Oleoylethanolamide and Palmitoylethanolamide Protect Cultured Cortical Neurons Against Hypoxia

Endocannabinoid markers in autism spectrum disorder: A scoping review of human studies

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by social communication deficits and patterns of restrictive and repetitive behavior. Although the neurological underpinnings of ASD remain elusive, the endocannabinoid system (ECS) may play a role in modulating social behavior in ASD. Preclinical studies have suggested that alterations in the ECS result in ASD-like phenotypes, but currently no reviews have examined ECS abnormalities in human studies. This scoping review investigated any evidence of ECS alterations in humans with ASD. A comprehensive literature search was conducted and five studies were eligible for review. Three studies reported a significant reduction of anandamide in ASD compared to controls. Other alterations included decreased 2-arachidonoylglycerol, oleoylethanolamide, and palmitoylethanolamide and elevated diacylglycerol lipase and monoacylglycerol lipase. Some discrepant findings were also noted, which included elevated or reduced CB2 receptor in three studies and elevated or reduced N-acyl phosphatidylethanolamine phospholipase D and fatty acid amide hydrolase in two studies. We conclude from this preliminary investigation that the ECS may be altered in humans with ASD. Potential limitations of the reviewed studies include medication use and psychiatric comorbidities. Further research, such as positron emission tomography studies, are necessary to fully understand the relationship between ECS markers and ASD.

N-Acylethanolamine-Hydrolyzing Acid Amidase Inhibition, but Not Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase Inhibition, Prevents the Development of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis in Mice

N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) are endogenous bioactive lipids reported to exert anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects mediated by cannabinoid receptors and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), among others. Therefore, interfering with NAE signaling could be a promising strategy to decrease inflammation in neurological disorders such as multiple sclerosis (MS). Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and N-acylethanolamine-hydrolyzing acid amidase (NAAA) are key modulators of NAE levels. This study aims to investigate and compare the effect of NAAA inhibition, FAAH inhibition, and dual inhibition of both enzymes in a mouse model of MS, namely the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Our data show that NAAA inhibition strongly decreased the hallmarks of the pathology. Interestingly, FAAH inhibition was less efficient in decreasing inflammatory hallmarks despite the increased NAE levels. Moreover, the inhibition of both NAAA and FAAH, using a dual-inhibitor or the co-administration of NAAA and FAAH inhibitors, did not show an added value compared to NAAA inhibition. Furthermore, our data suggest an important role of decreased activation of astrocytes and microglia in the effects of NAAA inhibition on EAE, while NAAA inhibition did not affect T cell recall. This work highlights the beneficial effects of NAAA inhibition in the context of central nervous system inflammation and suggests that the simultaneous inhibition of NAAA and FAAH has no additional beneficial effect in EAE.

Chronic Pain in Dogs and Cats: Is There Place for Dietary Intervention with Micro-Palmitoylethanolamide?

The management of chronic pain is an integral challenge of small animal veterinary practitioners. Multiple pharmacological agents are usually employed to treat maladaptive pain including opiates, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, anticonvulsants, antidepressants, and others. In order to limit adverse effects and tolerance development, they are often combined with non-pharmacologic measures such as acupuncture and dietary interventions. Accumulating evidence suggests that non-neuronal cells such as mast cells and microglia play active roles in the pathogenesis of maladaptive pain. Accordingly, these cells are currently viewed as potential new targets for managing chronic pain. Palmitoylethanolamide is an endocannabinoid-like compound found in several food sources and considered a body's own analgesic. The receptor-dependent control of non-neuronal cells mediates the pain-relieving effect of palmitoylethanolamide. Accumulating evidence shows the anti-hyperalgesic effect of supplemented palmitoylethanolamide, especially in the micronized and co-micronized formulations (i.e., micro-palmitoylethanolamide), which allow for higher bioavailability. In the present paper, the role of non-neuronal cells in pain signaling is discussed and a large number of studies on the effect of palmitoylethanolamide in inflammatory and neuropathic chronic pain are reviewed. Overall, available evidence suggests that there is place for micro-palmitoylethanolamide in the dietary management of chronic pain in dogs and cats.

Partial Reversal of Striatal Damage by Palmitoylethanolamide Administration Following Perinatal Asphyxia

Perinatal asphyxia (PA) is a clinical condition brought by a birth temporary oxygen deprivation associated with long-term damage in the corpus striatum, one of the most compromised brain areas. Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) is a neuromodulator well known for its protective effects in brain injury models, including PA, albeit not deeply studied regarding its particular effects in the corpus striatum following PA. Using Bjelke et al. (1991) PA model, full-term pregnant rats were decapitated, and uterus horns were placed in a water bath at 37°C for 19 min. One hour later, the pups were injected with PEA 10 mg/kg s.c., and placed with surrogate mothers. After 30 days, the animals were perfused, and coronal striatal sections were collected to analyze protein-level expression by Western blot and the reactive area by immunohistochemistry for neuron markers: phosphorylated neurofilament-heavy/medium-chain (pNF-H/M) and microtubule-associated protein-2 (MAP-2), and the astrocyte marker, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). Results indicated that PA produced neuronal damage and morphological changes. Asphyctic rats showed a decrease in pNF-H/M and MAP-2 reactive areas, GFAP⁺ cells number, and MAP-2 as well as pNF-H/M protein expression in the striatum. Treatment with PEA largely restored the number of GFAP⁺ cells. Most important, it ameliorated the decrease in pNF-H/M and MAP-2 reactive areas in asphyctic rats. Noticeably, PEA treatment reversed the decrease in MAP-2 protein expression and largely prevented PA-induced decrease in pNF-H/M protein expression. PA did not affect the GFAP protein level. Treatment with PEA attenuated striatal damage induced by PA, suggesting its therapeutic potential for the prevention of neurodevelopmental disorders.

