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Li N, Griffith AW, Manahan DT. Integrative biological analyses of responses to food deprivation reveal resilience mechanisms in sea urchin larvae. Mol Ecol 2024; 33:e17120. [PMID: 37646910 DOI: 10.1111/mec.17120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Abstract
A fundamental question in ecology is how organisms survive food deprivation. In the ocean, climate change is impacting the phenology of food availability for early life-history stages of animals. In this study, we undertook an integrative analysis of larvae of the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus-an important keystone species in marine ecology and a molecular biological model organism in developmental biology. Specifically, to identify the mechanisms of resilience that maintain physiological state and the ability of organisms to recover from food deprivation, a suite of molecular biological, biochemical, physiological and whole organism measurements was completed. Previous studies focused on the importance of energy reserves to sustain larvae during periods of food deprivation. We show, however, that utilization of endogenous energy reserves only supplied 15% of the metabolic requirements of long-term survival (up to 22 days) in the absence of particulate food. This large energy gap was not supplied by larvae feeding on bacteria. Estimates of larval ability to transport dissolved organic matter directly from seawater showed that such substrates could fully supply metabolic needs. Integrative approaches allowed for filtering of gene expression signatures, linked with gene network analyses and measured biochemical and physiological traits, to identify biomarkers of resilience. We identified 14 biomarkers related to nutrition-responsive gene expression, of which a specific putative amino acid transporter gene was quantified in a single larva experiencing continuous nutritional stress. Advances in applications of gene expression technologies offer novel approaches to determine the physiological state of marine larval forms in ecological settings undergoing environmental change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Andrew W Griffith
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Donal T Manahan
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
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2
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Somero GN. From molecules to morphology: How food supply influences the larvae of sea urchins across all levels of biological organization. Mol Ecol 2024; 33:e17384. [PMID: 38757458 DOI: 10.1111/mec.17384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2024] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024]
Abstract
An important goal of many studies in molecular ecology is to utilize molecular tools to elucidate how critical traits like metabolism and growth are affected by environmental stressors and how organisms offset these stresses by adaptive molecular-level responses. Stress from food deprivation may be critical for early developmental stages that require a continued supply of substrates for energy metabolism and growth if development is to be completed. In a 'From the Cover' article in this issue of Molecular Ecology, Li et al. (2023) examined the effects of withholding food (unicellular algae) on 10 traits of larvae of the purple sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus), ranging from the molecular level (gene expression) to morphology. Overall, this study sheds new light on the plasticity of larval development and the tight linkages that exist among traits as they respond to changes in food availability. Importantly, shifts in the sources of food utilized under different dietary treatments show the plasticity of these larvae to alter reliance on endogenous energy stores and dissolved organic matter (DOM) as algae deprivation continues. The effects of global change on the amounts and phenology of productivity in the seas make this type of integrated, multi-level analysis an important tool for predicting the future states of marine ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- George N Somero
- Department of Biology, Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, California, USA
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Weinrauch AM, Dumar ZJ, Overduin SL, Goss GG, Leys SP, Blewett TA. Evidence for transporter-mediated uptake of environmental L-glutamate in a freshwater sponge, Ephydatia muelleri. J Comp Physiol B 2024; 194:121-130. [PMID: 38553641 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-024-01544-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Revised: 12/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
The freshwater sponge, Ephydatia muelleri, lacks a nervous or endocrine system and yet it exhibits a coordinated whole-body action known as a "sneeze" that can be triggered by exposure to L-glutamate. It is not known how L-glutamate is obtained by E. muelleri in sufficient quantities (i.e., 70 µM) to mediate this response endogenously. The present study tested the hypothesis that L-glutamate can be directly acquired from the environment across the body surface of E. muelleri. We demonstrate carrier mediated uptake of two distinct saturable systems with maximal transport rates (Jmax) of 64.27 ± 4.98 and 25.12 ± 1.87 pmols mg-1 min-1, respectively. The latter system has a higher calculated substrate affinity (Km) of 2.87 ± 0.38 µM compared to the former (8.75 ± 1.00 µM), indicative of distinct systems that can acquire L-glutamate at variable environmental concentrations. Further characterization revealed potential shared pathways of L-glutamate uptake with other negatively charged amino acids, namely D-glutamate and L-aspartate, as well as the neutral amino acid L-alanine. We demonstrate that L-glutamate uptake does not appear to rely on exogenous sodium or proton concentrations as removal of these ions from the bathing media did not significantly alter uptake. Likewise, L-glutamate uptake does not seem to rely on internal proton motive forces driven by VHA as application of 100 nM of the VHA inhibitor bafilomycin did not alter uptake rates within E. muelleri tissues. Whether the acquired amino acid is used to supplement feeding or is stored and accumulated to mediate the sneeze response remains to be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa M Weinrauch
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Zachary J Dumar
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Sienna L Overduin
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Greg G Goss
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Sally P Leys
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Tamzin A Blewett
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2R3, Canada.
