Application of carbon nanostructures in biomedicine: realities, difficulties, prospects

The review systematizes data on the wide possibilities of practical application of carbon nanostructures. Much attention is paid to the use of carbon nanomaterials in medicine for the visualization of tumors during surgical interventions, in the creation of cosmetics, as well as in agriculture in the creation of fertilizers. Additionally, we demonstrate trends in research in the field of carbon nanomaterials with a view to elaborating targeted drug delivery systems. We also show the creation of nanosized medicinal substances and diagnostic systems, and the production of new biomaterials. A separate section is devoted to the difficulties in studying carbon nanomaterials. The review is intended for a wide range of readers, as well as for experts in the field of nanotechnology and nanomedicine.

C60 adduct with L-arginine as a promising nanomaterial for treating cerebral ischemic stroke

The work aimed to investigate the biocompatibility and biological activity of the water-soluble fullerene adduct C60-Arg. It was found that the material is haemocompatible, is not cyto- and genotoxic, possesses pronounced antioxidant activity. Additionally, this paper outlines the direction of application of water-soluble fullerene adducts in the creation of neuroprotectors. It has been suggested that a putative mechanism of the protective action of the C60-Arg adduct is associated with its antioxidant properties, the ability to penetrate the blood-brain barrier, and release nitrogen monoxide as a result of the catabolism of L-arginine residues, which promote vascular relaxation. The action of the C60-Arg adduct was compared with the action of such an antioxidant as Edaravone, which is approved in Japan for the treatment of ischemic and haemorrhagic strokes.

Graphene oxide enriched with oxygen-containing groups: on the way to an increase of antioxidant activity and biocompatibility

The article is dedicated to the comprehensive biocompatibility investigation of synthesised graphene oxide (GO) enriched with oxygen-containing functional groups (⁓85%). GO was synthesised through a modified Hummers and Offeman's method and characterised using ¹³C NMR, Raman, and IR spectroscopy, XRD, HRTEM, along with size dimensions and ζ-potentials in aqueous dispersions. Biocompatibility study included tests on haemocompatibility (haemolysis, platelet aggregation, binding to human serum albumin and its esterase activity), antioxidant activity (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl reaction, NO-radical uptake, Radachlorin photobleaching, photo-induced haemolysis), genotoxicity using DNA comet assay, as well as metabolic activity and proliferation of HEK293 cells.

Graphene Oxide of Extra High Oxidation: A Wafer for Loading Guest Molecules

We present a new modification of graphene oxide with very high content (85 wt %) of oxygen-containing functional groups (hydroxy, epoxy, lactol, carboxyl, and carbonyl groups) that forms stable aqueous dispersion in up to 9 g·L^-1 concentration solutions. A novel faster method of the synthesis is described that produces up to 1 kg of the material and allows controlling the particle size in solution. The synthesized compound was characterized by various physicochemical methods and molecular dynamics modeling, revealing a unique structure in the form of a multilayered wafer of several sheets thick, where each sheet is highly corrugated. The ragged structure of the sheets forms pockets with hindered mobility of water that leads to the possibility of trapping guest molecules.

In Vitro and In Silico Investigation of Water-Soluble Fullerenol C60(OH)24: Bioactivity and Biocompatibility

Light fullerenes, C₆₀ and C₇₀, have significant potential in biomedical applications due to their ability to absorb reactive oxygen species, inhibit the development of tumors, inactivate viruses and bacteria, and as the basis for developing systems for targeted drug delivery. However, the hydrophobicity of individual fullerenes complicates their practical use; therefore, creating water-soluble derivatives of fullerenes is increasingly important. Currently, the most studied soluble adducts of fullerenes are polyhydroxy fullerenes or fullerenols. Unfortunately, investigations of fullerenol biocompatibility are fragmental. They often lack reproducibility both in the synthesis of the compounds and their biological action. We here investigate the biocompatibility of a well-defined fullerenol C₆₀(OH)₂₄ obtained using methods that minimize the content of impurities and quantitatively characterize the product's composition. We carry out comprehensive biochemical and biophysical investigations of C₆₀(OH)₂₄ that include photodynamic properties, cyto- and genotoxicity, hemocompatibility (spontaneous and photo-induced hemolysis, platelet aggregation), and the thermodynamic characteristics of C₆₀(OH)₂₄ binding to human serum albumin and DNA. The performed studies show good biocompatibility of fullerenol C₆₀(OH)₂₄, which makes it a promising object for potential use in biomedicine.

