Graphene oxide used as a carrier for adriamycin can reverse drug resistance in breast cancer cells

Graphene/carbohydrate polymer composites as emerging hybrid materials in tumor therapy and diagnosis

Despite the introduction of various types of treatments for cancer control, cancer therapy faces several challenges such as aggressive behavior, heterogeneous characteristics, and the development of resistance. In contrast, the methods have depended on the creation and formulation of nanoparticles to impede tumor growth. Carbon nanoparticles have attracted considerable attention for cancer therapy, with graphene nanoparticles emerging as promising vehicles for delivering drugs and genes. Moreover, graphene composites can enhance immunotherapy, phototherapy, and combination therapies. Nonetheless, the biocompatibility and toxicity of graphene composites present difficulties. Consequently, this manuscript assesses the alteration of graphene nanocomposites using carbohydrate polymers. Altering graphene composites with carbohydrate polymers such as chitosan, hyaluronic acid, cellulose, and starch can enhance their efficacy in cancer treatment. Furthermore, graphene composites functionalized with carbohydrate polymers for tumor ablation induced by phototherapy. Graphene oxide and graphene quantum dots have been modified with carbohydrate polymers to enhance their therapeutic and diagnostic uses. These nanoparticles can transport gene therapy techniques like siRNA in the treatment of cancer. Despite the breakdown of these nanoparticles within the body, they maintain excellent biosafety and biocompatibility.

Natrium Alginate and Graphene Nanoplatelets-Based Efficient Material for Resveratrol Delivery

In this study, alginate-based composite beads were developed for the delivery of resveratrol, a compound with therapeutic potential. Two formulations were prepared: one with sodium alginate and resveratrol (AR) and another incorporating graphene nanoplatelets (AGR) to improve drug release control. The beads were formed by exploiting alginate's ability to gel via ionic cross-linking. For the AGR formulation, sodium alginate was dissolved in water, and graphene was dispersed in isopropyl alcohol to achieve smaller flakes. Resveratrol was dissolved in an ethanol/water mixture and added to the graphene dispersion; the resulting solution was mixed with the alginate one. For the AR formulation, the resveratrol solution was mixed directly with the alginate solution. Both formulations were introduced into a calcium chloride solution to form the beads. The release of resveratrol was studied in phosphate-buffered saline at different pH values. Results showed that the presence of graphene in the AGR sample increased drug release, particularly at pH 6.8, indicating a pH-driven release mechanism. Kinetic analysis revealed that the Higuchi model best describes the release mechanism. Finally, cytotoxicity tests showed the biocompatibility of the system in normal human cells. These findings suggest that graphene-enhanced alginate matrices have significant potential for controlled drug delivery applications.

Development of Graphene-Based Materials with the Targeted Action for Cancer Theranostics

The review summarises the prospects in the application of graphene and graphene-based nanomaterials (GBNs) in nanomedicine, including drug delivery, photothermal and photodynamic therapy, and theranostics in cancer treatment. The application of GBNs in various areas of science and medicine is due to the unique properties of graphene allowing the development of novel ground-breaking biomedical applications. The review describes current approaches to the production of new targeting graphene-based biomedical agents for the chemotherapy, photothermal therapy, and photodynamic therapy of tumors. Analysis of publications and FDA databases showed that despite numerous clinical studies of graphene-based materials conducted worldwide, there is a lack of information on the clinical trials on the use of graphene-based conjugates for the targeted drug delivery and diagnostics. The review will be helpful for researchers working in development of carbon nanostructures, material science, medicinal chemistry, and nanobiomedicine.

Graphene (GNP) reinforced 3D printing nanocomposites: An advanced structural perspective

The influence of macro-micro structural design on the mechanical response of structural nanocomposites is substantial. The advancement of additive manufacturing especially three-dimensional (3-D) printing technology offers a promising avenue for the efficient and precise fabrication of multi-functional low-weight and high-strength nanocomposites. In contemporary discourse, there is a notable emphasis on carbon-based nanomaterials as nanofillers for structural composites due to their substantial specific surface area and exceptional load-bearing ability in mechanical structures. Notably, graphene, a distinctive two-dimensional (2-D) nanomaterial, exhibits very large elastic modulus and ultimate strength as well as remarkable plasticity. The utilization of graphene nanoparticles (GNPs) in the field of 3-D printing enables the production of intricate three-dimensional structures of varying sizes and configurations. This is achieved through the macro-assembly process, which facilitates the creation of a well-organized distribution of graphene and the establishment of a comprehensive physical network through precise micro-regulation. This paper presents an overview of multiscale structural composites that are strengthened by the incorporation of graphene and prepared by 3-D printing. The composites discussed in this study encompass graphene-polymer composites, graphene-ceramic composites, and graphene-metal composites. Furthermore, an analysis of the present obstacles and potential future advancements in this rapidly expanding domain is anticipated.