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Lee Y, Tjeerdema E, Kling S, Chang N, Hamdoun A. Solute carrier (SLC) expression reveals skeletogenic cell diversity. Dev Biol 2023; 503:68-82. [PMID: 37611888 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2023.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Abstract
Within the developing embryo is a microcosm of cell type diversity. Single cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) is used to reveal cell types, typically by grouping cells according to their gene regulatory states. However, both across and within these regulatory states are additional layers of cellular diversity represented by the differential expression of genes that govern cell function. Here, we analyzed scRNA-seq data representing the late gastrula stage of Strongylocentrotus purpuratus (purple sea urchin) to understand the patterning of transporters belonging to the ABC and SLC families. These transporters handle diverse substrates from amino acids to signaling molecules, nutrients and xenobiotics. Using transporter-based clustering, we identified unique transporter patterns that are both shared across cell lineages, as well as those that were unique to known cell types. We further explored three patterns of transporter expression in mesodermal cells including secondary mesenchyme cells (pigment cells and blastocoelar cells) and skeletogenic cells (primary mesenchyme cells). The results revealed the enrichment of SMTs potentially involved in nutrient absorption (SLC5A9, SLC7A11, SLC35F3, and SLC52A3) and skeletogenesis (SLC9A3, SLC13A2/3/5, and SLC39A13) in pigment cells and blastocoelar cells respectively. The results indicated that the strategy of clustering by cellular activity can be useful for discovering cellular populations that would otherwise remain obscured.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoon Lee
- Center for Marine Biology and Biomedicine Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Evan Tjeerdema
- Center for Marine Biology and Biomedicine Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Svenja Kling
- Center for Marine Biology and Biomedicine Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Nathan Chang
- Center for Marine Biology and Biomedicine Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Amro Hamdoun
- Center for Marine Biology and Biomedicine Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA.
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Griffin RA, Glover CN, McCuaig JD, Blewett TA. Waterborne amino acids: uptake and functional roles in aquatic animals. J Exp Biol 2023; 226:jeb245375. [PMID: 37843468 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.245375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
Dissolved organic matter is a ubiquitous component of freshwater and marine environments, and includes small nutrient molecules, such as amino acids, which may be available for uptake by aquatic biota. Epithelial transporters, including cotransporters, uniporters and antiporters, facilitate the absorption of dissolved amino acids (often against concentration gradients). Although there is a lack of mechanistic and molecular characterization of such transporters, pathways for the direct uptake of amino acids from the water appear to exist in a wide range of marine phyla, including Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Brachiopoda, Mollusca, Nemertea, Annelida, Echinodermata, Arthropoda and Chordata. In these animals, absorbed amino acids have several putative roles, including osmoregulation, hypoxia tolerance, shell formation and metabolism. Therefore, amino acids dissolved in the water may play an important, but overlooked, role in aquatic animal nutrition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Griffin
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, 11455 Saskatchewan Drive, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E9, Canada
| | - Chris N Glover
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, 11455 Saskatchewan Drive, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E9, Canada
- Faculty of Science and Technology and Athabasca River Basin Research Institute, Athabasca University, 1 University Drive, Athabasca, Alberta T9S 3A3, Canada
| | - Jenelle D McCuaig
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, 11455 Saskatchewan Drive, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E9, Canada
| | - Tamzin A Blewett
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, 11455 Saskatchewan Drive, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E9, Canada
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DellaTorre MB, Manahan DT. Increasing Temperature Results in Higher Allocation of Energy to Protein Synthesis in Sea Urchin Larvae ( Lytechinus pictus). THE BIOLOGICAL BULLETIN 2023; 244:35-50. [PMID: 37167620 DOI: 10.1086/723369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
AbstractIt is well established that metabolic processes change with temperature and size. Yet the underlying physiological mechanisms are less well understood regarding how such processes covary within a species and particularly so for developmental stages. Physiological analysis of larvae of the sea urchin Lytechinus pictus revealed that protein was the major biochemical substrate supporting metabolism. The complex dynamics of protein synthesis, turnover, and accretion changed during growth, showing a sevenfold decrease in the ratio of protein accretion to protein synthesis (protein depositional efficiency). To test hypotheses of physiological variation with rising temperature, larvae were reared over a temperature range experienced by this species in its ambient habitat. The thermal sensitivity of protein synthesis was greater than respiration (thermal sensitivity values of 3.7 and 2.4, respectively). Bioenergetic calculations revealed a disproportionate increase in energy allocation toward protein synthesis with rising temperature. These differential temperature sensitivities result in metabolic trade-offs of energy acquisition and expenditure, thereby altering physiological homeostasis. Such insights are of value for improving predictions about limits of biological resilience in a warming ocean.
