Engineered proteins: redox properties and their applications

Adsorption of cytochrome c on different self-assembled monolayers: The role of surface chemistry and charge density

In this work, the adsorption behavior of cytochrome c (Cyt-c) on five different self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) (i.e., CH3-SAM, OH-SAM, NH2-SAM, COOH-SAM, and OSO3--SAM) was studied by combined parallel tempering Monte Carlo and molecular dynamics simulations. The results show that Cyt-c binds to the CH3-SAM through a hydrophobic patch (especially Ile81) and undergoes a slight reorientation, while the adsorption on the OH-SAM is relatively weak. Cyt-c cannot stably bind to the lower surface charge density (SCD, 7% protonation) NH2-SAM even under a relatively high ionic strength condition, while a higher SCD of 25% protonation promotes Cyt-c adsorption on the NH2-SAM. The preferred adsorption orientations of Cyt-c on the negatively-charged surfaces are very similar, regardless of the surface chemistry and the SCD. As the SCD increases, more counterions are attracted to the charged surfaces, forming distinct counterion layers. The secondary structure of Cyt-c is well kept when adsorbed on these SAMs except the OSO3--SAM surface. The deactivation of redox properties for Cyt-c adsorbed on the highly negatively-charged surface is due to the confinement of heme reorientation and the farther position of the central iron to the surfaces, as well as the relatively larger conformation change of Cyt-c adsorbed on the OSO3--SAM surface. This work may provide insightful guidance for the design of Cyt-c-based bioelectronic devices and controlled enzyme immobilization.

Innovative Strategies in X-ray Crystallography for Exploring Structural Dynamics and Reaction Mechanisms in Metabolic Disorders

Enzymes are crucial in metabolic processes, and their dysfunction can lead to severe metabolic disorders. Structural biology, particularly X-ray crystallography, has advanced our understanding of these diseases by providing 3D structures of pathological enzymes. However, traditional X-ray crystallography faces limitations, such as difficulties in obtaining suitable protein crystals and studying protein dynamics. X-ray free-electron lasers (XFELs) have revolutionized this field with their bright and brief X-ray pulses, providing high-resolution structures of radiation-sensitive and hard-to-crystallize proteins. XFELs also enable the study of protein dynamics through room temperature structures and time-resolved serial femtosecond crystallography, offering comprehensive insights into the molecular mechanisms of metabolic diseases. Understanding these dynamics is vital for developing effective therapies. This review highlights the contributions of protein dynamics studies using XFELs and synchrotrons to metabolic disorder research and their application in designing better therapies. It also discusses G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), which, though not enzymes, play key roles in regulating physiological systems and are implicated in many metabolic disorders.

Hydrogen bioelectrogeneration with pH-resilient and oxygen-tolerant cobalt apoenzyme-saccharide

Hydrogenases are enzymes that catalyze the reversible conversion of protons to hydrogen gas, using earth-abundant metals such as nickel and/or iron. This characteristic makes them promising for sustainable energy applications, particularly in clean hydrogen production. However, their widespread use faces challenges, including a limited pH range and susceptibility to oxygen. In response to these issues, SacCoMyo is introduced as an artificial enzyme. SacCoMyo is designed by replacing the native metal in the myoglobin (Myo) scaffold with a hydroxocobalamin (Co) porphyrin core and complemented by a protective heteropolysaccharide-linked (Sac) shell. This engineered protein proves to be resilient, maintaining robust functionality even in acidic environments and preventing denaturation in a pH 1 electrolyte. The cobalt porphyrin core of SacCoMyo reduces the activation overpotential for hydrogen generation. A high turnover frequency of about 2400 H2 s-1 is demonstrated in the presence of molecular oxygen, showcasing its potential in biohydrogen production and its ability to overcome the limitations associated with natural hydrogenases.