Preparation and sustained-release mechanism of hydroxybutyl chitosan/graphene oxide temperature-sensitive hypoglycaemic subcutaneous implants

The current situation of diabetes prevention and control is extremely severe. For instance, glimepiride (GLM), a third-generation sulfonylurea, demonstrates suboptimal clinical efficacy in oral dosage forms, which underscores the pressing need for the development of a new dosage form. Recently, in situ gel subcutaneous implants have garnered considerable attention. Hydroxybutyl chitosan (HBC) can spontaneously crosslink to form a thermosensitive hydrogel and has good biocompatibility. However, its application is hindered by its limited mechanical properties. Graphene oxide (GO), known for its stable dispersion in water, can load GLM through π-π stacking interactions. When combined with HBC, GO enhances the mechanical properties and stability of the hydrogel. Therefore, an HBC-GO@GLM hydrogel was prepared. Rheological analysis revealed that the incorporation of GO increased the critical gelation temperature of the 5 wt% HBC hydrogel from 19.1°C to 27.2°C, considerably enhancing the mechanical properties of the hydrogel. Using encapsulation efficiency as an evaluation index, the optimal encapsulation efficiency of GO@GLM was determined to be 73.53% ± 0.45% with a drug loading capacity of 27.39 ± 0.17% using the Box-Behnken design model. Computer simulation technology validated the interaction between the materials and the drug release mechanism. Pharmacokinetic results showed that compared to the HBC@GLM group, the half-life (t1/2), mean residence time and the area under the curve for the HBC-GO@GLM group were approximately 3 times those of the HBC@GLM group. Subcutaneous implantation of the HBC-GO@GLM hydrogel for drug delivery considerably extended the drug's action time in the body, thereby maintaining blood sugar levels within a normal and stable range for an extended period.

Application of carbon nanostructures in biomedicine: realities, difficulties, prospects

The review systematizes data on the wide possibilities of practical application of carbon nanostructures. Much attention is paid to the use of carbon nanomaterials in medicine for the visualization of tumors during surgical interventions, in the creation of cosmetics, as well as in agriculture in the creation of fertilizers. Additionally, we demonstrate trends in research in the field of carbon nanomaterials with a view to elaborating targeted drug delivery systems. We also show the creation of nanosized medicinal substances and diagnostic systems, and the production of new biomaterials. A separate section is devoted to the difficulties in studying carbon nanomaterials. The review is intended for a wide range of readers, as well as for experts in the field of nanotechnology and nanomedicine.

The Influence of Graphene Oxide-Fe3O4 Differently Conjugated with 10-Hydroxycampthotecin and a Rotating Magnetic Field on Adenocarcinoma Cells

Nanoparticles (e.g., graphene oxide, graphene oxide-Fe3O4 nanocomposite or hexagonal boron nitride) loaded with anti-cancer drugs and targeted at cancerous cells allowed researchers to determine the most effective in vitro conditions for anticancer treatment. For this reason, the main propose of the present study was to determine the effect of graphene oxide (GO) with iron oxide (Fe3O4) nanoparticles (GO-Fe3O4) covalently (c-GO-Fe3O4-HCPT) and non-covalently (nc-GO-Fe3O4-HCPT) conjugated with hydroxycamptothecin (HCPT) in the presence of a rotating magnetic field (RMF) on relative cell viability using the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line. The obtained GO-Fe3O4 nanocomposites demonstrated the uniform coverage of the graphene flakes with the nanospheres, with the thickness of the flakes estimated as ca. 1.2 nm. The XRD pattern of GO-Fe3O4 indicates that the crystal structure of the magnetite remained stable during the functionalization with HCPT that was confirmed with FTIR spectra. After 24 h, approx. 49% and 34% of the anti-cancer drug was released from nc-GO-Fe3O4-HCPT and c-GO-Fe3O4-HCPT, respectively. The stronger bonds in the c-GO-Fe3O4-HCPT resulted in a slower release of a smaller drug amount from the nanocomposite. The combined impact of the novel nanocomposites and a rotating magnetic field on MCF-7 cells was revealed and the efficiency of this novel approach has been confirmed. However, MCF-7 cells were more significantly affected by nc-GO-Fe3O4-HCPT. In the present study, it was found that the concentration of nc-GO-Fe3O4-HCPT and a RMF has the highest statistically significant influence on MCF-7 cell viability. The obtained novel nanocomposites and rotating magnetic field were found to affect the MCF-7 cells in a dose-dependent manner. The presented results may have potential clinical applications, but still, more in-depth analyses need to be performed.

SERS Endoscopy for Monitoring Intracellular Drug Dynamics

Understanding the dynamics and distribution of medicinal drugs in living cells is essential for the design and discovery of treatments. The tools available for revealing this information are, however, extremely limited. Here, we report the application of surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) endoscopy, using plasmonic nanowires as SERS probes, to monitor the intracellular fate and dynamics of a common chemo-drug, doxorubicin, in A549 cancer cells. The unique spatio-temporal resolution of this technique reveals unprecedented information on the mode of action of doxorubicin: its localization in the nucleus, its complexation with medium components, and its intercalation with DNA as a function of time. Notably, we were able to discriminate these factors for the direct administration of doxorubicin or the use of a doxorubicin delivery system. The results reported here show that SERS endoscopy may have an important future role in medicinal chemistry for studying the dynamics and mechanism of action of drugs in cells.

3D self-assembled nanocarriers for drug delivery

There are many benefits to drug delivery from drug-carrier nanostructure systems. It might be developed to carefully control drug release rates or to deliver a precise amount of a therapeutic substance to particular body areas. Self-assembling is the process by which molecules and nanoparticles spontaneously organize into organized clusters. For instance, proteins and peptides can interact with one another to create highly organized supramolecular structures with various properties, such as helical ribbons and fibrous scaffolds. Another advantage of self-assembly is that it may be effective with a variety of materials, including metals, oxides, inorganic salts, polymers, semiconductors, and even organic semiconductors. Fullerene, graphene, and carbon nanotubes (CNTs), three of the most fundamental classes of three-dimensionally self-assembling nanostructured carbon-based materials, are essential for the development of modern nanotechnologies. Self-assembled nanomaterials are used in a variety of fields, including nanotechnology, imaging, and biosensors. This review study begins with a summary of various major 3D nanomaterials, including graphene oxide, CNTs, and nanodiamond, as well as 3D self-assembled polyfunctionalized nanostructures and adaptable nanocarriers for drug delivery.