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Blewett TA, Leonard EM, Glover CN, McClelland GB, Wood CM, McGeer JC, Santore RC, Smith DS. The effect of marine dissolved organic carbon on nickel accumulation in early life-stages of the sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2021; 250:109150. [PMID: 34352398 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2021.109150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is known to ameliorate the toxicity of the trace metal nickel (Ni) to aquatic animals. In theory, this effect is mediated by the capacity of DOC to bind Ni, rendering it less bioavailable, with the resulting reduction in accumulation limiting toxicological effects. However, there is a lack of experimental data examining Ni accumulation in marine settings with natural sources of DOC. In the current study, radiolabelled Ni was used to examine the time- and concentration-dependence of Ni accumulation, using naturally sourced DOC, on developing larvae of the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. Contrary to prediction, the two tested natural DOC samples (collected from the eastern United States, DOC 2 (Seaview park, Rhode Island (SVP)) and DOC 7 (Aubudon Coastal Center, Connecticut)) which had previously been shown to protect against Ni toxicity, did not limit accumulation. The control (artificial seawater with no added DOC), and the DOC 2 sample could mostly be described as having saturable Ni uptake, whereas Ni uptake in the presence of DOC 7 was mostly linear. These data provide evidence that DOC modifies the bioavailability of Ni, through either indirect effects (e.g. membrane permeability) or by the absorption of DOC-Ni complexes. There was some evidence for regulation of Ni accumulation in later-stage embryos (96-h) where the bioconcentration factor for Ni declined with increasing Ni exposure concentration. These data have implications for predictive modelling approaches that rely on known relationships between Ni speciation, bioavailability and bioreactivity, by suggesting that these relationships may not hold for natural marine DOC samples in the developing sea urchin model system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamzin A Blewett
- Department of Chemistry, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, ON, Canada; Department of Biology, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, ON, Canada; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, AB, Canada; Department of Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.
| | - Erin M Leonard
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Chris N Glover
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, AB, Canada; Faculty of Science and Technology and Athabasca River Basin Research Institute, Athabasca University, AB, Canada
| | | | - Chris M Wood
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada; Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - James C McGeer
- Department of Biology, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | | | - D Scott Smith
- Department of Chemistry, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, ON, Canada
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Ellison A, Pouv A, Pace DA. Different protein metabolic strategies for growth during food-induced physiological plasticity in echinoid larvae. J Exp Biol 2021; 224:jeb.230748. [PMID: 33526554 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.230748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Food-induced morphological plasticity, a type of developmental plasticity, is a well-documented phenomenon in larvae of the echinoid echinoderm, Dendraster excentricus A recent study in our lab has shown that this morphological plasticity is associated with significant physiological plasticity for growth. The goal of the current study was to measure several aspects of protein metabolism in larvae growing at different rates to understand the mechanistic basis for this physiological growth plasticity. Larvae of D. excentricus were fed rations of 1000 algal cells ml-1 (low-fed larvae) or 10,000 algal cells ml-1 (high-fed larvae). Relative protein growth rate was 6.0 and 12.2% day-1 for low- and high-fed larvae, respectively. The energetic cost of protein synthesis was similar for the two treatments at 4.91 J mg-1 protein synthesized. Larvae in both treatments used about 50% of their metabolic energy production to fuel protein synthesis. Mass-specific rates of protein synthesis were also similar. Large differences in mass-specific rates of protein degradation were observed. Low-fed larvae had relatively low rates of degradation early in development that increased with larval age, surpassing those of high-fed larvae at 20 days post-fertilization. Changes in protein depositional efficiency during development were similar to those of larval growth efficiency, indicating that differences in protein metabolism are largely responsible for whole-organism growth plasticity. Low-fed larvae also had alanine transport rates that were 2 times higher than those of high-fed larvae. In total, these results provide an explanation for the differences in growth efficiency between low- and high-fed larvae and allow for a more integrated understanding of developmental plasticity in echinoid larvae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aimee Ellison
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University Long Beach, Long Beach, CA 90084, USA
| | - Amara Pouv
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University Long Beach, Long Beach, CA 90084, USA
| | - Douglas A Pace
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University Long Beach, Long Beach, CA 90084, USA
