Development of a cost-effective automated platform to produce human liver spheroids for basic and applied research

Screening a Compound Library to Identify Additives That Boost Cytochrome P450 Enzyme Function in Vascularised Liver Spheres

To accurately study human organ function and disease 'in the dish', it is necessary to develop reliable cell-based models that closely track human physiology. Our interest lay with the liver, which is the largest solid organ in the body. The liver is a multifunctional and highly regenerative organ; however, severe liver damage can have dire consequences for human health. A common cause of liver damage is adverse reactions to prescription drugs. Therefore, the development of predictive liver models that capture human drug metabolism patterns is required to optimise the drug development process. In our study, we aimed to identify compounds that could improve the metabolic function of stem cell-derived liver tissue. Therefore, we screened a compound library to identify additives that improved the maturity of in vitro-engineered human tissue, with the rationale that by taking such an approach, we would be able to fine-tune neonatal and adult cytochrome P450 metabolic function in stem cell-derived liver tissue.

Revolutionizing Drug Discovery: The Impact of Distinct Designs and Biosensor Integration in Microfluidics-Based Organ-on-a-Chip Technology

Traditional drug development is a long and expensive process with high rates of failure. This has prompted the pharmaceutical industry to seek more efficient drug development frameworks, driving the emergence of organ-on-a-chip (OOC) based on microfluidic technologies. Unlike traditional animal experiments, OOC systems provide a more accurate simulation of human organ microenvironments and physiological responses, therefore offering a cost-effective and efficient platform for biomedical research, particularly in the development of new medicines. Additionally, OOC systems enable quick and real-time analysis, high-throughput experimentation, and automation. These advantages have shown significant promise in enhancing the drug development process. The success of an OOC system hinges on the integration of specific designs, manufacturing techniques, and biosensors to meet the need for integrated multiparameter datasets. This review focuses on the manufacturing, design, sensing systems, and applications of OOC systems, highlighting their design and sensing capabilities, as well as the technical challenges they currently face.

Human iPSC-derived liver co-culture spheroids to model liver fibrosis

The lack of adequate humanin vitromodels that recapitulate the cellular composition and response of the human liver to injury hampers the development of anti-fibrotic drugs. The goal of this study was to develop a human spheroid culture model to study liver fibrosis by using induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived liver cells. iPSCs were independently differentiated towards hepatoblasts (iHepatoblasts), hepatic stellate cells (iHSCs), endothelial cells (iECs) and macrophages (iMΦ), before assembly into free floating spheroids by culturing cells in 96-well U-bottom plates and orbital shaking for up to 21 days to allow further maturation. Through transcriptome analysis, we show further maturation of iECs and iMΦ, the differentiation of the iHepatoblasts towards hepatocyte-like cells (iHeps) and the inactivation of the iHSCs by the end of the 3D culture. Moreover, these cultures display a similar expression of cell-specific marker genes (CYP3A4, PDGFRβ, CD31andCD68) and sensitivity to hepatotoxicity as spheroids made using freshly isolated primary human liver cells. Furthermore, we show the functionality of the iHeps and the iHSCs by mimicking liver fibrosis through iHep-induced iHSC activation, using acetaminophen. In conclusion, we have established a reproducible human iPSC-derived liver culture model that can be used to mimic fibrosisin vitroas a replacement of primary human liver derived 3D models. The model can be used to investigate pathways involved in fibrosis development and to identify new targets for chronic liver disease therapy.

Early interferon lambda production is induced by double-stranded RNA in iPS-derived hepatocyte-like cells

Hepatotropic viruses are amongst the most ubiquitous pathogens worldwide, causing significant morbidity and mortality. As hepatocytes are among the primary targets of these viruses, their ability to mount early effective innate defence responses is of major research interest. Interferon lambda (IFNL) is produced early in response to viral stimulation in other cell types, but hepatocyte production of this interferon is little investigated. Due to the difficulty and significant costs in obtaining and culturing human primary hepatocytes, surrogate systems are widely sought. Here we used induced pluripotent stem (iPS)-derived hepatocyte-like cells (HLCs) to investigate hepatic IFNL expression in response to viral-like ligands. We demonstrate that hepatocytes rely on cytoplasmic pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) such as Protein Kinase RNA-dependent (PKR) and retinoic acid-inducible gene-I (RIG-I)-like receptors (RLR) for the detection of double stranded RNA. Stimulation of HLCs by viral-like RNA ligands activating cytosolic RNA sensors resulted in thousand fold increase of type III interferon gene expression. These results are in contrast with type I IFN expression, which was induced to a lower extent. Concomitant induction of interferon stimulated genes, such as interferon-stimulated gene 15 (ISG15) and CXCL10, indicated the ability of HLCs to activate interferon-dependent activity. These results demonstrate that HLCs mount an innate antiviral response upon stimulation with viral-like RNA characterized by the induction of type III IFN.