Evaluation of the C60 biodistribution in mice in a micellar ExtraOx form and in an oil solution

The article is devoted to the study of the pharmacokinetics of fullerene C₆₀ in oil and micellar forms, analysis of its content in blood, liver, lungs, kidneys, heart, brain, adrenal glands, thymus, testicles, and spleen. The highest accumulation of C₆₀ was found in the liver and adrenal glands. As a result of the studies carried out, it was shown that the bioavailability of C₆₀ in the micellar form is higher than that in an oil solution.

Biocompatibility of a nanocomposite based on Aerosil 380 and carboxylated fullerene C60[C(COOH)2]3

Silica is silicon dioxide, which, depending on the production method, can exist in various amorphous forms with varying specific surface area, particle size, pore volume and size, and, as a result, with different physicochemical and sorption characteristics. The presence of silanol groups on the surface of silicas provides the possibility of its further functionalisation. In addition, the developed specific surface of Aerosil allows to obtain composites with a high content of biologically active substances. In this work, we studied the biocompatibility of a composite based on Aerosil 380 and carboxylated fullerene C₆₀[C(COOH)₂]₃, namely: haemolysis (spontaneous and photoinduced), platelet aggregation, binding to HSA, cyto- and genotoxicity, antiradical activity. Interest in the creation of this nanomaterial is due to the fact that carboxylated fullerenes have potential applications in various fields of biomedicine, including the ability to bind reactive oxygen species, inhibition of tumour development, inactivation of viruses and bacteria. The obtained composite can be used for the immobilisation of various drugs and the further development of drugs for theranostics.

Physicochemical properties, biological activity and biocompatibility of water-soluble C60-Hyp adduct

Amino acid adducts of light fullerenes have a potential of application in a variety of fields of biomedicine, that is reactive oxygen species scavenging activity, anticancer activity, viruses and bacteria inactivation etc. In this work, the water-soluble C₆₀ fullerene derivative with l-hydroxyproline (C₆₀(C₅H₉NO₃)₂, C₆₀-Hyp) was studied. Extensive biomedical investigation of this compound, namely, antiradical activity in the reaction with stable diphenylpicrylhydrazyl radical, the binding to human serum albumin, photodynamic properties, cytotoxicity in glioblastoma A172 and lung carcinoma A549 cell lines, erythrocytes haemolysis, platelet aggregation, genotoxicity on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells was conducted. Moreover, the dynamic and structural characteristics of C₆₀-Hyp-H₂O binary system were obtained using molecular dynamic (MD) method, and size distribution along with ζ-potentials of C₆₀-Hyp associates was measured.

Reduction and functionalization of graphene oxide with L-cysteine: Synthesis, characterization and biocompatibility

This article presents data on the synthesis, identification, computer simulation and biocompatibility of graphene oxide (GO) functionalized with L-cysteine (GFC). It was determined that GO reacts with L-cysteine in two different ways: in an alkaline medium, L-cysteine reduces functional groups on the surface and at the boundaries of GO; with heating and the use of thionyl chloride, L-cysteine covalently attaches to GO through carboxylic groups only at the boundaries. The identification of GO, reduced graphene oxide and GFC was performed using various physicochemical methods, including infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, scanning electron microscopy and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy. Biocompatibility experiments included erythrocyte hemolysis, platelet aggregation, photodynamic and antiradical activity, binding to human serum albumin, and geno- and cytotoxicity studies. Applying density functional theory and molecular dynamics allowed us to obtain the structural and dynamic characteristics of a GFC-water binary system.