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Katayama N, Makoto K, Kishida O. An aquatic vertebrate can use amino acids from environmental water. Proc Biol Sci 2016; 283:20160996. [PMID: 27683364 PMCID: PMC5046892 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2016.0996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2016] [Accepted: 08/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Conventional food-web theory assumes that nutrients from dissolved organic matter are transferred to aquatic vertebrates via long nutrient pathways involving multiple eukaryotic species as intermediary nutrient transporters. Here, using larvae of the salamander Hynobius retardatus as a model system, we provide experimental evidence of a shortcut nutrient pathway by showing that H. retardatus larvae can use dissolved amino acids for their growth without eukaryotic mediation. First, to explore which amino acids can promote larval growth, we kept individual salamander larvae in one of eight different high-concentration amino acid solutions, or in control water from which all other eukaryotic organisms had been removed. We thus identified five amino acids (lysine, threonine, serine, phenylalanine, and tyrosine) as having the potential to promote larval growth. Next, using 15N-labelled amino acid solutions, we demonstrated that nitrogen from dissolved amino acids was found in larval tissues. These results suggest that salamander larvae can take up dissolved amino acids from environmental water to use as an energy source or a growth-promoting factor. Thus, aquatic vertebrates as well as aquatic invertebrates may be able to use dissolved organic matter as a nutrient source.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noboru Katayama
- Teshio Experimental Forest, Field Science Center for Northern Biosphere, Hokkaido University, Toikanbetsu, Horonobe, Hokkaido 098-2943, Japan Tomakomai Experimental Forest, Field Science Center for Northern Biosphere, Hokkaido University, Takaoka, Tomakomai, Hokkaido 053-0035, Japan
| | - Kobayashi Makoto
- Teshio Experimental Forest, Field Science Center for Northern Biosphere, Hokkaido University, Toikanbetsu, Horonobe, Hokkaido 098-2943, Japan
| | - Osamu Kishida
- Teshio Experimental Forest, Field Science Center for Northern Biosphere, Hokkaido University, Toikanbetsu, Horonobe, Hokkaido 098-2943, Japan Tomakomai Experimental Forest, Field Science Center for Northern Biosphere, Hokkaido University, Takaoka, Tomakomai, Hokkaido 053-0035, Japan
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Francis Pan TC, Applebaum SL, Manahan DT. Genetically Determined Variation in Developmental Physiology of Bivalve Larvae (Crassostrea gigas). Physiol Biochem Zool 2015; 88:128-36. [DOI: 10.1086/679656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Gökirmak T, Shipp LE, Campanale JP, Nicklisch SCT, Hamdoun A. Transport in technicolor: mapping ATP-binding cassette transporters in sea urchin embryos. Mol Reprod Dev 2014; 81:778-93. [PMID: 25156004 DOI: 10.1002/mrd.22357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2014] [Accepted: 06/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
One quarter of eukaryotic genes encode membrane proteins. These include nearly 1,000 transporters that translocate nutrients, signaling molecules, and xenobiotics across membranes. While it is well appreciated that membrane transport is critical for development, the specific roles of many transporters have remained cryptic, in part because of their abundance and the diversity of their substrates. Multidrug resistance ATP-binding cassette (ABC) efflux transporters are one example of cryptic membrane proteins. Although most organisms utilize these ABC transporters during embryonic development, many of these transporters have broad substrate specificity, and their developmental functions remain incompletely understood. Here, we review advances in our understanding of ABC transporters in sea urchin embryos, and methods developed to spatially and temporally map these proteins. These studies reveal that multifunctional transporters are required for signaling, homeostasis, and protection of the embryo, and shed light on how they are integrated into ancestral developmental pathways recapitulated in disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tufan Gökirmak
- Marine Biology Research Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
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12
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Applebaum SL, Ginsburg DW, Capron CS, Manahan DT. Expression of amino acid transporter genes in developmental stages and adult tissues of Antarctic echinoderms. Polar Biol 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s00300-013-1345-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Matson PG, Yu PC, Sewell MA, Hofmann GE. Development under elevated pCO2 conditions does not affect lipid utilization and protein content in early life-history stages of the purple sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. THE BIOLOGICAL BULLETIN 2012; 223:312-327. [PMID: 23264477 DOI: 10.1086/bblv223n3p312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Ocean acidification (OA) is expected to have a major impact on marine species, particularly during early life-history stages. These effects appear to be species-specific and may include reduced survival, altered morphology, and depressed metabolism. However, less information is available regarding the bioenergetics of development under elevated CO(2) conditions. We examined the biochemical and morphological responses of Strongylocentrotus purpuratus during early development under ecologically relevant levels of pCO(2) (365, 1030, and 1450 μatm) that may occur during intense upwelling events. The principal findings of this study were (1) lipid utilization rates and protein content in S. purpuratus did not vary with pCO(2); (2) larval growth was reduced at elevated pCO(2) despite similar rates of energy utilization; and (3) relationships between egg phospholipid content and larval length were found under control but not high pCO(2) conditions. These results suggest that this species may either prioritize endogenous energy toward development and physiological function at the expense of growth, or that reduced larval length may be strictly due to higher costs of growth under OA conditions. This study highlights the need to further expand our knowledge of the physiological mechanisms involved in OA response in order to better understand how present populations may respond to global environmental change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul G Matson
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology, University of California-Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9620, USA
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