Progress and challenges of graphene and its congeners for biomedical applications

Nanomaterials by virtue of their small size and enhanced surface area, present unique physicochemical properties that enjoy widespread applications in bioengineering, biomedicine, biotechnology, disease diagnosis, and therapy. In recent years, graphene and its derivatives have attracted a great deal of attention in various applications, including photovoltaics, electronics, energy storage, catalysis, sensing, and biotechnology owing to their exceptional structural, optical, thermal, mechanical, and electrical. Graphene is a two-dimensional sheet of sp2 hybridized carbon atoms of atomic thickness, which are arranged in a honeycomb crystal lattice structure. Graphene derivatives are graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO), which are highly oxidized and less oxidized forms of graphene, respectively. Another form of graphene is graphene quantum dots (GQDs), having a size of less than 20 nm. Contemporary graphene research focuses on using graphene nanomaterials for biomedical purposes as they have a large surface area for loading biomolecules and medicine and offer the potential for the conjugation of fluorescent dyes or quantum dots for bioimaging. The present review begins with the synthesis, purification, structure, and properties of graphene nanomaterials. Then, we focussed on the biomedical application of graphene nanomaterials with special emphasis on drug delivery, bioimaging, biosensing, tissue engineering, gene delivery, and chemotherapy. The implications of graphene nanomaterials on human health and the environment have also been summarized due to their exposure to their biomedical applications. This review is anticipated to offer useful existing understanding and inspire new concepts to advance secure and effective graphene nanomaterials-based biomedical devices.

The potential of Graphene Oxide and reduced Graphene Oxide in diagnosis and treatment of Cancer

Nanotechnology is a pioneer field of study; for engineering smart nanosystems in targeted diagnosis and treatment in cancer therapy. The potent therapy for different kinds of solid tumors should ideally target individually the cancerous cells and tissue with no impact on healthy cells in the body. Nano-sized graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) have phenomenal chemical versatility, high surface area ratio, and supernatural physical properties. The synergistic effects caused by the well-defined assembly of GO and rGO surface generate not only essential optical, mechanical, but also electronic behaviors. Developing novel multifunctional hybrid nanoparticles with great potential is highly considered in multimodal cancer treatment. GO, and rGO are engineered as a programmable targeting delivery system and combed with photonic energy they utilize in photothermal therapy. Its remarkable properties indicated its applications as a biosensor, bio-imaging for cancer diagnosis. In this current review, we show a remarkable highlight about GO, rGO, and discuss the notable applications for cancer diagnosis and treatment, and an overview of possible cellular signaling pathways that are affected by GO, rGO in cancer treatment.

Drug Release Kinetics of DOX-Loaded Graphene-Based Nanocarriers for Ovarian and Breast Cancer Therapeutics

Cancer remains one of the leading causes of death worldwide despite extensive efforts at developing curative treatments. Chemotherapy, one of the most common forms of treatment, lacks specificity and can induce collateral damages to healthy surrounding tissues/cells and elicit off-target toxic side effects. The carbon-based nanomaterial graphene, can load aromatic drugs with high efficiency, has good biocompatibility, and can be easily functionalised with targeting ligands, antibodies, and biomolecules to increase the accuracy of targeting specific areas; graphene has therefore been explored as a nanocarrier for classical chemotherapy drugs. In this work, seventeen publications that report the release of doxorubicin (DOX) from 2D graphene-based nanohybrids (graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide) for the treatment of breast and ovarian cancers have been identified based on a range of inclusion and exclusion criteria. To aid in the clinical translation of proof-of-concept studies, this work identifies the pre-clinical experimental protocols and analyses the release kinetics of these publications. Fifteen of the papers utilised a change in pH as the stimulus for drug release, and two utilised either near infrared (NIR) or ultrasound as the stimulus. The extracted drug release data from these publications were fit to four known kinetic models. It was found that the majority of these data best fit the Weibull kinetic model. The agreement between the kinetic data in previously published literature provides a predictable estimation of DOX release from graphene-based nanocarriers. This study demonstrates the potential conjugation of graphene and DOX in drug delivery applications, and this knowledge can help improve to the design and formulation of future graphene-based nanocarriers. In addition, the use of further experimental testing and the standardisation of experimental protocols will be beneficial for future work. The incorporation of computational modelling prior to pre-clinical testing will also aid in the development of controlled and sustained DOX release systems that offer efficient and efficacious results.

