The role of synthetic biology for in situ resource utilization (ISRU)

Microbiology of human spaceflight: microbial responses to mechanical forces that impact health and habitat sustainability

SUMMARYUnderstanding the dynamic adaptive plasticity of microorganisms has been advanced by studying their responses to extreme environments. Spaceflight research platforms provide a unique opportunity to study microbial characteristics in new extreme adaptational modes, including sustained exposure to reduced forces of gravity and associated low fluid shear force conditions. Under these conditions, unexpected microbial responses occur, including alterations in virulence, antibiotic and stress resistance, biofilm formation, metabolism, motility, and gene expression, which are not observed using conventional experimental approaches. Here, we review biological and physical mechanisms that regulate microbial responses to spaceflight and spaceflight analog environments from both the microbe and host-microbe perspective that are relevant to human health and habitat sustainability. We highlight instrumentation and technology used in spaceflight microbiology experiments, their limitations, and advances necessary to enable next-generation research. As spaceflight experiments are relatively rare, we discuss ground-based analogs that mimic aspects of microbial responses to reduced gravity in spaceflight, including those that reduce mechanical forces of fluid flow over cell surfaces which also simulate conditions encountered by microorganisms during their terrestrial lifecycles. As spaceflight mission durations increase with traditional astronauts and commercial space programs send civilian crews with underlying health conditions, microorganisms will continue to play increasingly critical roles in health and habitat sustainability, thus defining a new dimension of occupational health. The ability of microorganisms to adapt, survive, and evolve in the spaceflight environment is important for future human space endeavors and provides opportunities for innovative biological and technological advances to benefit life on Earth.

Visioning synthetic futures for yeast research within the context of current global techno-political trends

Yeast research is entering into a new period of scholarship, with new scientific tools, new questions to ask and new issues to consider. The politics of emerging and critical technology can no longer be separated from the pursuit of basic science in fields, such as synthetic biology and engineering biology. Given the intensifying race for technological leadership, yeast research is likely to attract significant investment from government, and that it offers huge opportunities to the curious minded from a basic research standpoint. This article provides an overview of new directions in yeast research with a focus on Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and places these trends in their geopolitical context. At the highest level, yeast research is situated within the ongoing convergence of the life sciences with the information sciences. This convergent effect is most strongly pronounced in areas of AI-enabled tools for the life sciences, and the creation of synthetic genomes, minimal genomes, pan-genomes, neochromosomes and metagenomes using computer-assisted design tools and methodologies. Synthetic yeast futures encompass basic and applied science questions that will be of intense interest to government and nongovernment funding sources. It is essential for the yeast research community to map and understand the context of their research to ensure their collaborations turn global challenges into research opportunities.

Carbonate precipitation and nitrogen fixation in AMG (Artificial Martian Ground) by cyanobacteria

This article describes experiments performed to study the survival, growth, specific adaptations and bioremediation potential of certain extreme cyanobacteria strains within a simulation of the atmospheric composition, temperature and pressure expected in a future Martian greenhouse. Initial species have been obtained from Mars-analogue sites in Georgia. The results clearly demonstrate that specific biochemical adaptations allow these autotrophs to metabolize within AMG (Artificial Martian Ground) and accumulate biogenic carbon and nitrogen. These findings may thus contribute to the development of future Martian agriculture, as well as other aspects of the life-support systems at habitable Mars stations. The study shows that carbonate precipitation and nitrogen fixation, performed by cyanobacterial communities thriving within the simulated Martian greenhouse conditions, are cross-linked biological processes. At the same time, the presence of the perchlorates (at low concentrations) in the Martian ground may serve as the initial source of oxygen and, indirectly, hydrogen via photo-Fenton reactions. Various carbonates, ammonium and nitrate salts were obtained as the result of these experiments. These affect the pH, salinity and solubility of the AMG and its components, and so the AMG's scanty biogenic properties improved, which is essential for the sustainable growth of the agricultural crops. Therefore, the use of microorganisms for the biological remediation and continuous in situ fertilization of Artificial Martian Ground is possible.