Biological evaluation and molecular dynamics simulation of water-soluble fullerene derivative C60[C(COOH)2]3

One of the most studied fullerene members, C₆₀, has a potential of application in various fields of biomedicine including reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging activity, inhibiting of tumours development, inactivating of viruses and bacteria, as well as elaboration of diagnostic and targeted drug delivery tools. However, the hydrophobicity of this molecule impedes its practical use, therefore the actuality of the research devoted to functionalisation of fullerenes leading to amphiphilic derivatives remains important. In this work, the water-soluble carboxylated fullerene derivative C₆₀[C(COOH)₂]₃ was studied. Extensive biomedical investigation of this compound, namely, the binding with human serum albumin (HSA), radical scavenging activity in the reaction with diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical, photodynamic properties, cytotoxicity in human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cell line, erythrocytes' haemolysis, platelet aggregation, and genotoxicity in human peripheral mononuclear cells (PBMC) was conducted. Moreover, the dynamic and structural characteristics of C₆₀[C(COOH)₂]₃-H₂O binary system were obtained using molecular dynamic (MD) method, and size distribution of C₆₀[C(COOH)₂]₃ associates was measured.

[Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgeries for thoracic diseases and trauma]

The experience of videothoracoscopic operations, performed for various diseases of the thoracic organs, was summarized. The reduction of the operation traumaticity, the complications rate, lethality, the patients rehabilitation duration permits to consider videothoracoscopic operations as the method of choice in many thoracic diseases and trauma.

[Application of early videothoracoscopic pulmonary decortication in the treatment of an acute pleural empyema and suppurated clotted hemothorax]

There was presented the experience of performance of videothoracoscopic pulmonary decortications in 22 patients, suffering suppurated clotted hemothorax, and in 188--an acute pleural empyema. In 97.3% patients the cessation of purulent process and pulmonary volume restoration were achieved. Residual cavities with the pulmonary nonairtightness signs were revealed in 3 (1.4%) patients, the empyema recurrence--in 1 (0.5%), suppuration of the wound, made by thoracic port--in 1 (0.5%), all the patients are alive.

[Endoscopic operations on the trachea and bronchi]

The experience of performance of 1425 endoscopic recanalization operations, done in 864 patients for the tumor and cicatricial stenosis of trachea and bronchi, was summarized. The methods were depicted of endoscopic destruction as a definite treatment or as a successful stage of the combined treatment. The possibility there was shown of the lasers and electrocoagulation application for the respiratory ways stenosis recanalization. The passability of respiratory ways restoration was achieved in 85.2% of patients. Lethality after endoscopic operations had constituted 1.6%.

[Methods of videothoracoscopic biopsy of lung]

The biopsy of lung with the purpose of pathological process verification is an obligatory condition in diagnostics of disseminated diseases of lungs. The methods of videothoracoscopic operations and video-assisted biopsy of lung at 37 patients are described, their advantages and deficiencies. The duration of pain syndrome, cosmetic effect depending on the method of operative intervention and using of domestic or foreign sewing together vehicles were considered. Morphological verification is got in all patients. All patients alive.

[Endoscopic recanalization of the respiratory ways as the stage of radical surgical treatment of tracheal and bronchial stenosis of tumoral origin]

The experience of the laser and electrocoagulational recanalization conduction of the respiratory ways stenosis portions in 118 patients with respiratory organs tumors was summarized. There was established the probability of the recanalization application for tumoral and cicatricial tracheobronchial stenosis. The advantages of various bronchoplastic operations application after performance of endoscopic recanalization of tracheobronchial tree were noted. After performance of endoscopic recanalization of respiratory ways all the patients are alive.

[Surgical treatment of spontaneous and traumatic pneumothorax]

The ten-year experience of the regional hospital thoracic department in treatment of 723 patients with spontaneous pneumothorax and 678 injured persons, suffering complicated thoracic trauma, was summarizd. The tactic and methods of treatment of such patients, using modern technologies and endoscopic operations, was depicted. Comparative analysis of the different methods efficacy, their results, advantages and faults estimation were conducted. Recommendations for application of every method of treatment in various clinical situations were adduced.

[Endoscopic surgery of trachea and bronchi]

More than twenty-year experience of performance of endoscopic laser operation (ELO) on trachea and bronchi in patients with malignant and benign tumors was summarized. Cancer of trachea and bronchi of I-II stages was noted in 3, of III stage--in 384, of IV stage--in 205 patients, adenoma of bronchus--in 13. Technical possibilities of Nd-YAG laser were demonstrated. The immediate and follow-up results of operative intervention, subsequent possibilities of combined treatment of patients using, after ELO conduction, the extended intervention in combination with radiation therapy and chemotherapy.