Functionalized Graphene Platforms for Anticancer Drug Delivery

Two-dimensional nanomaterials are emerging as promising candidates for a wide range of biomedical applications including tissue engineering, biosensing, pathogen incapacitation, wound healing, and gene and drug delivery. Graphene, due to its high surface area, photothermal property, high loading capacity, and efficient cellular uptake, is at the forefront of these materials and plays a key role in this multidisciplinary research field. Poor water dispersibility and low functionality of graphene, however, hamper its hybridization into new nanostructures for future nanomedicine. Functionalization of graphene, either by covalent or non-covalent methods, is the most useful strategy to improve its dispersion in water and functionality as well as processability into new materials and devices. In this review, recent advances in functionalization of graphene derivatives by different (macro)molecules for future biomedical applications are reported and explained. In particular, hydrophilic functionalization of graphene and graphene oxide (GO) to improve their water dispersibility and physicochemical properties is discussed. We have focused on the anticancer drug delivery of polyfunctional graphene sheets.

Deeply Infiltrating iRGD-Graphene Oxide for the Intensive Treatment of Metastatic Tumors through PTT-Mediated Chemosensitization and Strengthened Integrin Targeting-Based Antimigration

A limited infiltration and the subsequent low effective drug concentration result in poor chemotherapeutic outcomes against tumors, and even further promote tumor resistance and metastatic. Herein, iRGD-modified graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets (IPHG) are developed for the intensive treatment of metastatic tumors using focus-specific penetrated delivery together with photothermal therapy-mediated chemosensitization and photothermal therapy-strengthened integrin targeting-based antimigration. In vitro and in vivo data verified the mechanism of the tumor-selective infiltration of IPHG is based on a rigid 2D structure-associated advantage regarding hemodynamics and endothelial contact, followed by iRGD-endowed transendothelial and intratumoral transport. Once IPHG-DOX-penetrated 4T1 tumors are exposed to near-infrared irradiation, hyperthermia stress and photothermal therapy-elevated effective drug concentrations result in chemosensitization and prominent tumor suppression. Meanwhile, the specific binding of iRGD to integrins and photothermal therapy leads to the synergistic perturbation of cytoskeleton remodeling and subsequent impairment of cell motility and metastasis. The tailored design of IPHG validates a promising paradigm for drug delivery to combat tumor resistance and metastasis resulting from poor target access for single chemotherapy.

Graphene-based nanomaterials for breast cancer treatment: promising therapeutic strategies

Breast cancer is the most common malignancy in women, and its incidence increases annually. Traditional therapies have several side effects, leading to the urgent need to explore new smart drug-delivery systems and find new therapeutic strategies. Graphene-based nanomaterials (GBNs) are potential drug carriers due to their target selectivity, easy functionalization, chemosensitization and high drug-loading capacity. Previous studies have revealed that GBNs play an important role in fighting breast cancer. Here, we have summarized the superior properties of GBNs and modifications to shape GBNs for improved function. Then, we focus on the applications of GBNs in breast cancer treatment, including drug delivery, gene therapy, phototherapy, and magnetothermal therapy (MTT), and as a platform to combine multiple therapies. Their advantages in enhancing therapeutic effects, reducing the toxicity of chemotherapeutic drugs, overcoming multidrug resistance (MDR) and inhibiting tumor metastasis are highlighted. This review aims to help evaluate GBNs as therapeutic strategies and provide additional novel ideas for their application in breast cancer therapy.

Co-Sn-Cu oxides/graphene nanocomposites as green catalysts for preparing 1,8-dioxo-octahydroxanthenes and apoptosis-inducing agents in MCF-7 human breast cancer cells

In this work, Co-Sn-Cu oxides/graphene nanocomposite, 30-40 ± 0.5 nm in size, was synthesized by solid-state microwave irradiation. This method presents several advantages such as operational simplicity, fast, low cost, safe and energy efficient, and suitability for production of high purity of nanoparticles. Other advantages of this method are there is no need for the use of solvent, fuel, and surfactant. Co-Sn-Cu oxides/graphene nanocomposites have been characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, field emission scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, vibrating sample magnetometer, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and UV-Vis spectroscopy. The synthesized nanocomposites were used as novel highly efficient catalysts for the synthesis of 1,8-dioxo-octahydroxanthenes at room temperature. The catalysts are recoverable and can be reused for six runs without loss of their activity. Also, the obtained nanocomposites exhibited significant anticancer activity against breast cancer cells and they could induce apoptosis in cancer cells.

Conjugates of Curcumin with Graphene and Carbon Nanotubes: A Review on Biomedical Applications

In the last decade, the use of carbon nanotubes and graphenes has been on the rise for various nanobiotechnological applications. Owing to their special characteristics, these two nanostructures of carbon allotropes have been studied for their capacity in the detection and treatment of many diseases. On the other hand, curcumin, a well-known antioxidant and anticancer natural product, is being extensively studied for numerous medicinal applications. Interestingly, many reports have shown great potentials of conjugates of curcumin and carbon nanotubes or graphenes. These conjugates, when properly designed and functionalized with biomolecules, could represent the valuable properties of each component alone while they could be effective in overcoming the poor solubility issues of both curcumin and Carbon Nanomaterials (CNMs). In this case, curcumin conjugates with CNMs seem to be very promising in biosensing applications and the detection of many biomolecules, especially, curcumin has been reported to be very effective with these conjugates. Also, the delivery of curcumin using functionalized SWCNTs was evaluated for its ability to load and release curcumin, to protect curcumin from degradation and to enhance its solubility. It is proposed that other properties of these conjugates are still to be discovered and the interdisciplinary approaches among biology, medicine, chemistry, and material engineering will accelerate the applications of these novel materials. This review aims to summarize the findings on the applications of CNM conjugates of curcumin.