Bioengineering vascularized liver tissue for biomedical research and application

The liver performs a wide range of biological functions that are essential to body homeostasis. Damage to liver tissue can result in reduced organ function, and if chronic in nature can lead to organ scarring and progressive disease. Currently, donor liver transplantation is the only longterm treatment for end-stage liver disease. However, orthotopic organ transplantation suffers from several drawbacks that include organ scarcity and lifelong immunosuppression. Therefore, new therapeutic strategies are required. One promising strategy is the engineering of implantable and vascularized liver tissue. This resource could also be used to build the next generation of liver tissue models to better understand human health, disease and aging in vitro. This article reviews recent progress in the field of liver tissue bioengineering, including microfluidic-based systems, bio-printed vascularized tissue, liver spheroids and organoid models, and the induction of angiogenesis in vivo.

Therapeutic approaches of cell therapy based on stem cells and terminally differentiated cells: Potential and effectiveness

Cell-based therapy, as a promising regenerative medicine approach, has been a promising and effective strategy to treat or even cure various kinds of diseases and conditions. Generally, two types of cells are used in cell therapy, the first is the stem cell, and the other is a fully differentiated cell. Initially, all cells in the body are derived from stem cells. Based on the capacity, potency and differentiation potential of stem cells, there are four types: totipotent (produces all somatic cells plus perinatal tissues), pluripotent (produces all somatic cells), multipotent (produces many types of cells), and unipotent (produces a particular type of cells). All non-totipotent stem cells can be used for cell therapy, depending on their potency and/or disease state/conditions. Adult fully differentiated cell is another cell type for cell therapy that is isolated from adult tissues or obtained following the differentiation of stem cells. The cells can then be transplanted back into the patient to replace damaged or malfunctioning cells, promote tissue repair, or enhance the targeted organ's overall function. With increasing science and knowledge in biology and medicine, different types of techniques have been developed to obtain efficient cells to use for therapeutic approaches. In this study, the potential and opportunity of use of all cell types, both stem cells and fully differentiated cells, are reviewed.

Automated cell culture system for the production of cell aggregates with growth plate-like structure from induced pluripotent stem cells

Programmable liquid handling devices for cell culture systems have dramatically enhanced scalability and reproducibility. We previously reported a protocol to produce cell aggregates demonstrating growth plate-like structures containing hypertrophic chondrocytes from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs). To apply this protocol to large-scale drug screening for growth plate-related diseases, we adapted it to the automated cell culture system (ACCS) consisting of programmable liquid handling devices connected to CO2 incubators, a refrigerator, and labware feeders, designed for up to 4 batches with several cell culture plates culturing for several months. We developed a new program preparing culture media with growth factors at final concentration immediately before dispensing them to each well and precisely positioning the tip for the medium change without damaging cell aggregates. Using these programs on the ACCS, we successfully cultured cell aggregates for 56 days, only needing to replenish the labware, medium, and growth factors twice a week. The size of cell aggregates in each well increased over time, with low well-to-well variability. Cell aggregates on day 56 showed histochemical, immunohistochemical, and gene expression properties of growth plate-like structures containing hypertrophic chondrocytes, indicating proper quality as materials for basic research and drug discovery of growth plate related diseases. The established program will be a suitable reference for making programs of experiments requiring long term and complex culture procedures using ACCS.

The third dimension of tumor microenvironment-The importance of tumor stroma in 3D cancer models

Recent advances in the three-dimensional (3D) cancer models give rise to a plethora of new possibilities in the development of anti-cancer drug therapies and bring us closer to personalized medicine. Three-dimensional models are undoubtedly more authentic than traditional two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures. Nowadays, they are becoming preferentially used in most cancer research fields due to their more accurate biomimetic characteristics. On the contrary, they still lack the cellular and matrix complexity of the native tumor microenvironment (TME). This review focuses on the description of existing 3D models, the incorporation of TME and fluidics into these models, and their perspective in the future research. It is clear that such an improvement would need not only biological but also technical progress. Therefore, the modern approach to anti-cancer drug discovery should involve various fields.