Toward sustainable space exploration: a roadmap for harnessing the power of microorganisms

Finding sustainable approaches to achieve independence from terrestrial resources is of pivotal importance for the future of space exploration. This is relevant not only to establish viable space exploration beyond low Earth-orbit, but also for ethical considerations associated with the generation of space waste and the preservation of extra-terrestrial environments. Here we propose and highlight a series of microbial biotechnologies uniquely suited to establish sustainable processes for in situ resource utilization and loop-closure. Microbial biotechnologies research and development for space sustainability will be translatable to Earth applications, tackling terrestrial environmental issues, thereby supporting the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.

Mitigation and use of biofilms in space for the benefit of human space exploration

Biofilms are self-organized communities of microorganisms that are encased in an extracellular polymeric matrix and often found attached to surfaces. Biofilms are widely present on Earth, often found in diverse and sometimes extreme environments. These microbial communities have been described as recalcitrant or protective when facing adversity and environmental exposures. On the International Space Station, biofilms were found in human-inhabited environments on a multitude of hardware surfaces. Moreover, studies have identified phenotypic and genetic changes in the microorganisms under microgravity conditions including changes in microbe surface colonization and pathogenicity traits. Lack of consistent research in microgravity-grown biofilms can lead to deficient understanding of altered microbial behavior in space. This could subsequently create problems in engineered systems or negatively impact human health on crewed spaceflights. It is especially relevant to long-term and remote space missions that will lack resupply and service. Conversely, biofilms are also known to benefit plant growth and are essential for human health (i.e., gut microbiome). Eventually, biofilms may be used to supply metabolic pathways that produce organic and inorganic components useful to sustaining life on celestial bodies beyond Earth. This article will explore what is currently known about biofilms in space and will identify gaps in the aerospace industry's knowledge that should be filled in order to mitigate or to leverage biofilms to the advantage of spaceflight.

Harnessing bioengineered microbes as a versatile platform for space nutrition

Human enterprises through the solar system will entail long-duration voyages and habitation creating challenges in maintaining healthy diets. We discuss consolidating multiple sensory and nutritional attributes into microorganisms to develop customizable food production systems with minimal inputs, physical footprint, and waste. We envisage that a yeast collection bioengineered for one-carbon metabolism, optimal nutrition, and diverse textures, tastes, aromas, and colors could serve as a flexible food-production platform. Beyond its potential for supporting humans in space, bioengineered microbial-based food could lead to a new paradigm for Earth's food manufacturing that provides greater self-sufficiency and removes pressure from natural ecosystems.

Evolutionary Stability Optimizer (ESO): A Novel Approach to Identify and Avoid Mutational Hotspots in DNA Sequences While Maintaining High Expression Levels

Modern synthetic biology procedures rely on the ability to generate stable genetic constructs that keep their functionality over long periods of time. However, maintenance of these constructs requires energy from the cell and thus reduces the host’s fitness. Natural selection results in loss-of-functionality mutations that negate the expression of the construct in the population. Current approaches for the prevention of this phenomenon focus on either small-scale, manual design of evolutionary stable constructs or the detection of mutational sites with unstable tendencies. We designed the Evolutionary Stability Optimizer (ESO), a software tool that enables the large-scale automatic design of evolutionarily stable constructs with respect to both mutational and epigenetic hotspots and allows users to define custom hotspots to avoid. Furthermore, our tool takes the expression of the input constructs into account by considering the guanine-cytosine (GC) content and codon usage of the host organism, balancing the trade-off between stability and gene expression, allowing to increase evolutionary stability while maintaining the high expression. In this study, we present the many features of the ESO and show that it accurately predicts the evolutionary stability of endogenous genes. The ESO was created as an easy-to-use, flexible platform based on the notion that directed genetic stability research will continue to evolve and revolutionize current applications of synthetic biology. The ESO is available at the following link: https://www.cs.tau.ac.il/~tamirtul/ESO/.