Myricetin Apoptotic Effects on T47D Breast Cancer Cells is a P53-Independent Approach

Objective:

Using nutraceuticals in cancer therapy is a strategy contributing with other approaches to promote apoptosis in cancer cells. Myricetin is a polyphenol flavonoid that forms main ingredients of various type of foods and beverages. The inducing properties of myricetin in apoptosis is reported by several investigations. The present study aimed to assess apoptotic effects of myricetin on T47D breast cancer cells and to evaluate part of the mechanisms of action.

Materials and Methods:

T47D breast cancer cells were assigned into five groups: control (cells in normal condition), myricetin (cells treated with myricetin IC50 concentration) in two different incubation times (24, 48 and 72 hours). MTT assay, annexin v assay, flow cytometry, caspase-3 assay and Real-time PCR were used to evaluate apoptosis in breast cancer cells.

Results:

The expression rate of apoptotic genes caspase-3, caspase-8, caspase-9, the ratio of BAX /Bcl-2 as well as the expression of P53, BRCA1, GADD45 genes were increased significantly after treatment of T47D breast cancer cells with myricetin. Annexin v assay confirmed significant expression of annexin as were displyed by flow cytometry.

Conclusion:

Myricetin enhances apoptosis in T47D breast cancer cells by evoking both extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways. myricetin may practices its apoptotic properties on T47D cells through inducing BRCA1- GADD45 pathway.

Applications of Graphene and Graphene Oxide in Smart Drug/Gene Delivery: Is the World Still Flat?

Graphene, a wonder material, has made far-reaching developments in many different fields such as materials science, electronics, condensed physics, quantum physics, energy systems, etc. Since its discovery in 2004, extensive studies have been done for understanding its physical and chemical properties. Owing to its unique characteristics, it has rapidly became a potential candidate for nano-bio researchers to explore its usage in biomedical applications. In the last decade, remarkable efforts have been devoted to investigating the biomedical utilization of graphene and graphene-based materials, especially in smart drug and gene delivery as well as cancer therapy. Inspired by a great number of successful graphene-based materials integrations into the biomedical area, here we summarize the most recent developments made about graphene applications in biomedicine. In this paper, we review the up-to-date advances of graphene-based materials in drug delivery applications, specifically targeted drug/ gene delivery, delivery of antitumor drugs, controlled and stimuli-responsive drug release, photodynamic therapy applications and optical imaging and theranostics, as well as investigating the future trends and succeeding challenges in this topic to provide an outlook for future researches.

Comprehensive Review on Graphene Oxide for Use in Drug Delivery System

Motivated by the accomplishment of carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene and graphene oxide (GO) has been widely investigated in the previous studies as an innovative medication nanocarrier for the loading of a variety of therapeutics as well as anti-cancer medications, poor dissolvable medications, antibiotics, antibodies, peptides, DNA, RNA and genes. Graphene provides the ultra-high drug-loading efficiency due to the wide surface area. Graphene and graphene oxide have been widely investigated for biomedical applications due to their exceptional qualities: twodimensional planar structure, wide surface area, chemical and mechanical constancy, sublime conductivity and excellent biocompatibility. Due to these unique qualities, GO applications provide advanced drug transports frameworks and transports of a broad range of therapeutics. In this review, we discussed the latest advances and improvements in the uses of graphene and GO for drug transport and nanomedicine. Initially, we have described what is graphene and graphene oxide. After that, we discussed the qualities of GO as a drug carrier, utilization of GO in drug transport applications, targeted drug transport, transport of anticancer medications, chemical control medicine releasee, co-transport of different medications, comparison of GO with CNTs, nano-graphene for drug transport and at last, we have discussed the graphene toxicity. Finally, we draw a conclusion of current expansion and the potential outlook for the future.

Functionalized Carbon Nanostructures Versus Drug Resistance: Promising Scenarios in Cancer Treatment

Carbon nanostructures (CN) are emerging valuable materials for the assembly of highly engineered multifunctional nanovehicles for cancer therapy, in particular for counteracting the insurgence of multi-drug resistance (MDR). In this regard, carbon nanotubes (CNT), graphene oxide (GO), and fullerenes (F) have been proposed as promising materials due to their superior physical, chemical, and biological features. The possibility to easily modify their surface, conferring tailored properties, allows different CN derivatives to be synthesized. Although many studies have explored this topic, a comprehensive review evaluating the beneficial use of functionalized CNT vs G or F is still missing. Within this paper, the most relevant examples of CN-based nanosystems proposed for MDR reversal are reviewed, taking into consideration the functionalization routes, as well as the biological mechanisms involved and the possible toxicity concerns. The main aim is to understand which functional CN represents the most promising strategy to be further investigated for overcoming MDR in cancer.

A telomerase-responsive nanoprobe with theranostic properties in tumor cells

Multidrug resistance (MDR) is the main cause of treatment failure in clinical cancer chemotherapy due to the presence of P-glycoproteins (P-gp), which widely exist in stubborn drug-resistant tumor membranes and actively pump drugs from inside the tumor cell to the outside. In this study, we report a novel telomerase-responsive nanoprobe with theranostic properties for inhibiting P-gp expression and reversing MDR by gene silencing. This nanoprobe is composed of an AuNP assembled with telomerase primer, antisense oligonucleotide (ASO), and doxorubicin (Dox). When the designed nanoprobe is uptaken by the MDR cancer cells, the Dox and ASO are specifically released due to the extension of telomerase primer triggered by telomerase. The released ASO specifically hybridizes with multidrug resistance 1 (MDR1) mRNA sequence, which encodes the P-gp. As a result, the expression of P-gp is inhibited and the efflux of Dox is prevented with reduced MDR in cancerous cells. The results demonstrate that the nanoprobe based on telomerase switching for drug release and gene silencing, can both target cancer cells for delivering drugs and overcome the effect of efflux pumps. This work presents a novel paradigm for theranostics of MDR cancer and enhances the efficacy of chemotherapeutics.