Unlocking the potential of stem cells: Their crucial role in the production of cultivated meat

Cellular agriculture is an emerging research field of agribiotechnology that aims to produce agricultural products using stem cells, without sacrificing animals or cultivating crops. Cultivated meat, as a representative cellular product of cellular agriculture, is being actively researched due to global food insecurity, environmental, and ethical concerns. This review focuses on the application of stem cells, which are the seeds of cellular agriculture, for the production of cultivated meat, with emphasis on deriving and culturing muscle and adipose stem cells for imitating fresh meat. Establishing standards and safety regulations for culturing stem cells is crucial for the market entry of cultured muscle tissue-based biomaterials. Understanding stem cells is a prerequisite for creating reliable cultivated meat and other cellular agricultural biomaterials. The techniques and regulations from the cultivated meat industry could pave the way for new cellular agriculture industries in the future.

Serum-Free Production of Human Stem Cell-Derived Liver Spheres for Cancer Metastasis Research

Renewable and scalable human liver tissue platforms are a powerful tool to study organ physiology and model diseases, such as cancer. Stem cell-derived models provide an alternative to cell lines, which can display limited relevance to primary cells and tissue. Historically, two-dimensional (2D) cultures have been used to model liver biology as they are easy to scale and deploy. However, 2D liver models lack functional diversity and phenotypic stability in long-term culture. To address those issues, protocols for generating the three-dimensional (3D) tissue aggregates have been developed. Here, we describe a methodology to generate 3D liver spheres from pluripotent stem cells. Liver spheres are composed of three key liver cell types (hepatic progenitor cells, endothelial cells, and hepatic stellate cells) and have been used to study human cancer cell metastasis.

The Influence of Interdisciplinary Work towards Advancing Knowledge on Human Liver Physiology

The knowledge accumulated throughout the years about liver regeneration has allowed a better understanding of normal liver physiology, by reconstructing the sequence of steps that this organ follows when it must rebuild itself after being injured. The scientific community has used several interdisciplinary approaches searching to improve liver regeneration and, therefore, human health. Here, we provide a brief history of the milestones that have advanced liver surgery, and review some of the new insights offered by the interdisciplinary work using animals, in vitro models, tissue engineering, or mathematical models to help advance the knowledge on liver regeneration. We also present several of the main approaches currently available aiming at providing liver support and overcoming organ shortage and we conclude with some of the challenges found in clinical practice and the ethical issues that have concomitantly emerged with the use of those approaches.

Setup of human liver-chips integrating 3D models, microwells and a standardized microfluidic platform as proof-of-concept study to support drug evaluation

Human 3D liver microtissues/spheroids are powerful in vitro models to study drug-induced liver injury (DILI) but the small number of cells per spheroid limits the models' usefulness to study drug metabolism. In this work, we scale up the number of spheroids on both a plate and a standardized organ-chip platform by factor 100 using a basic method which requires only limited technical expertise. We successfully generated up to 100 spheroids using polymer-coated microwells in a 96-well plate (= liver-plate) or organ-chip (= liver-chip). Liver-chips display a comparable cellular CYP3A4 activity, viability, and biomarker expression as liver spheroids for at least one week, while liver-plate cultures display an overall reduced hepatic functionality. To prove its applicability to drug discovery and development, the liver-chip was used to test selected reference compounds. The test system could discriminate toxicity of the DILI-positive compound tolcapone from its less hepatotoxic structural analogue entacapone, using biochemical and morphological readouts. Following incubation with diclofenac, the liver-chips had an increased metabolite formation compared to standard spheroid cultures. In summary, we generated a human liver-chip model using a standardized organ-chip platform which combines up to 100 spheroids and can be used for the evaluation of both drug safety and metabolism.

Nuclear factor programming improves stem-cell-derived hepatocyte phenotype

In this issue of Cell Stem Cell, Ma et al. demonstrate that the activation of the nuclear receptor thyroid hormone receptor beta (NR1A2) improves the differentiation status of hepatocyte-like cells derived from human pluripotent stem cells.

Serum-Free Production of Three-Dimensional Hepatospheres from Pluripotent Stem Cells

Developing renewable human liver tissue from stem cells has been pursued as a potential source of biological material for pharmaceutical and clinical endeavors. At present, two-dimensional differentiation procedures deliver tissue lacking long-term phenotypic and functional stability. Efforts to overcome these limiting factors have led to the development of protocols to generate three-dimensional cellular aggregates. Here we describe a methodology to generate 3D hepatospheres from human pluripotent stem cells using defined and commercially available reagents.

Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Hepatocytes Inhibit T Cell Proliferation In Vitro through Tryptophan Starvation

Regenerative medicine aims to replace damaged tissues by stimulating endogenous tissue repair or by transplanting autologous or allogeneic cells. Due to their capacity to produce unlimited numbers of cells of a given cell type, pluripotent stem cells, whether of embryonic origin or induced via the reprogramming of somatic cells, are of considerable therapeutic interest in the regenerative medicine field. However, regardless of the cell type, host immune responses present a barrier to success. The aim of this study was to investigate in vitro the immunological properties of human pluripotent stem cell (PSC)-derived hepatocyte-like cells (HLCs). These cells expressed MHC class I molecules while they lacked MHC class II and co-stimulatory molecules, such as CD80 and CD86. Following stimulation with IFN-γ, HLCs upregulated CD40, PD-L1 and MHC class I molecules. When co-cultured with allogeneic T cells, HLCs did not induce T cell proliferation; furthermore, when T cells were stimulated via αCD3/CD28 beads, HLCs inhibited their proliferation via IDO1 and tryptophan deprivation. These results demonstrate that PSC-derived HLCs possess immunoregulatory functions, at least in vitro.

Microfluidic arrays of dermal spheroids: a screening platform for active ingredients of skincare products

Organotypic micrometre-size 3D aggregates of skin cells (multicellular spheroids) have emerged as a promising in vitro model that can be utilized as an alternative of animal models to test active ingredients (AIs) of skincare products; however, a reliable dermal spheroid-based microfluidic (MF) model with a goal of in vitro AI screening is yet to be developed. Here, we report a MF platform for the growth of massive arrays of dermal fibroblast spheroids (DFSs) in a biomimetic hydrogel under close-to-physiological flow conditions and with the capability of screening AIs for skincare products. The DFSs formed after two days of on-chip culture and, in a case study, were used in a time-efficient manner for screening the effect of vitamin C on the synthesis of collagen type I and fibronectin. The computational simulation showed that the uptake of vitamin C was dominated by the advection flux. The results of screening the benchmark AI, vitamin C, proved that DFSs can serve as a reliable in vitro dermal model. The proposed DFS-based MF platform offers a high screening capacity for AIs of skincare products, as well as drug discovery and development in dermatology.

Challenges for the Applications of Human Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Liver Organoids

The current organoid culture systems allow pluripotent and adult stem cells to self-organize to form three-dimensional (3D) structures that provide a faithful recapitulation of the architecture and function of in vivo organs. In particular, human pluripotent stem cell-derived liver organoids (PSC-LOs) can be used in regenerative medicine and preclinical applications, such as disease modeling and drug discovery. New bioengineering tools, such as microfluidics, biomaterial scaffolds, and 3D bioprinting, are combined with organoid technologies to increase the efficiency of hepatic differentiation and enhance the functional maturity of human PSC-LOs by precise control of cellular microenvironment. Long-term stabilization of hepatocellular functions of in vitro liver organoids requires the combination of hepatic endodermal, endothelial, and mesenchymal cells. To improve the biological function and scalability of human PSC-LOs, bioengineering methods have been used to identify diverse and zonal hepatocyte populations in liver organoids for capturing heterogeneous pathologies. Therefore, constructing engineered liver organoids generated from human PSCs will be an extremely versatile tool in in vitro disease models and regenerative medicine in future. In this review, we aim to discuss the recent advances in bioengineering technologies in liver organoid culture systems that provide a timely and necessary study to model disease pathology and support drug discovery in vitro and to generate cell therapy products for transplantation.

Hepatitis B virus infection modeling using multi-cellular organoids derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells

Chronic infection with hepatitis B virus (HBV) remains a global health concern despite the availability of vaccines. To date, the development of effective treatments has been severely hampered by the lack of reliable, reproducible, and scalable in vitro modeling systems that precisely recapitulate the virus life cycle and represent virus-host interactions. With the progressive understanding of liver organogenesis mechanisms, the development of human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived hepatic sources and stromal cellular compositions provides novel strategies for personalized modeling and treatment of liver disease. Further, advancements in three-dimensional culture of self-organized liver-like organoids considerably promote in vitro modeling of intact human liver tissue, in terms of both hepatic function and other physiological characteristics. Combined with our experiences in the investigation of HBV infections using liver organoids, we have summarized the advances in modeling reported thus far and discussed the limitations and ongoing challenges in the application of liver organoids, particularly those with multi-cellular components derived from human iPSCs. This review provides general guidelines for establishing clinical-grade iPSC-derived multi-cellular organoids in modeling personalized hepatitis virus infection and other liver diseases, as well as drug testing and transplantation therapy.