[Synchronous two-team surgeries of cancer and cicatricial stenosis of the esophagus]

The experience of two-brigade operations concerning a cancer of the esophagus and its cicatrical strictures in 47 patients is reduced. The method of operations performation and their advantage above one-brigade interventions is circumscribed. The complications, and also their matching with standard procedures of operative measures are reduced. The prospects for the development of two-brigade operations are construed.

[Surgical laser application in thoracic surgery. Potential and critical evaluation]

A 25-year experience of pulmonary and pleural surgery in 348 patients, reconstructive esophageal operations in 74 patients, bronchoscopic interventions using different laser techniques--in 925 patients, and thoracoscopic operations of traumatic and spontaneous pneumothorax--in 150 patients has been summarized. The methods of laser pulmonary resection, processing of bronchial stump, fibrous capsule, pleurodesis, stitching of esophagogastric, esophagointestinal and interintestinal anastomoses and of bronchoscopic photo destruction of tracheal and bronchial tumors have been described. Haemostatic, bactericidal and ablastic properties of laser have been described. Lasers were used in miniinvasive thoracic surgery for thoracoscopic and videothoracoscopic interventions.

[Experience of surgical treatment of the thymic gland tumors]

The forty-years experience of treatment of 125 patients with thymic gland tumors was summarized, in 113 of them thymoma was revealed. In the disease of I-II stages the five-year survival index had constituted 75.6%, and in III-IV stages the method of choice is combined treatment, after which the five-years survival index does not exceed 31.2%. It is necessary to perform additional studying of factors, influencing the result of treatment of the thymic gland tumor.

[The use of a portable CO2 laser in thoracic surgery]

The results of the thoracic operations conduction using a portable CO2 laser LST-20/01 in 93 patients were analyzed. The advantages and shortages of the laser technique are noted.

[Endoscopic laser operations on the trachea and bronchi]

The result of 596 laser endoscopic operations in 368 patients with tracheobronchial tumor was analyzed. In 175 (47.5%) patients the complete recanalization of stenosis was noted, in 119 (32.4%)--partial and in 74 (20.1%)--treatment was uneffective. In 9 (3.4%) patients the complications occurred.

[Genotypic dispersion and covariance between relatives under linkage disequilibrium]

A random mating diploid population under linkage disequilibrium is considered. In the case of two diallelic loci, the problem about condition and joint distributions of genotypes of relatives being in arbitrary genetic relations is solved. Formulae of the partitioning of genotypic variance and covariance between relatives with respect to a polygenic character are inferred (in the case of many characters - of genotypic covariance matrix).

[Algorithm for calculating the probabilities of the identity of genes by descent in arbitrary pedigrees]

For an arbitrary locus (autosomal or X-linked), comprehensive enumeration of different variants of genes' identity by descent for two individuals is given. The algorithm for computation of probability of every variant is described for any two individuals in arbitrary pedigree. On the basis of the algorithm proposed, the problem of computation of Malecot's "coefficient de parente" and inbreeding coefficient is solved under sex-linked transmission. It has been also shown that the approach described is the most common method for solution of a problem of partitioning of covariances among relatives on genotypic components of the variance.

[Identification of the effects of the X chromosome in component partitioning of phenotypic variance]

General measure of phenotypic variation in a population of unlike-sex relatives is discussed. A novel method is suggested for a component partitioning genotypic variance and covariances between relatives in a system with an arbitrary number of independent loci (autosomal, homosomal, polyallelic). The method is based on the use of component partitioning of phenotypic variance in systems of different types of loci. The table of numerical coefficients of component partitioning of covariances between relatives of common genetic classes is presented.

[Table method of component partition of phenotypic dispersion for identifying the X chromosome effect based on correlations between relatives]

The tables are proposed which allow to ease and to unificate component variance partitioning based on the "least squares method" in the case of sex-linked genes effect. This approach is directed to partial solving of tasks when the given correlations do not allow the complete component partition. Variants are considered for additive gonosomic variance identification, for additive and dominant autosomic variances and common environmental components for twins. To use these tables, the existence of correlations among twins or offspring-parent and siblings discriminated by sex is needed.