Fluctuation Relations to Calculate Protein Redox Potentials from Molecular Dynamics Simulations

The tunable design of protein redox potentials promises to open a range of applications in biotechnology and catalysis. Here, we introduce a method to calculate redox potential changes by combining fluctuation relations with molecular dynamics simulations. It involves the simulation of reduced and oxidized states, followed by the instantaneous conversion between them. Energy differences introduced by the perturbations are obtained using the Kubo-Onsager approach. Using a detailed fluctuation relation coupled with Bayesian inference, these are postprocessed into estimates for the redox potentials in an efficient manner. This new method, denoted MD + CB, is tested on a de novo four-helix bundle heme protein (the m4D2 "maquette") and five designed mutants, including some mutants characterized experimentally in this work. The MD + CB approach is found to perform reliably, giving redox potential shifts with reasonably good correlation (0.85) to the experimental values for the mutants. The MD + CB approach also compares well with redox potential shift predictions using a continuum electrostatic method. The estimation method employed within the MD + CB approach is straightforwardly transferable to standard equilibrium MD simulations and holds promise for redox protein engineering and design applications.

MESPEUS: a database of metal coordination groups in proteins

MESPEUS is a freely accessible database which uses carefully selected metal coordination groups found in metalloprotein structures taken from the Protein Data Bank. The database contains geometrical information of metal sites within proteins, including 40 metal types. In order to completely determine the metal coordination, the symmetry-related units of a given protein structure are taken into account and are generated using the appropriate space group symmetry operations. This permits a more complete description of the metal coordination geometry by including all coordinating atoms. The user-friendly web interface allows users to directly search for a metal site of interest using several useful options, including searching for metal elements, metal-donor distances, coordination number, donor residue group, and structural resolution. These searches can be carried out singly or in combination. The details of a metal site and the metal site(s) in the whole structure can be graphically displayed using the interactive web interface. MESPEUS is automatically updated monthly by synchronizing with the PDB database. An investigation for the Mg-ATP interaction is given to demonstrate how MESPEUS can be used to extract information about metal sites by selecting structure and coordination features. MESPEUS is available at http://mespeus.nchu.edu.tw/.

The energetics and evolution of oxidoreductases in deep time

The core metabolic reactions of life drive electrons through a class of redox protein enzymes, the oxidoreductases. The energetics of electron flow is determined by the redox potentials of organic and inorganic cofactors as tuned by the protein environment. Understanding how protein structure affects oxidation-reduction energetics is crucial for studying metabolism, creating bioelectronic systems, and tracing the history of biological energy utilization on Earth. We constructed ProtReDox (https://protein-redox-potential.web.app), a manually curated database of experimentally determined redox potentials. With over 500 measurements, we can begin to identify how proteins modulate oxidation-reduction energetics across the tree of life. By mapping redox potentials onto networks of oxidoreductase fold evolution, we can infer the evolution of electron transfer energetics over deep time. ProtReDox is designed to include user-contributed submissions with the intention of making it a valuable resource for researchers in this field.

Mechanisms and Opportunities for Rational In Silico Design of Enzymes to Degrade Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS)

Per and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) present a unique challenge to remediation techniques because their strong carbon-fluorine bonds make them difficult to degrade. This review explores the use of in silico enzymatic design as a potential PFAS degradation technique. The scope of the enzymes included is based on currently known PFAS degradation techniques, including chemical redox systems that have been studied for perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) defluorination, such as those that incorporate hydrated electrons, sulfate, peroxide, and metal catalysts. Bioremediation techniques are also discussed, namely the laccase and horseradish peroxidase systems. The redox potential of known reactants and enzymatic radicals/metal-complexes are then considered and compared to potential enzymes for degrading PFAS. The molecular structure and reaction cycle of prospective enzymes are explored. Current knowledge and techniques of enzyme design, particularly radical-generating enzymes, and application are also discussed. Finally, potential routes for bioengineering enzymes to enable or enhance PFAS remediation are considered as well as the future outlook for computational exploration of enzymatic in situ bioremediation routes for these highly persistent and globally distributed contaminants.