Dimethyl fumarate reduces hepatocyte senescence following paracetamol exposure

Liver disease is a major cause of premature death. Oxidative stress in the liver represents a key disease driver. Compounds, such as dimethyl fumarate (DMF), can activate the antioxidant response and are used clinically to treat disease. In this study, we tested the protective properties of DMF before or after paracetamol exposure. Following DMF administration, Nrf2 nuclear translocation was tracked at the single-cell level and target gene transactivation confirmed. Next, the protective properties of DMF were examined following paracetamol exposure. Transcriptomic and biochemical analysis revealed that DMF rescue was underpinned by reduced Nf-kB and TGF-β signaling and cell senescence. Following on from these studies, we employed a Zebrafish model to study paracetamol exposure in vivo. We combined a genetically modified Zebrafish model, expressing green fluorescent protein exclusively in the liver, with automated microscopy. Pre-treatment with DMF, prior to paracetamol exposure, led to reduced liver damage in Zebrafish demonstrating protective properties.

Modeling human hepatic steatosis in pluripotent stem cell-derived hepatocytes

This protocol describes the production of hepatocyte-like cells (HLCs) from human pluripotent stem cells and how to induce hepatic steatosis, a condition characterized by intracellular lipid accumulation. Following differentiation to an HLC phenotype, intracellular lipid accumulation is induced with a steatosis induction cocktail, allowing the user to examine the cellular processes that underpin hepatic steatosis. Furthermore, the renewable nature of our system, on a defined genetic background, permits in-depth mechanistic analysis, which may facilitate therapeutic target identification in the future. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Sinton et al. (2021).

Protocol for automated production of human stem cell derived liver spheres

This protocol describes how to produce human liver spheres from pluripotent stem cell-derived hepatic progenitors, endothelial cells, and hepatic stellate cells. Liver spheres form by self-assembly in microwells, generating up to 73 spheres per well of a 96-well plate. This process was automated using liquid handling and pipetting systems, permitting cost-effective scale-up and reducing sphere variability. In its current form, this system provides a powerful tool to generate human liver tissue for disease modeling and drug screening.

For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Lucendo-Villarin et al. (2020) (https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/abbdb2).

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Protocol to produce and self-assemble hepatocytes, endothelial, and stellate cells

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Generation of an automated system for 3D liver sphere production

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Scalable production of phenotypically stable liver spheres for disease modeling

3D Cancer Models: The Need for a Complex Stroma, Compartmentalization and Stiffness

The use of tissue-engineered 3D models of cancer has grown in popularity with recent advances in the field of cancer research. 3D models are inherently more biomimetic compared to 2D cell monolayers cultured on tissue-culture plastic. Nevertheless 3D models still lack the cellular and matrix complexity of native tissues. This review explores different 3D models currently used, outlining their benefits and limitations. Specifically, this review focuses on stiffness and collagen density, compartmentalization, tumor-stroma cell population and extracellular matrix composition. Furthermore, this review explores the methods utilized in different models to directly measure cancer invasion and growth. Of the models evaluated, with PDX and in vivo as a relative "gold standard", tumoroids were deemed as comparable 3D cancer models with a high degree of biomimicry, in terms of stiffness, collagen density and the ability to compartmentalize the tumor and stroma. Future 3D models for different cancer types are proposed in order to improve the biomimicry of cancer models used for studying disease progression.

Development and Application of Endothelial Cells Derived From Pluripotent Stem Cells in Microphysiological Systems Models

The vascular endothelium is present in all organs and blood vessels, facilitates the exchange of nutrients and waste throughout different organ systems in the body, and sets the tone for healthy vessel function. Mechanosensitive in nature, the endothelium responds to the magnitude and temporal waveform of shear stress in the vessels. Endothelial dysfunction can lead to atherosclerosis and other diseases. Modeling endothelial function and dysfunction in organ systems in vitro, such as the blood-brain barrier and tissue-engineered blood vessels, requires sourcing endothelial cells (ECs) for these biomedical engineering applications. It can be difficult to source primary, easily renewable ECs that possess the function or dysfunction in question. In contrast, human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) can be sourced from donors of interest and renewed almost indefinitely. In this review, we highlight how knowledge of vascular EC development in vivo is used to differentiate induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) into ECs. We then describe how iPSC-derived ECs are being used currently in in vitro models of organ function and disease and in vivo applications.