The smallest space miners: principles of space biomining

As we aim to expand human presence in space, we need to find viable approaches to achieve independence from terrestrial resources. Space biomining of the Moon, Mars and asteroids has been indicated as one of the promising approaches to achieve in-situ resource utilization by the main space agencies. Structural and expensive metals, essential mineral nutrients, water, oxygen and volatiles could be potentially extracted from extraterrestrial regolith and rocks using microbial-based biotechnologies. The use of bioleaching microorganisms could also be applied to space bioremediation, recycling of waste and to reinforce regenerative life support systems. However, the science around space biomining is still young. Relevant differences between terrestrial and extraterrestrial conditions exist, including the rock types and ores available for mining, and a direct application of established terrestrial biomining techniques may not be a possibility. It is, therefore, necessary to invest in terrestrial and space-based research of specific methods for space applications to learn the effects of space conditions on biomining and bioremediation, expand our knowledge on organotrophic and community-based bioleaching mechanisms, as well as on anaerobic biomining, and investigate the use of synthetic biology to overcome limitations posed by the space environments.

Bridging the gap between microbial limits and extremes in space: space microbial biotechnology in the next 15 years

The establishment of a permanent human settlement in space is one of humanity's ambitions. To achieve this, microorganisms will be used to carry out many functions such as recycling, food and pharmaceutical production, mining and other processes. However, the physical and chemical extremes in all locations beyond Earth exceed known growth limits of microbial life. Making microbes more tolerant of a greater range of extraterrestrial extremes will not produce organisms that can grow in unmodified extraterrestrial environments since in many of them not even liquid water can exist. However, by narrowing the gap, the engineering demands on bioindustrial processes can be reduced and greater robustness can be incorporated into the biological component. I identify and describe these required microbial biotechnological modifications and speculate on long-term possibilities such as microbial biotechnology on Saturn's moon Titan to support a human presence in the outer Solar System and bioprocessing of asteroids. A challenge for space microbial biotechnology in the coming decades is to narrow the microbial gap by systemically identifying the genes required to do this and incorporating them into microbial systems that can be used to carry out bioindustrial processes of interest.

Supplementing Closed Ecological Life Support Systems with In-Situ Resources on the Moon

In this review, I explore a broad-based view of technologies for supporting human activities on the Moon and, where appropriate, Mars. Primarily, I assess the state of life support systems technology beginning with physicochemical processes, waste processing, bioregenerative methods, food production systems and the robotics and advanced biological technologies that support the latter. We observe that the Moon possesses in-situ resources but that these resources are of limited value in closed ecological life support systems (CELSS)-indeed, CELSS technology is most mature in recycling water and oxygen, the two resources that are abundant on the Moon. This places a premium on developing CELSS that recycle other elements that are rarified on the Moon including C and N in particular but also other elements such as P, S and K which might be challenging to extract from local resources. Although we focus on closed loop ecological life support systems, we also consider related technologies that involve the application of biological organisms to bioregenerative medical technologies and bioregenerative approaches to industrial activity on the Moon as potential future developments.

Mining for Perchlorate Resistance Genes in Microorganisms From Sediments of a Hypersaline Pond in Atacama Desert, Chile