Structure of mycobacterial respiratory complex I

Oxidative phosphorylation, the combined activity of the electron transport chain (ETC) and adenosine triphosphate synthase, has emerged as a valuable target for the treatment of infection by Mycobacterium tuberculosis and other mycobacteria. The mycobacterial ETC is highly branched with multiple dehydrogenases transferring electrons to a membrane-bound pool of menaquinone and multiple oxidases transferring electrons from the pool. The proton-pumping type I nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) dehydrogenase (Complex I) is found in low abundance in the plasma membranes of mycobacteria in typical in vitro culture conditions and is often considered dispensable. We found that growth of Mycobacterium smegmatis in carbon-limited conditions greatly increased the abundance of Complex I and allowed isolation of a rotenone-sensitive preparation of the enzyme. Determination of the structure of the complex by cryoEM revealed the "orphan" two-component response regulator protein MSMEG_2064 as a subunit of the assembly. MSMEG_2064 in the complex occupies a site similar to the proposed redox-sensing subunit NDUFA9 in eukaryotic Complex I. An apparent purine nucleoside triphosphate within the NuoG subunit resembles the GTP-derived molybdenum cofactor in homologous formate dehydrogenase enzymes. The membrane region of the complex binds acyl phosphatidylinositol dimannoside, a characteristic three-tailed lipid from the mycobacterial membrane. The structure also shows menaquinone, which is preferentially used over ubiquinone by gram-positive bacteria, in two different positions along the quinone channel, comparable to ubiquinone in other structures and suggesting a conserved quinone binding mechanism.

Assessing transition rates as functions of environmental variables

We present a method to estimate the transition rates of molecular systems under different environmental conditions that cause the formation or the breaking of bonds and require the sampling of the Grand Canonical Ensemble. For this purpose, we model the molecular system in terms of probable "scenarios," governed by different potential energy functions, which are separately sampled by classical MD simulations. Reweighting the canonical distribution of each scenario according to specific environmental variables, we estimate the grand canonical distribution, then use the Square Root Approximation method to discretize the Fokker-Planck operator into a rate matrix and the robust Perron Cluster Cluster Analysis method to coarse-grain the kinetic model. This permits efficiently estimating the transition rates of conformational states as functions of environmental variables, for example, the local pH at a cell membrane. In this work, we formalize the theoretical framework of the procedure, and we present a numerical experiment comparing the results with those provided by a constant-pH method based on non-equilibrium Molecular Dynamics Monte Carlo simulations. The method is relevant for the development of new drug design strategies that take into account how the cellular environment influences biochemical processes.

Targeting of the intracellular redox balance by metal complexes towards anticancer therapy

The development of cancers is often linked to the alteration of essential redox processes, and therefore, oxidoreductases involved in such mechanisms can be considered as attractive molecular targets for the development of new therapeutic strategies. On the other hand, for more than two decades, transition metals derivatives have been leading the research on drugs as alternatives to platinum-based treatments. The success of such compounds is particularly due to their attractive redox kinetics properties, favorable oxidation states, as well as routes of action different to interactions with DNA, in which redox interactions are crucial. For instance, the activity of oxidoreductases such as PHD2 (prolyl hydroxylase domain-containing protein) which can regulate angiogenesis in tumors, LDH (lactate dehydrogenase) related to glycolysis, and enzymes, such as catalases, SOD (superoxide dismutase), TRX (thioredoxin) or GSH (glutathione) involved in controlling oxidative stress, can be altered by metal effectors. In this review, we wish to discuss recent results on how transition metal complexes have been rationally designed to impact on redox processes, in search for effective and more specific cancer treatments.

Reorganization Free Energy of Copper Proteins in Solution, in Vacuum, and on Metal Surfaces

Metalloproteins, known to efficiently transfer electronic charge in biological systems, recently found their utilization in nanobiotechnological devices where the protein is placed into direct contact with metal surfaces. The feasibility of oxidation/reduction of the protein redox sites is affected by the reorganization free energies, one of the key parameters determining the transfer rates. While their values have been measured and computed for proteins in their native environments, i.e., in aqueous solution, the reorganization free energies of dry proteins or proteins adsorbed to metal surfaces remain unknown. Here, we investigate the redox properties of blue copper protein azurin, a prototypical redox-active metalloprotein previously probed by various experimental techniques both in solution and on metal/vacuum interfaces. We used a hybrid QM/MM computational technique based on DFT to explore protein dynamics, flexibility, and corresponding reorganization free energies in aqueous solution, vacuum, and on vacuum gold interfaces. Somewhat surprisingly, the reorganization free energy only slightly decreases when azurin is dried because the loss of the hydration shell leads to larger flexibility of the protein near its redox site. At the vacuum gold surfaces, the energetics of the structure relaxation depends on the adsorption geometry, however, significant reduction of the reorganization free energy was not observed. These findings have important consequences for the charge transport mechanism in vacuum devices, showing that the free energy barriers for protein oxidation remain significant even under ultra-high vacuum conditions.