Dual Drugs Anticancer Nanoformulation using Graphene Oxide-PEG as Nanocarrier for Protocatechuic Acid and Chlorogenic Acid

BACKGROUND

The chemotherapy of cancer has been complicated by poor bioavailability, adverse side effects, high dose requirement, drug resistance and low therapeutic indices. Cancer cells have different ways to inhibit the chemotherapeutic drugs, use of dual/multiple anticancer agents may be achieve better therapeutic effects in particular for drug resistant tumors. Designing a biocompatible delivery system, dual or multiple drugs could addressing these chemotherapy drawbacks and it is the focus of many current biomedical research.

METHODS

In the present study, graphene oxide-polyethylene glycol (GOPEG) nanocarrier is designed and loaded with two anticancer drugs; Protocatechuic acid (PCA) and Chlorogenic acid (CA). The designed anticancer nanocomposite was further coated with folic acid to target the cancer cells, as their surface membranes are overexpressed with folate receptors.

RESULTS

The particle size distribution of the designed nanocomposite was found to be narrow, 9-40 nm. The release profiles of the loaded drugs; PCA and CA was conducted in human body simulated PBS solutions of pH 7.4 (blood pH) and pH 4.8 (intracellular lysosomal pH). Anticancer properties were evaluated against cancerous cells i.e. liver cancer, HEPG2 and human colon cancer, HT-29 cells. The cytocompatbility was assessed on normal 3T3 fibroblasts cells.

CONCLUSION

The size of the final designed anticancer nanocomposite formulation, GOPEG-PCACA-FA was found to be distributed at 9-40 nm with a median of 8 nm. The in vitro release of the drugs PCA and CA was found to be of sustained manner which took more than 100 h for the release. Furthermore, the designed formulation was biocompatible with normal 3T3 cells and showed strong anticancer activity against liver and colon cancer cells.

Applications of graphene oxide in case of nanomedicines and nanocarriers for biomolecules: review study

In this Review article, recent progress in matter of graphene oxide (GO) synthesis and its functionalization via a vast range of materials, including small molecules, polymers, and biomolecules, were reported and systematically summarized in order to overcome the inherent drawbacks of GO nanocarriers and thereby make these nanocarriers suitable for delivering chemotherapeutic agents, genes, and short interfering RNAs. Briefly, this work describes current strategies for the large scale production of GO and modification of graphene-based nanocarriers surfaces through practical chemical approaches, improving their biocompatibility and declining their toxicity. It also describes the most relevant cases of study suitable to demonstrate the role of graphene and graphene derivatives (GD) as nanocarrier for anti-cancer drugs and genes (e.g. miRNAs). Moreover, the controlled release mechanisms within the cell compartments and blood pH for targeted therapeutics release in the acidic environment of tumor cells or in intracellular compartments are mentioned and explored.

Stability, Cellular Uptake, and in Vivo Tracking of Zwitterion Modified Graphene Oxide as a Drug Carrier

In this paper, a novel kind of zwitterion modified graphene oxide (GO) for promoting stability and reducing aggregation of GO as a drug carrier was proposed and demonstrated. Specifically, the GO was functionalized with a kind of zwitterion based silane, 3-(dimethyl(3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl)-ammonio)propane-1-sulfonate (SBS). After zwitterion modification, the SBS functionalized GO (GO-SB) shows significantly enhanced stability in both serum-free and serum-containing solution, especially after loading doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX). According to drug release profiles, the drug-loaded GO-SB exhibits thermosensitive and sustained release behavior. Meanwhile, in vitro studies show that the DOX loaded GO-SB could be easily internalized by HepG2 cells and exhibit obvious cytotoxicity on the cells. And, in vivo studies demonstrate that the GO-SB drug carrier is capable of being taken by the larvae of zebrafish and can be eliminated from the body within several days.

Reduction of graphene oxide alters its cyto-compatibility towards primary and immortalized macrophages

Graphene oxide (GO) and its derivatives (e.g., reduced graphene oxide, RGO) have shown great promise in biomedicine. Although many studies have been conducted to understand the relative cyto-compatibility between GO and RGO materials, the results are inconclusive and controversial. In this study, we compared the biocompatibility aspects (e.g. cytotoxicity, pro-inflammatory effects and impairment of cellular morphology) between parental and reduced GOs towards macrophages using primary bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) and J774A.1 cell line. Two RGOs (RGO1 and RGO2) with differential reduction levels relative to the parental GO were prepared. Intriguingly, besides loss of oxygen-containing functional groups, significant morphological alteration of GO occurred, from the sheet-like structure to a polygonal curled shape for RGO, without significant aggregation in biological medium. Cytotoxicity assessment unveiled that the RGOs were more toxic than pristine GO to both types of cells. It was surprising to find for the first time (to our knowledge) that GO and RGOs elicited different effects on the morphological changes of BMDMs, as reflected by elongated protrusions from GO treatment and shortened protrusions from the RGOs. Furthermore, RGOs induced greater pro-inflammatory responses than GO, especially in BMDMs. Compromised cyto-compatibility of RGOs was attributable (at least partially) to their greater oxidative stress in macrophages. Mechanistically, these differences in bio-reactivities between GO and RGO should be boiled down to (at least in part) the synergistic effects from the variation of oxygen-containing functional groups and the distinct morphology in between. This study unearthed the crucial contribution of reduction-mediated detrimental cellular effects between GO and RGO towards macrophages.