Perchlorate is an oxidative pollutant toxic to most of terrestrial life by promoting denaturation of macromolecules, oxidative stress, and DNA damage. However, several microorganisms, especially hyperhalophiles, are able to tolerate high levels of this compound. Furthermore, relatively high quantities of perchlorate salts were detected on the Martian surface, and due to its strong hygroscopicity and its ability to substantially decrease the freezing point of water, perchlorate is thought to increase the availability of liquid brine water in hyper-arid and cold environments, such as the Martian regolith. Therefore, perchlorate has been proposed as a compound worth studying to better understanding the habitability of the Martian surface. In the present work, to study the molecular mechanisms of perchlorate resistance, a functional metagenomic approach was used, and for that, a small-insert library was constructed with DNA isolated from microorganisms exposed to perchlorate in sediments of a hypersaline pond in the Atacama Desert, Chile (Salar de Maricunga), one of the regions with the highest levels of perchlorate on Earth. The metagenomic library was hosted in Escherichia coli DH10B strain and exposed to sodium perchlorate. This technique allowed the identification of nine perchlorate-resistant clones and their environmental DNA fragments were sequenced. A total of seventeen ORFs were predicted, individually cloned, and nine of them increased perchlorate resistance when expressed in E. coli DH10B cells. These genes encoded hypothetical conserved proteins of unknown functions and proteins similar to other not previously reported to be involved in perchlorate resistance that were related to different cellular processes such as RNA processing, tRNA modification, DNA protection and repair, metabolism, and protein degradation. Furthermore, these genes also conferred resistance to UV-radiation, 4-nitroquinoline-N-oxide (4-NQO) and/or hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), other stress conditions that induce oxidative stress, and damage in proteins and nucleic acids. Therefore, the novel genes identified will help us to better understand the molecular strategies of microorganisms to survive in the presence of perchlorate and may be used in Mars exploration for creating perchlorate-resistance strains interesting for developing Bioregenerative Life Support Systems (BLSS) based on in situ resource utilization (ISRU).

Use of Photobioreactors in Regenerative Life Support Systems for Human Space Exploration

There are still many challenges to overcome for human space exploration beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) (e.g., to the Moon) and for long-term missions (e.g., to Mars). One of the biggest problems is the reliable air, water and food supply for the crew. Bioregenerative life support systems (BLSS) aim to overcome these challenges using bioreactors for waste treatment, air and water revitalization as well as food production. In this review we focus on the microbial photosynthetic bioprocess and photobioreactors in space, which allow removal of toxic carbon dioxide (CO2) and production of oxygen (O2) and edible biomass. This paper gives an overview of the conducted space experiments in LEO with photobioreactors and the precursor work (on ground and in space) for BLSS projects over the last 30 years. We discuss the different hardware approaches as well as the organisms tested for these bioreactors. Even though a lot of experiments showed successful biological air revitalization on ground, the transfer to the space environment is far from trivial. For example, gas-liquid transfer phenomena are different under microgravity conditions which inevitably can affect the cultivation process and the oxygen production. In this review, we also highlight the missing expertise in this research field to pave the way for future space photobioreactor development and we point to future experiments needed to master the challenge of a fully functional BLSS.

Iron can be microbially extracted from Lunar and Martian regolith simulants and 3D printed into tough structural materials

In-situ resource utilization (ISRU) is increasingly acknowledged as an essential requirement for the construction of sustainable extra-terrestrial colonies. Even with decreasing launch costs, the ultimate goal of establishing colonies must be the usage of resources found at the destination of interest. Typical approaches towards ISRU are often constrained by the mass and energy requirements of transporting processing machineries, such as rovers and massive reactors, and the vast amount of consumables needed. Application of self-reproducing bacteria for the extraction of resources is a promising approach to reduce these pitfalls. In this work, the bacterium Shewanella oneidensis was used to reduce three different types of Lunar and Martian regolith simulants, allowing for the magnetic extraction of iron-rich materials. The combination of bacterial treatment and magnetic extraction resulted in a 5.8-times higher quantity of iron and 43.6% higher iron concentration compared to solely magnetic extraction. The materials were 3D printed into cylinders and the mechanical properties were tested, resulting in a 400% improvement in compressive strength in the bacterially treated samples. This work demonstrates a proof of concept for the on-demand production of construction and replacement parts in space exploration.

Microbially-Enhanced Vanadium Mining and Bioremediation Under Micro- and Mars Gravity on the International Space Station