Prediction of the standard potentials for one-electron oxidation of N,N,N',N' tetrasubstituted p-phenylenediamines by calculation

The formal potentials for the reversible one-electron oxidation of N,N,N',N' tetrasubstituted p-phenylenediamines in acetonitrile have been applied as a test set for benchmarking computational methods for a series of compounds with only small structural differences. The aim of the study is to propose a simple method for calculating the standard oxidation potentials, and therefore, the protocol is progressively developed by adding more terms in the energy expression. In addition, the effect of including implicit solvation models (IEFPCM, CPCM, and SMD), larger basis sets, and correlation methods are investigated. The oxidation potentials calculated using the G3MP2B3 approach with IEFPCM resulted in the best fit (R² = 0.9624), but the slope of the correlation line, 0.74, is far from the optimal value, 1.00. B3LYP/6-311++G(d,p) and TPSSh/6-311++G(2d,p) yielded only slightly less consistent data (R² = 0.9388 and R² = 0.9425), but with much better slopes, 1.00 and 0.94, respectively. We conclude that it is important to investigate the basis set size and treatment of electron correlation when calculating oxidation potentials for N,N,N',N' tetrasubstituted p-phenylenediamines.

In-vitro study of the radioprotective effect of palladium α-lipoic acid nano-complex on hemoglobin molecule

This work is intended to study the radioprotective effect of palladium α-lipoic acid nano-complex (PLAC) on hemoglobin molecule in vitro. Blood samples were obtained from adult male rats weighing 120-150 g after dissection, using heparinized needles. Each blood sample was divided into four groups; the first group was kept untreated as control, palladium α-lipoic acid (PLAC) was added to the second group at concentration 2% v/v, the third group was exposed to 100 Gy gamma radiation and the forth group was irradiated with the addition of PLAC. Hemoglobin was extracted and prepared for measurement. The effects on the hemoglobin molecule were evaluated by FTIR and UV-visible spectroscopy. The results showed that PLAC increases the optical energy gap of the transition of the amino acid side chains and affects the spatial distribution of the globin part. Gamma radiation affects mainly the globin part, results in unfolding of the protein structure and perturbation in the relative orientation of the transition dipole moments. Addition of PLAC to the blood samples prior to irradiation was shown to provide protective effects which can be attributed to its ability to neutralize the free radicals.

Biomimetic Amino Acid Functionalized Phenazine Flow Batteries with Long Lifetime at Near-Neutral pH

Aqueous organic redox flow batteries (AORFBs) are a promising electrochemical technology for large-scale energy storage. We report a biomimetic, ultra-stable AORFB utilizing an amino acid functionalized phenazine (AFP). A series of AFPs with various commercial amino acids at different substituted positions were synthesized and studied. 1,6-AFPs display much higher stability during cycling when compared to 2,7- and 1,8-AFPs. Mechanism investigations reveal that the reduced 2,7- and 1,8-AFPs tend to tautomerize and lose their reversible redox activities, while 1,6-AFPs possess ultra-high stability both in their oxidized and reduced states. By pairing 3,3'-(phenazine-1,6-diylbis(azanediyl))dipropionic acid (1,6-DPAP) with ferrocyanide at pH 8 with 1.0 M electron concentration, this flow battery exhibits an OCV of 1.15 V and an extremely low capacity fade rate of 0.5 % per year. These results show the importance of molecular engineering of redox-active organics for robust redox-flow batteries.