A Review on Graphene-Based Nanomaterials in Biomedical Applications and Risks in Environment and Health

Graphene-based nanomaterials (GBNs) have attracted increasing interests of the scientific community due to their unique physicochemical properties and their applications in biotechnology, biomedicine, bioengineering, disease diagnosis and therapy. Although a large amount of researches have been conducted on these novel nanomaterials, limited comprehensive reviews are published on their biomedical applications and potential environmental and human health effects. The present research aimed at addressing this knowledge gap by examining and discussing: (1) the history, synthesis, structural properties and recent developments of GBNs for biomedical applications; (2) GBNs uses as therapeutics, drug/gene delivery and antibacterial materials; (3) GBNs applications in tissue engineering and in research as biosensors and bioimaging materials; and (4) GBNs potential environmental effects and human health risks. It also discussed the perspectives and challenges associated with the biomedical applications of GBNs.

Reversing Multidrug Resistance by Multiplexed Gene Silencing for Enhanced Breast Cancer Chemotherapy

Multidrug resistance (MDR), as one of the main problems in clinical breast cancer chemotherapy, is closely related with the over expression of drug efflux transporter P-glycoprotein (P-gp). In this study, a novel drug-loaded nanosystem was developed for inhibiting the P-gp expression and reversing MDR by multiplexed gene silencing, which composes of graphene oxide (GO) modified with two molecular beacons (MBs) and Doxorubicin (Dox). When the nanosystem was uptaken by the MDR breast cancer cells, Dox was released in the acidic endosomes and MBs were hybridized with target sequences. The intracellular multidrug resistance 1 (MDR1) mRNA and upstream erythroblastosis virus E26 oncogene homolog 1 (ETS1) mRNA can be silenced by MBs, which can effectively inhibit the expression of P-gp and further prevent the efflux of Dox and reverse MDR. In vitro and in vivo studies indicated that the strategy of reversing MDR by multiplexed gene silencing could obviously increase MCF-7/Adr cells' Dox accumulation and enormously enhance the therapeutic efficacy of MDR breast cancer chemotherapy.

Switching off the interactions between graphene oxide and doxorubicin using vitamin C: combining simplicity and efficiency in drug delivery

Delivery of doxorubicin using graphene oxide is remarkably improved by adding a little amount of vitamin C.

Mini Review: Nanosheet Technology towards Biomedical Application

The fabrication technique of ultrathin film (commonly known as nanosheets) has been significantly developed over the years. Due to the mechanical properties of nanosheets, such as high levels of adhesion and flexibility, this made nanosheets the ideal candidate in biomedical applications. In this review, innovative biomedical applications of nanosheets are discussed, which include, drug delivery, wound treatment, and functional nanosheets towards flexible biodevices, etc. Finally, the future outlook of nanosheet technology towards a biomedical application is discussed.

Graphene- gold based nanocomposites applications in cancer diseases; Efficient detection and therapeutic tools

Early detection and efficient treatment of cancer disease remains a drastic challenge in 21st century. Throughout the bulk of funds, studies, and current therapeutics, cancer seems to aggressively advance with drug resistance strains and recurrence rates. Nevertheless, nanotechnologies have indeed given hope to be the next generation for oncology applications. According to US National cancer institute, it is anticipated to revolutionize the perspectives of cancer diagnosis and therapy. With such success, nano-hybrid strategy creates a marvelous preference. Herein, graphene-gold based composites are being increasingly studied in the field of oncology, for their outstanding performance as robust vehicle of therapeutic agents, built-in optical diagnostic features, and functionality as theranostic system. Additional modes of treatments are also applicable including photothermal, photodynamic, as well as combined therapy. This review aims to demonstrate the various cancer-related applications of graphene-gold based hybrids in terms of detection and therapy, highlighting the major attributes that led to designate such system as a promising ally in the war against cancer.

High efficient anti-cancer drug delivery systems using tea polyphenols reduced and functionalized graphene oxide

Targeted drug delivery is urgently needed for cancer therapy, and green synthesis is important for the biomedical use of drug delivery systems in the human body. In this work, we report two targeted delivery systems for anticancer drugs based on tea polyphenol functionalized and reduced graphene oxide (TPGs). The obtained TPGs demonstrated an efficient doxorubicin loading capacity as high as 3.430 × 106 mg g−1 and 3.932 × 104 mg g−1, and exhibited pH-triggered release. Furthermore, the kinetic models, adsorption isotherms, and possible loading mechanisms were investigated in details. Compared to TPG1 and free doxorubicin, TPG2 is biocompatible to normal cells even at high concentrations and promotes tumor cells death by delivering the doxorubicin mainly to the nuclei. These results were confirmed using cell viability tests and confocal laser microscopy. Moreover, apoptosis tests showed that the mechanism of cancer cell death induced by TPG1 and TPG2 might follow the similar mechanisms. Taken together, these results demonstrate that TPGs provide a multifunctional drug delivery system with a greater loading capacity and pH-sensitive drug release for enhanced cancer therapy. The high drug payload capability and enhanced antitumor efficacy demonstrate that we developed systems are promising for various biomedical applications and cancer therapy.