As humans explore and settle in space, they will need to mine elements to support industries such as manufacturing and construction. In preparation for the establishment of permanent human settlements across the Solar System, we conducted the ESA BioRock experiment on board the International Space Station to investigate whether biological mining could be accomplished under extraterrestrial gravity conditions. We tested the hypothesis that the gravity (g) level influenced the efficacy with which biomining could be achieved from basalt, an abundant material on the Moon and Mars, by quantifying bioleaching by three different microorganisms under microgravity, simulated Mars and Earth gravitational conditions. One element of interest in mining is vanadium (V), which is added to steel to fabricate high strength, corrosion-resistant structural materials for buildings, transportation, tools and other applications. The results showed that Sphingomonas desiccabilis and Bacillus subtilis enhanced the leaching of vanadium under the three gravity conditions compared to sterile controls by 184.92 to 283.22%, respectively. Gravity did not have a significant effect on mean leaching, thus showing the potential for biomining on Solar System objects with diverse gravitational conditions. Our results demonstrate the potential to use microorganisms to conduct elemental mining and other bioindustrial processes in space locations with non-1 × g gravity. These same principles apply to extraterrestrial bioremediation and elemental recycling beyond Earth.

Space station biomining experiment demonstrates rare earth element extraction in microgravity and Mars gravity

Microorganisms are employed to mine economically important elements from rocks, including the rare earth elements (REEs), used in electronic industries and alloy production. We carried out a mining experiment on the International Space Station to test hypotheses on the bioleaching of REEs from basaltic rock in microgravity and simulated Mars and Earth gravities using three microorganisms and a purposely designed biomining reactor. Sphingomonas desiccabilis enhanced mean leached concentrations of REEs compared to non-biological controls in all gravity conditions. No significant difference in final yields was observed between gravity conditions, showing the efficacy of the process under different gravity regimens. Bacillus subtilis exhibited a reduction in bioleaching efficacy and Cupriavidus metallidurans showed no difference compared to non-biological controls, showing the microbial specificity of the process, as on Earth. These data demonstrate the potential for space biomining and the principles of a reactor to advance human industry and mining beyond Earth.

Rare earth elements are used in electronics, but increase in demand could lead to low supply. Here the authors conduct experiments on the International Space Station and show microbes can extract rare elements from rocks at low gravity, a finding that could extend mining potential to other planets.

Application of capillary electrophoresis combined with conductometric and UV detection to monitor meteorite simulant bioleaching by Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans

The importance of microorganisms and biotechnology in space exploration and future planets colonization has been discussed in the literature. Meteorites are interesting samples to study microbe-mineral interaction focused on space exploration. The chemolithotropic bacterium Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans has been used as model to understand the iron and sulfur oxidation. In this work, capillary electrophoresis with capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection and UV detection was used to monitor bacterial growth in a meteorite simulant by measuring the conversion of Fe²⁺ into Fe⁺³ . The effect of Co²⁺ and Ni²⁺ (metals also found in meteorites) on the bacterial growth was also evaluated. The presented method allowed the analyses of all metals in a single run (less than 8 min). The background electrolyte was composted of 10 mmol/L α-hydroxyisobutyric acid/Histidine. For comparison purpose, the samples were also analyzed by UV-Vis spectrophotometry. The Fe²⁺ conversion into Fe³⁺ by A. ferrooxidans was observed up to 36 h with the growth rate constant of 0.19/h and 0.21/h in Tuovinen and Kelly (T&K) and in meteorite simulant media, respectively. The developed method presents favorable prospect to monitor the growth of other chemolithotropic microorganisms for biotechnology applications.

Rational Design of Evolutionarily Stable Microbial Kill Switches

The evolutionary stability of synthetic genetic circuits is key to both the understanding and application of genetic control elements. One useful but challenging situation is a switch between life and death depending on environment. Here are presented "essentializer" and "cryodeath" circuits, which act as kill switches in Escherichia coli. The essentializer element induces cell death upon the loss of a bi-stable cI/Cro memory switch. Cryodeath makes use of a cold-inducible promoter to express a toxin. We employ rational design and a toxin/antitoxin titering approach to produce and screen a small library of potential constructs, in order to select for constructs that are evolutionarily stable. Both kill switches were shown to maintain functionality in vitro for at least 140 generations. Additionally, cryodeath was shown to control the growth environment of a population, with an escape frequency of less than 1 in 10⁵ after 10 days of growth in the mammalian gut.