Bioelectronic properties of DNA, protein, cells and their applications for diagnostic medical devices

From a couple of centuries ago, understanding physical properties of biological material, their interference with their natural host and their potential manipulation for employment as a conductor in medical devices, has gathered substantial interest in the field of bioelectronics. With the fast-emerging technologies for fabrication of diagnostic modalities, wearable biosensors and implantable devices, which electrical components are of essential importance, a need for developing novel conductors within such devices has evolved over the past decades. As the possibility of electron transport within small biological molecules, such as DNA and proteins, as well as larger elements such as cells was established, several discoveries of the modern charge characterization technologies were evolved. Development of Electrochemical Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance among many other techniques were of vital importance, following the discoveries made in sub-micron scales of biological material. This review covers the most recent understandings of electronic properties within different scale of biological material starting from nanometer range to millimeter-sized organs. We also discuss the state-of-the-art technology that's been made taking advantage of electronic properties of biological material for addressing diseases like Parkinson's Disease and Epilepsy.

In silico Prediction of Protein-Protein Interaction Network Induced by Manganese II in Meyerozyma guilliermondii

Recently, there has been an increasing interest in the use of yeast to produce biosorbent materials, because yeast is economical to use, adaptable to a variety of conditions, and amenable to morphological manipulations to yield better raw biomaterials. Previous studies from our laboratory have shown that Meyerozyma guilliermondii, a non-pathogenic haploid yeast (ascomycete), exhibits excellent biosorption capacity for Mn²⁺, as demonstrated by kinetic analyses. Shotgun/bottom-up analyses of soluble fractions revealed a total of 1257 identified molecules, with 117 proteins expressed in the absence of Mn²⁺ and 69 expressed only in the presence of Mn²⁺. In this article, we describe the first in silico prediction and screening of protein–protein interactions (PPIs) in M. guilliermondii using experimental data from shotgun/bottom-up analyses. We also present the categorization of biological processes (BPs), molecular functions (MFs), and metabolic pathways of 71 proteins upregulated in the M. guilliermondii proteome in response to stress caused by an excess of Mn²⁺ ions. Most of the annotated proteins were related to oxidation–reduction processes, metabolism, and response to oxidative stress. We identified seven functional enrichments and 42 metabolic pathways; most proteins belonged to pathways related to metabolic pathways (19 proteins) followed by the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites (10 proteins) in the presence of Mn²⁺. Using our data, it is possible to infer that defense mechanisms minimize the impact of Mn²⁺ via the expression of antioxidant proteins, thus allowing adjustment during the defense response. Previous studies have not considered protein interactions in this genus in a manner that permits comparisons. Consequently, the findings of the current study are innovative, highly relevant, and provide a description of interactive complexes and networks that yield insight into the cellular processes of M. guilliermondii. Collectively, our data will allow researchers to explore the biotechnological potential of M. guilliermondii in future bioremediation processes.

Enzymatic biofuel cells based on protein engineering: recent advances and future prospects

Enzymatic biofuel cells (EBFCs), as one of the most promising sustainable and green energy sources, have attracted significant interest.

Using Chou's General Pseudo Amino Acid Composition to Classify Laccases from Bacterial and Fungal Sources via Chou's Five-Step Rule

Laccases are a group of enzymes with a critical activity in the degradation process of both phenolic and non-phenolic compounds. These enzymes present in a diverse array of species, including fungi and bacteria. Since this enzyme is in the market for different usages from industry to medicine, having a better knowledge of its structures and properties from diverse sources will be useful to select the most appropriate candidate for different purposes. In the current study, sequence- and structure-based characteristics of these enzymes from fungi and bacteria, including pseudo amino acid composition (PseAAC), physicochemical characteristics, and their secondary structures, are being compared and classified. Autodock 4 software was used for docking analysis between these laccases and some phenolic and non-phenolic compounds. The results indicated that features including molecular weight, aliphatic, extinction coefficient, and random coil percentage of these protein groups present high degrees of diversity in most cases. Categorization of these enzymes by the notion of PseAAC, showed over 96% accuracy. The binding free energy between fungal laccases and their substrates showed to be considerably higher than those of bacterial ones. According to the outcomes of the current study, data mining methods by using different machine learning algorithms, especially neural networks, could provide valuable information for a fair comparison between fungal and bacterial laccases. These results also suggested an association between efficacy and physicochemical features of laccase enzymes from different sources.