Mathematical modelling of oxygen gradients in stem cell-derived liver tissue

A major bottleneck in the study of human liver physiology is the provision of stable liver tissue in sufficient quantity. As a result, current approaches to modelling human drug efficacy and toxicity rely heavily on immortalized human and animal cell lines. These models are informative but do possess significant drawbacks. To address the issues presented by those models, researchers have turned to pluripotent stem cells (PSCs). PSCs can be generated from defined genetic backgrounds, are scalable, and capable of differentiation to all the cell types found in the human body, representing an attractive source of somatic cells for in vitro and in vivo endeavours. Although unlimited numbers of somatic cell types can be generated in vitro, their maturation still remains problematic. In order to develop high fidelity PSC-derived liver tissue, it is necessary to better understand the cell microenvironment in vitro including key elements of liver physiology. In vivo a major driver of zonated liver function is the oxygen gradient that exists from periportal to pericentral regions. In this paper, we demonstrate how cell culture conditions for PSC-derived liver sphere systems can be optimised to recapitulate physiologically relevant oxygen gradients by using mathematical modelling. The mathematical model incorporates some often-understated features and mechanisms of traditional spheroid systems such as cell-specific oxygen uptake, media volume, spheroid size, and well dimensions that can lead to a spatially heterogeneous distribution of oxygen. This mathematical modelling approach allows for the calibration and identification of culture conditions required to generate physiologically realistic function within the microtissue through recapitulation of the in vivo microenvironment.

A human pluripotent stem cell model for the analysis of metabolic dysfunction in hepatic steatosis

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is currently the most prevalent form of liver disease worldwide. This term encompasses a spectrum of pathologies, from benign hepatic steatosis to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, which have, to date, been challenging to model in the laboratory setting. Here, we present a human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-derived model of hepatic steatosis, which overcomes inherent challenges of current models and provides insights into the metabolic rewiring associated with steatosis. Following induction of macrovesicular steatosis in hepatocyte-like cells using lactate, pyruvate, and octanoate (LPO), respirometry and transcriptomic analyses revealed compromised electron transport chain activity. 13C isotopic tracing studies revealed enhanced TCA cycle anaplerosis, with concomitant development of a compensatory purine nucleotide cycle shunt leading to excess generation of fumarate. This model of hepatic steatosis is reproducible, scalable, and overcomes the challenges of studying mitochondrial metabolism in currently available models.

Genome-wide expression changes induced by bisphenol A, F and S in human stem cell derived hepatocyte-like cells

The debate about possible adverse effects of bisphenol A (BPA) has been ongoing for decades. Bisphenol F (BPF) and S (BPS) have been suggested as “safer” alternatives. In the present study we used hepatocyte-like cells (HLCs) derived from the human embryonic stem cell lines Man12 and H9 to compare the three bisphenol derivatives. Stem cell-derived progenitors were produced using an established system and were exposed to BPA, BPF and BPS for 8 days during their transition to HLCs. Subsequently, we examined cell viability, inhibition of cytochrome P450 (CYP) activity, and genome-wide RNA profiles. Sub-cytotoxic, inhibitory concentrations (IC₅₀) of CYP3A were 20, 9.5 and 25 µM for BPA, BPF and BPS in Man12 derived HLCs, respectively. The corresponding concentrations for H9-derived HLCs were 19, 29 and 31 µM. These IC₅₀ concentrations were used to study global expression changes in this in vitro study and are higher than unconjugated BPA in serum of the general population. A large overlap of up- as well as downregulated genes induced by the three bisphenol derivatives was seen. This is at least 28-fold higher compared to randomly expected gene expression changes. Moreover, highly significant correlations of expression changes induced by the three bisphenol derivatives were obtained in pairwise comparisons. Dysregulated genes were associated with reduced metabolic function, cellular differentiation, embryonic development, cell survival and apoptosis. In conclusion, no major differences in cytochrome inhibitory activities of BPA, BPF and BPS were observed and gene expression changes showed a high degree of similarity.