Synthetic biology engineering of biofilms as nanomaterials factories

Bottom-up fabrication of nanoscale materials has been a significant focus in materials science for expanding our technological frontiers. This assembly concept, however, is old news to biology — all living organisms fabricate themselves using bottom-up principles through a vast self-organizing system of incredibly complex biomolecules, a marvelous dynamic that we are still attempting to unravel. Can we use what we have gleaned from biology thus far to illuminate alternative strategies for designer nanomaterial manufacturing? In the present review article, new synthetic biology efforts toward using bacterial biofilms as platforms for the synthesis and secretion of programmable nanomaterials are described. Particular focus is given to self-assembling functional amyloids found in bacterial biofilms as re-engineerable modular nanomolecular components. Potential applications and existing challenges for this technology are also explored. This novel approach for repurposing biofilm systems will enable future technologies for using engineered living systems to grow artificial nanomaterials.

Toward biotechnology in space: High-throughput instruments for in situ biological research beyond Earth

Space biotechnology is a nascent field aimed at applying tools of modern biology to advance our goals in space exploration. These advances rely on our ability to exploit in situ high throughput techniques for amplification and sequencing DNA, and measuring levels of RNA transcripts, proteins and metabolites in a cell. These techniques, collectively known as "omics" techniques have already revolutionized terrestrial biology. A number of on-going efforts are aimed at developing instruments to carry out "omics" research in space, in particular on board the International Space Station and small satellites. For space applications these instruments require substantial and creative reengineering that includes automation, miniaturization and ensuring that the device is resistant to conditions in space and works independently of the direction of the gravity vector. Different paths taken to meet these requirements for different "omics" instruments are the subjects of this review. The advantages and disadvantages of these instruments and technological solutions and their level of readiness for deployment in space are discussed. Considering that effects of space environments on terrestrial organisms appear to be global, it is argued that high throughput instruments are essential to advance (1) biomedical and physiological studies to control and reduce space-related stressors on living systems, (2) application of biology to life support and in situ resource utilization, (3) planetary protection, and (4) basic research about the limits on life in space. It is also argued that carrying out measurements in situ provides considerable advantages over the traditional space biology paradigm that relies on post-flight data analysis.

Grand challenges in space synthetic biology

Space synthetic biology is a branch of biotechnology dedicated to engineering biological systems for space exploration, industry and science. There is significant public and private interest in designing robust and reliable organisms that can assist on long-duration astronaut missions. Recent work has also demonstrated that such synthetic biology is a feasible payload minimization and life support approach as well. This article identifies the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead in the field of space synthetic biology, while highlighting relevant progress. It also outlines anticipated broader benefits from this field, because space engineering advances will drive technological innovation on Earth.

A Systems Biology Analysis Unfolds the Molecular Pathways and Networks of Two Proteobacteria in Spaceflight and Simulated Microgravity Conditions

Bacteria are important organisms for space missions due to their increased pathogenesis in microgravity that poses risks to the health of astronauts and for projected synthetic biology applications at the space station. We understand little about the effect, at the molecular systems level, of microgravity on bacteria, despite their significant incidence. In this study, we proposed a systems biology pipeline and performed an analysis on published gene expression data sets from multiple seminal studies on Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium under spaceflight and simulated microgravity conditions. By applying gene set enrichment analysis on the global gene expression data, we directly identified a large number of new, statistically significant cellular and metabolic pathways involved in response to microgravity. Alteration of metabolic pathways in microgravity has rarely been reported before, whereas in this analysis metabolic pathways are prevalent. Several of those pathways were found to be common across studies and species, indicating a common cellular response in microgravity. We clustered genes based on their expression patterns using consensus non-negative matrix factorization. The genes from different mathematically stable clusters showed protein-protein association networks with distinct biological functions, suggesting the plausible functional or regulatory network motifs in response to microgravity. The newly identified pathways and networks showed connection with increased survival of pathogens within macrophages, virulence, and antibiotic resistance in microgravity. Our work establishes a systems biology pipeline and provides an integrated insight into the effect of microgravity at the molecular systems level.