Nonlinear Migration Dynamics of Excess Electrons along Linear Oligopeptides Controlled by an Applied Electric Field

Migration of an excess electron along linear oligopeptides governed by the external electric field (E_ex ) which is against the inner dipole electric field is theoretically investigated, including the effects of E_ex on the structural and electronic properties of electron migration. Two structural properties including electron-binding ability and the dipole moment of linear oligopeptides are sensitive to the E_ex values and can be largely modulated by E_ex due to the competition of E_ex and the inner electric field and electron transfer caused by E_ex . In the case of low E_ex values, two structural properties decrease slightly_, while for high E_ex values, the electron-binding ability continually increases strongly, with dipole moments firstly increasing significantly and then increasing more slowly at higher E_ex . Additionally, linear oligopeptides of different chain lengths influence the modulation extent of E_ex and the longer the chain length is, the more sensitive modulation of E_ex is. In addition, electronic properties represented by electron spin densities and singly occupied molecular orbital distributions vary with E_ex intensities, leading to an unusual electron migration behavior. As E_ex increases, an excess electron transfers from the N-terminus to the C-terminus and jumps over a neighboring dipole unit of two termini to other units, respectively, instead of transferring by means of a one-by-one dipole unit hopping mechanism. These findings not only promote a deeper understanding of the connection between E_ex and structural and electronic properties of electron transfer behavior in peptides, but also provide a new insight into the modulation of electron migration along the oligopeptides.

Mechanistic insight into protein supported biosorption complemented by kinetic and thermodynamics perspectives

In this review, we discussed the micro-level aspects of protein supported biosorption. The mechanism, surface chemistry in terms of energy interactions and electron transfer process (ETP) of peptide systems within protein are three important areas that provide mechanistic insight into protein supported biosorption. The functional groups in proteinous material like hydroxyl (-OH), carbonyl (>C=O), carboxyl (-COOH) and sulfhydryl (-SH) play a significant role in the biosorption of variety of pollutants such as metal ions, metalloids, and organic matters in wastewaters. The mechanistic aspects of biosorption are crucial not only for the separation process but also they contribute towards stoichiometric considerations and mathematical modelling process. The surface chemistry of applied biosorbents relies on interfacial components whose interaction energies are estimated with help of classical Derjaguin, Landau, Verwey, and Overbeek (DLVO) theory mathematically. Proteins are the fundamental molecules of many biomaterial used for the biosorption of contaminents and peptide bond is considered as the backbone of proteins. The charge variations on peptide bonding is the result of ETP whose discussion was made part of this review for understaning number of biological and technological processes of vital interests. In addition, this review was complemented by exhaustive overview of kinetic and thermodynamics perspectives of biosorption process.

Methodologies for "Wiring" Redox Proteins/Enzymes to Electrode Surfaces

The immobilization of redox proteins or enzymes onto conductive surfaces has application in the analysis of biological processes, the fabrication of biosensors, and in the development of green technologies and biochemical synthetic approaches. This review evaluates the methods through which redox proteins can be attached to electrode surfaces in a "wired" configuration, that is, one that facilitates direct electron transfer. The feasibility of simple electroactive adsorption onto a range of electrode surfaces is illustrated, with a highlight on the recent advances that have been achieved in biotechnological device construction using carbon materials and metal oxides. The covalent crosslinking strategies commonly used for the modification and biofunctionalization of electrode surfaces are also evaluated. Recent innovations in harnessing chemical biology methods for electrically wiring redox biology to surfaces are emphasized.

Enzymatic reactions involving the heteroatoms from organic substrates

Several enzymatic reactions of heteroatom-containing compounds have been explored as unnatural substrates. Considerable advances related to the search for efficient enzymatic systems able to support a broader substrate scope with high catalytic performance are described in the literature. These reports include mainly native and mutated enzymes and whole cells biocatalysis. Herein, we describe the historical background along with the progress of biocatalyzed reactions involving the heteroatom(S, Se, B, P and Si) from hetero-organic substrates.