Inorganic Nanocarriers Overcoming Multidrug Resistance for Cancer Theranostics

Cancer multidrug resistance (MDR) could lead to therapeutic failure of chemotherapy and radiotherapy, and has become one of the main obstacles to successful cancer treatment. Some advanced drug delivery platforms, such as inorganic nanocarriers, demonstrate a high potential for cancer theranostic to overcome the cancer-specific limitation of conventional low-molecular-weight anticancer agents and imaging probes. Specifically, it could achieve synergetic therapeutic effects, demonstrating stronger killing effects to MDR cancer cells by combining the inorganic nanocarriers with other treatment manners, such as RNA interference and thermal therapy. Moreover, the inorganic nanocarriers could provide imaging functions to help monitor treatment responses, e.g., drug resistance and therapeutic effects, as well as analyze the mechanism of MDR by molecular imaging modalities. In this review, the mechanisms involved in cancer MDR and recent advances of applying inorganic nanocarriers for MDR cancer imaging and therapy are summarized. The inorganic nanocarriers may circumvent cancer MDR for effective therapy and provide a way to track the therapeutic processes for real-time molecular imaging, demonstrating high performance in studying the interaction of nanocarriers and MDR cancer cells/tissues in laboratory study and further shedding light on elaborate design of nanocarriers that could overcome MDR for clinical translation.

Graphene-based nanosheets for delivery of chemotherapeutics and biological drugs

Graphene-based nanosheets (GNS), including graphenes, graphene oxides and reduced graphene oxides, have properties suitable for delivery of various molecules. With their two-dimensional structures, GNS provide relatively high surface areas and capacity for non-covalent π-π stacking and hydrophobic interactions with various drug molecules. Currently, GNS-based delivery applications extend to chemotherapeutics as well as biological drugs, including nucleic acid drugs, proteins, and peptides. Surfaces of GNS have been modified with various polymers, such as polyethylene glycol and biopolymers, which enhance biocompatibility and increase drug loading. Anticancer drugs are prominent among chemotherapeutic agents tested, and have been loaded onto GNS with relatively high loading capacities compared with other nanocarriers. For enhanced distribution to specific tissues, GNS have been covalently or non-covalently modified with targeting ligands, including folic acid, transferrins, and others. In this review, we cover the current status of GNS for delivery of anticancer chemotherapeutics and biological drugs, with a focus on nucleic acid drugs. Remaining challenges for the application of GNS for drug-delivery systems and future perspectives are also addressed.

A Graphene Oxide-Based Sensing Platform for the Determination of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Based on Strand-Displacement Polymerization Recycling and Synchronous Fluorescent Signal Amplification

To develop new technology for detecting methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), a novel fluorescent biosensor based on Klenow fragment (KF)-assisted target recycling amplification and synchronous fluorescence analysis was created. Carboxy-fluorescein (FAM)-labeled single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) containing a capture probe and a signal probe was adsorbed onto the surface of graphene oxide (GO) via π-stacking interactions, resulting in the fluorescence quenching of the dye. When target and primer were introduced, the fluorescence was restored due to P0 being completely released from the surface of the GO. Meanwhile, by using the KF and exploiting the synergistic effect of FAM and the double-stranded DNA (dsDNA)-SYBR Green I duplex structure, the fluorescence in this detection system was considerably amplified and the sensitivity was improved. The proposed strategy for mecA gene analysis showed a good linear range from 1 to 40 nmol/L, with a lower limit of detection of 0.5 nmol/L. In addition, a bacterial sample harboring the mecA gene was also detected, and its lower detection limit was up to 300 colony-forming units (CFU)/mL. Accordingly, this biosensor exhibits high sensitivity and selectivity and has great potential for early clinical diagnosis and treatment.

Synthesis, toxicity, biocompatibility, and biomedical applications of graphene and graphene-related materials

Graphene is a two-dimensional atomic crystal, and since its development it has been applied in many novel ways in both research and industry. Graphene possesses unique properties, and it has been used in many applications including sensors, batteries, fuel cells, supercapacitors, transistors, components of high-strength machinery, and display screens in mobile devices. In the past decade, the biomedical applications of graphene have attracted much interest. Graphene has been reported to have antibacterial, antiplatelet, and anticancer activities. Several salient features of graphene make it a potential candidate for biological and biomedical applications. The synthesis, toxicity, biocompatibility, and biomedical applications of graphene are fundamental issues that require thorough investigation in any kind of applications related to human welfare. Therefore, this review addresses the various methods available for the synthesis of graphene, with special reference to biological synthesis, and highlights the biological applications of graphene with a focus on cancer therapy, drug delivery, bio-imaging, and tissue engineering, together with a brief discussion of the challenges and future perspectives of graphene. We hope to provide a comprehensive review of the latest progress in research on graphene, from synthesis to applications.

Hyaluronic acid-coated poly(β-amino) ester nanoparticles as carrier of doxorubicin for overcoming drug resistance in breast cancer cells

Hyaluronic acid-coated poly(β-amino) ester nanoparticles used as carrier for doxorubicin could efficiently overcome the drug resistance in breast cancer cells.