KEY WORDS

Systems biology-Microgravity-Pathways and networks-Bacteria. Astrobiology 16, 677-689.

Pressurized Martian-Like Pure CO2 Atmosphere Supports Strong Growth of Cyanobacteria, and Causes Significant Changes in their Metabolism

Surviving of crews during future missions to Mars will depend on reliable and adequate supplies of essential life support materials, i.e. oxygen, food, clean water, and fuel. The most economical and sustainable (and in long term, the only viable) way to provide these supplies on Martian bases is via bio-regenerative systems, by using local resources to drive oxygenic photosynthesis. Selected cyanobacteria, grown in adequately protective containment could serve as pioneer species to produce life sustaining substrates for higher organisms. The very high (95.3 %) CO₂ content in Martian atmosphere would provide an abundant carbon source for photo-assimilation, but nitrogen would be a strongly limiting substrate for bio-assimilation in this environment, and would need to be supplemented by nitrogen fertilizing. The very high supply of carbon, with rate-limiting supply of nitrogen strongly affects the growth and the metabolic pathways of the photosynthetic organisms. Here we show that modified, Martian-like atmospheric composition (nearly 100 % CO₂) under various low pressure conditions (starting from 50 mbar to maintain liquid water, up to 200 mbars) supports strong cellular growth. Under high CO₂ / low N₂ ratio the filamentous cyanobacteria produce significant amount of H₂ during light due to differentiation of high amount of heterocysts.

Towards synthetic biological approaches to resource utilization on space missions

This paper demonstrates the significant utility of deploying non-traditional biological techniques to harness available volatiles and waste resources on manned missions to explore the Moon and Mars. Compared with anticipated non-biological approaches, it is determined that for 916 day Martian missions: 205 days of high-quality methane and oxygen Mars bioproduction with Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum can reduce the mass of a Martian fuel-manufacture plant by 56%; 496 days of biomass generation with Arthrospira platensis and Arthrospira maxima on Mars can decrease the shipped wet-food mixed-menu mass for a Mars stay and a one-way voyage by 38%; 202 days of Mars polyhydroxybutyrate synthesis with Cupriavidus necator can lower the shipped mass to three-dimensional print a 120 m³ six-person habitat by 85% and a few days of acetaminophen production with engineered Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 can completely replenish expired or irradiated stocks of the pharmaceutical, thereby providing independence from unmanned resupply spacecraft that take up to 210 days to arrive. Analogous outcomes are included for lunar missions. Because of the benign assumptions involved, the results provide a glimpse of the intriguing potential of ‘space synthetic biology’, and help focus related efforts for immediate, near-term impact.

Detection of macromolecules in desert cyanobacteria mixed with a lunar mineral analogue after space simulations

In the context of future exposure missions in Low Earth Orbit and possibly on the Moon, two desert strains of the cyanobacterium Chroococcidiopsis, strains CCMEE 029 and 057, mixed or not with a lunar mineral analogue, were exposed to fractionated fluencies of UVC and polychromatic UV (200–400 nm) and to space vacuum. These experiments were carried out within the framework of the BIOMEX (BIOlogy and Mars EXperiment) project, which aims at broadening our knowledge of mineral-microorganism interaction and the stability/degradation of their macromolecules when exposed to space and simulated Martian conditions. The presence of mineral analogues provided a protective effect, preserving survivability and integrity of DNA and photosynthetic pigments, as revealed by testing colony-forming abilities, performing PCR-based assays and using confocal laser scanning microscopy. In particular, DNA and pigments were still detectable after 500 kJ/m² of polychromatic UV and space vacuum (10⁻⁴ Pa), corresponding to conditions expected during one-year exposure in Low Earth Orbit on board the EXPOSE-R2 platform in the presence of 0.1 % Neutral Density (ND) filter. After exposure to high UV fluencies (800 MJ/m²) in the presence of minerals, however, altered fluorescence emission spectrum of the photosynthetic pigments were detected, whereas DNA was still amplified by PCR. The present paper considers the implications of such findings for the detection of biosignatures in extraterrestrial conditions and for putative future lunar missions.