Direct Electron Transfer of Dehydrogenases for Development of 3rd Generation Biosensors and Enzymatic Fuel Cells

Dehydrogenase based bioelectrocatalysis has been increasingly exploited in recent years in order to develop new bioelectrochemical devices, such as biosensors and biofuel cells, with improved performances. In some cases, dehydrogeases are able to directly exchange electrons with an appropriately designed electrode surface, without the need for an added redox mediator, allowing bioelectrocatalysis based on a direct electron transfer process. In this review we briefly describe the electron transfer mechanism of dehydrogenase enzymes and some of the characteristics required for bioelectrocatalysis reactions via a direct electron transfer mechanism. Special attention is given to cellobiose dehydrogenase and fructose dehydrogenase, which showed efficient direct electron transfer reactions. An overview of the most recent biosensors and biofuel cells based on the two dehydrogenases will be presented. The various strategies to prepare modified electrodes in order to improve the electron transfer properties of the device will be carefully investigated and all analytical parameters will be presented, discussed and compared.

Recent advances in spectroelectrochemistry

The integration of two quite different techniques, conventional electrochemistry and spectroscopy, into spectroelectrochemistry (SEC) provides a complete description of chemically driven electron transfer processes and redox events for different kinds of molecules and nanoparticles. SEC possesses interdisciplinary advantages and can further expand the scopes in the fields of analysis and other applications, emphasizing the hot issues of analytical chemistry, materials science, biophysics, chemical biology, and so on. Considering the past and future development of SEC, a review on the recent progress of SEC is presented and selected examples involving surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS), ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis), near-infrared (NIR), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), fluorescence, as well as other SEC are summarized to fully demonstrate these techniques. In addition, the optically transparent electrodes and SEC cell design, and the typical applications of SEC in mechanism study, electrochromic device fabrication, sensing and protein study are fully introduced. Finally, the key issues, future perspectives and trends in the development of SEC are also discussed.

Protein bioelectronics: a review of what we do and do not know

We review the status of protein-based molecular electronics. First, we define and discuss fundamental concepts of electron transfer and transport in and across proteins and proposed mechanisms for these processes. We then describe the immobilization of proteins to solid-state surfaces in both nanoscale and macroscopic approaches, and highlight how different methodologies can alter protein electronic properties. Because immobilizing proteins while retaining biological activity is crucial to the successful development of bioelectronic devices, we discuss this process at length. We briefly discuss computational predictions and their connection to experimental results. We then summarize how the biological activity of immobilized proteins is beneficial for bioelectronic devices, and how conductance measurements can shed light on protein properties. Finally, we consider how the research to date could influence the development of future bioelectronic devices.

De Novo Construction of Redox Active Proteins

Relatively simple principles can be used to plan and construct de novo proteins that bind redox cofactors and participate in a range of electron-transfer reactions analogous to those seen in natural oxidoreductase proteins. These designed redox proteins are called maquettes. Hydrophobic/hydrophilic binary patterning of heptad repeats of amino acids linked together in a single-chain self-assemble into 4-alpha-helix bundles. These bundles form a robust and adaptable frame for uncovering the default properties of protein embedded cofactors independent of the complexities introduced by generations of natural selection and allow us to better understand what factors can be exploited by man or nature to manipulate the physical chemical properties of these cofactors. Anchoring of redox cofactors such as hemes, light active tetrapyrroles, FeS clusters, and flavins by His and Cys residues allow cofactors to be placed at positions in which electron-tunneling rates between cofactors within or between proteins can be predicted in advance. The modularity of heptad repeat designs facilitates the construction of electron-transfer chains and novel combinations of redox cofactors and new redox cofactor assisted functions. Developing de novo designs that can support cofactor incorporation upon expression in a cell is needed to support a synthetic biology advance that integrates with natural bioenergetic pathways.

The use of engineered protein materials in electrochemical devices

Bioelectrochemical technologies have an important and growing role in healthcare, with applications in sensing and diagnostics, as well as the potential to be used as implantable power sources and be integrated with automated drug delivery systems. Challenges associated with enzyme-based electrodes include low current density and short functional lifetimes. Protein engineering is emerging as a powerful tool to overcome these issues. By taking advantage of the ability to precisely define protein sequences, electrodes can be organized into high performing structures, and enable the next generation of medical devices.