Opposite Effects of Neuroprotective Cannabinoids, Palmitoylethanolamide, and 2-Arachidonoylglycerol on Function and Morphology of Microglia

Various studies performed in cultured cells and in in vivo models of neuronal damage showed that cannabinoids exert a neuroprotective effect. The increase in cannabinoids and cannabinoid like substances after stroke has been postulated to limit the content of neuronal injury. As well-accepted, inflammation, and neuronal damage are coupled processes and microglial cells as the main intrinsic immunological effector within the brain play a central role in their regulation. Treatment with the endocannabinoid, 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) or the endocannabinoid-like substance, palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) affected microglial cells and led to a decrease in the number of damaged neurons after excitotoxical lesion in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures (OHSC). 2-AG activated abnormal cannabidiol (abn-CBD) receptor, PEA was shown to mediate neuroprotection via peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)α. Despite the known neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties, the potential synergistic effect, namely possible entourage effect after treatment with the combination of these two protective cannabinoids has not been examined yet. After excitotoxical lesion OHSC were treated with PEA, 2-AG or a combination of both and the number of damaged neurons was evaluated. To investigate the role of microglial cells in PEA and 2-AG mediated protection, primary microglial cell cultures were treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and 2-AG, PEA or a combination of those. Thereafter, we measured NO production, ramification index, proliferation and PPARα distribution in microglial cells. While PEA or 2-AG alone were neuroprotective, their co-application vanished the protective effect. This behavior was independent of microglial cells. Furthermore, PEA and 2-AG had contrary effects on ramification index and on NO production. No significant changes were observed in the proliferation rate of microglial cells after treatment. The expression of PPARα was not changed upon stimulation with PEA or 2-AG, but the distribution was significantly altered. 2-AG and PEA mediated neuroprotection was abolished when co-applied. Both cannabinoids exert contrary effects on morphology and function of microglial cells. Co-application of both cannabinoids with different targets did not lead to a positive additive effect as expected, presumably due to the contrary polarization of microglial cells.

The Potential Benefits of Palmitoylethanolamide in Palliation: A Qualitative Systematic Review

Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) is a nutraceutical endocannabinoid that was retrospectively discovered in egg yolks. Feeding poor children with known streptococcal infections prevented rheumatic fever. Subsequently, it was found to alter the course of influenza. Unfortunately, there is little known about its pharmacokinetics. Palmitoylethanolamide targets nonclassical cannabinoid receptors rather than CB1 and CB2 receptors. Palmitoylethanolamide will only indirectly activate classical cannabinoid receptors by an entourage effect. There are a significant number of prospective and randomized trials demonstrating the pain-relieving effects of PEA. There is lesser evidence of benefit in patients with nonpain symptoms related to depression, Parkinson disease, strokes, and autism. There are no reported drug-drug interactions and very few reported adverse effects from PEA. Further research is needed to define the palliative benefits to PEA.

The Role of Mast Cells in Stroke

Mast cells (MCs) are densely granulated perivascular resident cells of hematopoietic origin. Through the release of preformed mediators stored in their granules and newly synthesized molecules, they are able to initiate, modulate, and prolong the immune response upon activation. Their presence in the central nervous system (CNS) has been documented for more than a century. Over the years, MCs have been associated with various neuroinflammatory conditions of CNS, including stroke. They can exacerbate CNS damage in models of ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke by amplifying the inflammatory responses and promoting brain–blood barrier disruption, brain edema, extravasation, and hemorrhage. Here, we review the role of these peculiar cells in the pathophysiology of stroke, in both immature and adult brain. Further, we discuss the role of MCs as potential targets for the treatment of stroke and the compounds potentially active as MCs modulators.

Molecular Targets of Fatty Acid Ethanolamides in Asthma

Asthma is a common allergic pathology of the respiratory tract that requires the study of mechanisms underlying it, due to severe forms of the disease, which are refractory to therapy. The review is devoted to the search for molecular targets of fatty acid ethanolamides in asthma, in particular palmitoylethanolamide (PEA), which has been successfully used in the treatment of chronic inflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases, in the pathogenesis of which the nervous and immune systems are involved. Recently, the potentially important role of neuro-immune interactions in the development of allergic reactions has been established. Many of the clinical symptoms accompanying allergic airway inflammation are the result of the activation of neurons in the airways, so the attention of researchers is currently focused on neuro-immune interactions, which can play an important role in asthma pathophysiology. A growing number of scientific works confirm that the key molecule in the implementation of these inter-systemic interactions is nerve growth factor (NGF). In addition to its classic role in nervous system physiology, NGF is considered as an important factor associated with the pathogenesis of allergic diseases, particularly asthma, by regulating of mast cell differentiation. In this regard, NGF can be one of the targets of PEA in asthma therapy. PEA has a biological effect on the nervous system, and affects the activation and the degranulation of mast cells.