decreased neurodeficits 24 h post-SBI. Furthermore, recombinant Slit2 administration increased Rac1 activity which was reversed by Robo4 and Paxillin siRNA. Our findings suggest that recombinant Slit2 reduced SBI-induced BBB permeability, possibly by stabilizing BBB tight junction via Robo4 mediated Rac1 activation. Slit2 may be beneficial for BBB protection during elective neurosurgeries.

Paxillin: a crossroad in pathological cell migration

Paxilllin is a multifunctional and multidomain focal adhesion adapter protein which serves an important scaffolding role at focal adhesions by recruiting structural and signaling molecules involved in cell movement and migration, when phosphorylated on specific Tyr and Ser residues. Upon integrin engagement with extracellular matrix, paxillin is phosphorylated at Tyr31, Tyr118, Ser188, and Ser190, activating numerous signaling cascades which promote cell migration, indicating that the regulation of adhesion dynamics is under the control of a complex display of signaling mechanisms. Among them, paxillin disassembly from focal adhesions induced by extracellular regulated kinase (ERK)-mediated phosphorylation of serines 106, 231, and 290 as well as the binding of the phosphatase PEST to paxillin have been shown to play a key role in cell migration. Paxillin also coordinates the spatiotemporal activation of signaling molecules, including Cdc42, Rac1, and RhoA GTPases, by recruiting GEFs, GAPs, and GITs to focal adhesions. As a major participant in the regulation of cell movement, paxillin plays distinct roles in specific tissues and developmental stages and is involved in immune response, epithelial morphogenesis, and embryonic development. Importantly, paxillin is also an essential player in pathological conditions including oxidative stress, inflammation, endothelial cell barrier dysfunction, and cancer development and metastasis.

Endothelial cell signaling and ventilator-induced lung injury: molecular mechanisms, genomic analyses, and therapeutic targets

Mechanical ventilation is a life-saving intervention in critically ill patients with respiratory failure due to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Paradoxically, mechanical ventilation also creates excessive mechanical stress that directly augments lung injury, a syndrome known as ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI). The pathobiology of VILI and ARDS shares many inflammatory features including increases in lung vascular permeability due to loss of endothelial cell barrier integrity resulting in alveolar flooding. While there have been advances in the understanding of certain elements of VILI and ARDS pathobiology, such as defining the importance of lung inflammatory leukocyte infiltration and highly induced cytokine expression, a deep understanding of the initiating and regulatory pathways involved in these inflammatory responses remains poorly understood. Prevailing evidence indicates that loss of endothelial barrier function plays a primary role in the development of VILI and ARDS. Thus this review will focus on the latest knowledge related to 1) the key role of the endothelium in the pathogenesis of VILI; 2) the transcription factors that relay the effects of excessive mechanical stress in the endothelium; 3) the mechanical stress-induced posttranslational modifications that influence key signaling pathways involved in VILI responses in the endothelium; 4) the genetic and epigenetic regulation of key target genes in the endothelium that are involved in VILI responses; and 5) the need for novel therapeutic strategies for VILI that can preserve endothelial barrier function.