Molecular simulations of cytochrome c adsorption on positively charged surfaces: the influence of anion type and concentration

The influence of anion type and concentration on the adsorption of cytochrome c onto the positively charged NH₂-SAM surface.

Electron transfer in peptides

In this review, we discuss the factors that influence electron transfer in peptides. We summarize experimental results from solution and surface studies and highlight the ongoing debate on the mechanistic aspects of this fundamental reaction. Here, we provide a balanced approach that remains unbiased and does not favor one mechanistic view over another. Support for a putative hopping mechanism in which an electron transfers in a stepwise manner is contrasted with experimental results that support electron tunneling or even some form of ballistic transfer or a pathway transfer for an electron between donor and acceptor sites. In some cases, experimental evidence suggests that a change in the electron transfer mechanism occurs as a result of donor-acceptor separation. However, this common understanding of the switch between tunneling and hopping as a function of chain length is not sufficient for explaining electron transfer in peptides. Apart from chain length, several other factors such as the extent of the secondary structure, backbone conformation, dipole orientation, the presence of special amino acids, hydrogen bonding, and the dynamic properties of a peptide also influence the rate and mode of electron transfer in peptides. Electron transfer plays a key role in physical, chemical and biological systems, so its control is a fundamental task in bioelectrochemical systems, the design of peptide based sensors and molecular junctions. Therefore, this topic is at the heart of a number of biological and technological processes and thus remains of vital interest.

Involvement of Iron-Containing Proteins in Genome Integrity in Arabidopsis Thaliana

The Arabidopsis genome encodes numerous iron-containing proteins such as iron-sulfur (Fe-S) cluster proteins and hemoproteins. These proteins generally utilize iron as a cofactor, and they perform critical roles in photosynthesis, genome stability, electron transfer, and oxidation-reduction reactions. Plants have evolved sophisticated mechanisms to maintain iron homeostasis for the assembly of functional iron-containing proteins, thereby ensuring genome stability, cell development, and plant growth. Over the past few years, our understanding of iron-containing proteins and their functions involved in genome stability has expanded enormously. In this review, I provide the current perspectives on iron homeostasis in Arabidopsis, followed by a summary of iron-containing protein functions involved in genome stability maintenance and a discussion of their possible molecular mechanisms.

De novo-designed metallopeptides with type 2 copper centers: modulation of reduction potentials and nitrite reductase activities

Enzymatic reactions involving redox processes are highly sensitive to the local electrostatic environment. Despite considerable effort, the complex interactions among different influential factors in native proteins impede progress toward complete understanding of the structure-function relationship. Of particular interest is the type 2 copper center Cu(His)3, which may act as an electron transfer center in peptidylglycine α-hydroxylating monooxygenase (PHM) or a catalytic center in copper nitrite reductase (CuNiR). A de novo design strategy is used to probe the effect of modifying charged amino acid residues around, but not directly bound to, a Cu(His)3 center embedded in three-stranded coiled coils (TRI-H)3 [TRI-H = Ac-G WKALEEK LKALEEK LKALEEK HKALEEK G-NH2]. Specifically, the peptide TRI-EH (=TRI-HK22E) alters an important lysine to glutamate just above the copper binding center. With a series of TRI-EH peptides mutated below the metal center, we use a variety of spectroscopies (EPR, UV-vis, XAS) to show a direct impact on the protonation equilibria, copper binding affinities, reduction potentials, and nitrite reductase activities of these copper-peptide complexes. The potentials at a specific pH vary by 100 mV, and the nitrite reductase activities range over a factor of 4 in rates. We also observe that the affinities, potentials, and catalytic activities are strongly influenced by the pH conditions (pH 5.8-7.4). In general, Cu(II) affinities for the peptides are diminished at low pH values. The interplay among these factors can lead to a 200 mV shift in reduction potential across these peptides, which is determined by the pH-dependent affinities of copper in both oxidation states. This study illustrates the strength of de novo protein design in elucidating the influence of ionizable residues on a particular redox system, an important step toward understanding the factors that govern the properties of this metalloenzyme with a goal of eventually improving the catalytic activity.